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School Administration and Management

©2011, T.S. Kochhar
ISBN 978 81 207 4788 3
E-ISBN 978 81 207 9030 8
First Edition : 1970
Revised and Enlarged Edition : 2011

All rights are reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior written permission of the original publisher.

PRINTED IN INDIA
Printed and Published by Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-
110 020.
 Publisher’s Note

The book Secondary School Administration has been in print for the
last forty years and stood the test of time. It has served the students,
teachers and administrators to execute their duties well.
Due to the developments in education in India, the universities
have revised their syllabi, and, therefore, this book has been
updated and thoroughly revised. With the revision of the matter of
the book, the title of the book has now been changed to School
Administration and Management. The following new topics have
been added to this edition:
• Educational Management
• Educational Administration in Independent India.
• Communication in Educational Administration.
• Management of School and Approaches of Management.
• The Present Pattern of Education.
• Educational Administration and Management: New Challenge
of the Twenty First Century.
• Major Components of School Management.
• Social Aspects of School.
• Health Education
• Yoga Education
We are grateful to Ms. Payal Bhola Jain, the educationist and
author of books on education, who has thoroughly revised and
updated the book, giving it a new format.
We welcome all suggestions for improvement of the book which
will be taken care of and acknowledged in the subsequent editions.
February 1, 2011 The Publisher
 Contents

Publisher’s Note
Unit I Administration and Management
1. Educational Administration
1.1 Meaning and Definitions of the term Administration
1.2 Meaning of Educational Administration
1.3 Definitions of Educational Administration
1.4 Difference between General Administration and Educational
Administration
1.5 The Process of Educational Administration
1.6 Purposes of Educational Administration
1.7 Characteristics of Successful School Administration
1.8 Importance of Administration
2. Educational Management
2.1 Meaning and Definitions of the term Management
• What is Management?
• Definitions
2.2 Meaning of Educational Management
2.3 Definitions of Educational Management
2.4 Scope of Management
2.5 Scope of Educational Management
2.6 Principles of Educational Management
3. Educational Administration in Independent India
3.1 Historical Background of Educational Administration
3.2 Need of Educational Administration after 2000 AD
3.3 Educational Administration – A New Chapter
• The Present Position
3.4 Education on the Concurrent List
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
4. Nature, Objectives and Scope of Educational
Administration
4.1 Nature of Educational Administration
4.2 Objectives of Educational Administration
4.3 Scope of Educational Administration
5. Institutional Planning
5.1 Meaning of Institutional Planning
5.2 Need and Essence of Institutional Planning
• Essence of Institutional Plan
5.3 Requisites of an Institutional Plan
5.4 Objectives of an Institutional Plan
5.5 Motto of Institutional Planning
5.6 Steps in the Preparation of an Institution Plan
5.7 Areas of Improvement and Development Programme
5.8 Scope of an Institutional Plan
5.9 Basic Elements involved in the Preparation of an Institutional
Plan
5.10 Institutional Planning and the Headmaster
5.11 Institutional Planning – A Challenge and an Opportunity
5.12 Involvement of the Teachers
5.13 Role of the State Education Departments
5.14 The Role of Management
• Problems of Private Institutions
• Difficulties of the Government
• Recommendations of the Educational Commission
5.15 Improvement of Granting Aids
6. The Educational Ladder
6.1 History of Earlier Schools
6.2 Recommendations of Secondary Education Commission –
1955
6.3 Recommendations of the Indian Education Commissions –
(1964-1966)
6.4 The Recommendations of the National Committee on
10+2+3, Educational Structure
6.5 Pre-Primary Education
• Recommendations of the Indian Education for the
Development of Pre-Primary Education
6.6 Types of Nursery or Pre-Primary Schools
6.7 Primary Education
6.8 Types of Primary Schools
6.9 Administration of Primary Education
6.10 The Role of the Union Government in the Administration of
Primary Education
6.11 Secondary Education
• Objectives of Secondary Education
• Vocationalising Secondary Education
6.12 Types of Secondary Schools
6.13 Agriculture Education
6.14 Technical Education
6.15 Commercial Education
6.16 Administration of Secondary Education
6.17 University Education
6.18 Objectives of the Universities
6.19 Role of Universities and Colleges
6.20 Expansion of Higher Education
6.21 Administration of University Education
6.22 Internal Set-up of the Universities
• Autonomy of the University
• Central Government and Universities
6.23 National Educational Policy, 1986 and Higher Education
6.24 State Government and Universities
6.25 Funds for University Education
6.26 Multipurpose Experiment
6.27 Defects in the Scheme
• What needs to be done?
6.28 The Common School System and the Neighbourhood
School
6.29 Conclusion
7. Inspection and Supervision
7.1 The Retrospect
7.2 Meaning of Inspection
7.3 Meaning of Supervision
7.4 The Modern Concept of Inspection and Supervision
7.5 Difference between Traditional Inspection and Modern
Supervision
7.6 Need for Supervision and Inspection
7.7 Objectives of Supervision
7.8 Scope of Supervision
7.9 Changing Concepts of Supervision and Inspection
7.10 Inspection Procedures
7.11 Types of Supervision and Inspection
7.12 Types of Inspection according to Supervisory Procedures
7.13 Duties of Educational Officers
7.14 Qualities of a Supervisor or Inspector
7.15 Checklist for Evaluation and Supervision of Instruction
7.16 Supervising Procedures and Guidance
• Specific Guidance: Role of the Supervisor/Inspector
7.17 Defects in the Present Supervision and Inspection
7.18 Suggestions for Improving Supervisory Practices
7.19 Conclusion
8. Communication in Educational Administration
8.1 Meaning of Communication
8.2 Process of Communication
• Elements involved in the Communication Process
• Steps in the Process of Communication
8.3 Need of Communication
8.4 Models of Communication
8.5 Communication Network
8.6 Role of Communication in Effective Management and
Administration
8.7 Communication and Teaching
8.8 Communication in the Teaching-Learning Process
8.9 Barriers of Communication in Educational Administration
8.10 Measures to Overcome the Barriers of Communication
8.11 Principles of Effective Communication in Educational
Administration: Making Communication Effective
9. Management of School and Approaches of Management
9.1 Changing Concepts of School Management
9.2 Characteristics of Modern School Management
9.3 Main Aspects of School Management
9.4 Features of a Well-Managed School
9.5 Approaches of Management
• Need of Manpower Approach
• Machinery for Manpower Planning
• Manpower Planning, Employment and Education
• Limitations of Manpower Approach
• Education as Linked with the Development of a Country
• Limitations of Cost Benefit Approach
• Education through Space Satellite
• Limitations of Social Demand Approach
• Direction in which efforts must be made to reorganise
Educational System for providing Social Justice
• Levels and Types of Decisions to be made
• How the decisions are made?
10. Central and State Agencies of Education
10.1 Educational Administration at the National Level
10.2 National Level or Central Agencies
• Advisory Bodies
10.3 Modifications Suggested by the Indian Education
Commission
10.4 Functions of the Central Government
10.5 Centre’s Responsibilities in Education
10.6 State-Level Agencies
10.7 Indian Education Commission’s Recommendations for the
Reorganisation of State Department of Education
10.8 Functions of the State Government
10.9 State and Secondary Education
10.10 State and Higher Education
10.11 Local Bodies
10.12 Arguments against the Control of Primary Education by
Local Bodies
10.13 How to make Success of Decentralisation Policy?
10.14 Arguments in favour of the control of Primary Education
by Local Bodies
10.15 Indian Education Commission’s Recommendations to
improve the working of Private Schools
10.16 Educational Administration at Various Levels
10.17 Some State Level Agencies (For Higher Education)
11. The Present Pattern of Education 10+2+3
11.1 Structure of Educational System as Proposed by the
Secondary Education Commission
11.2 Educational Structure as proposed by the Indian Education
Commission
11.3 National Committee on 10+2+3 Education Structure
11.4 National Educational Conference (1977)
11.5 National Policy of Education (1986)
11.6 National System of Education
11.7 Problems of Elementary or Primary Education
11.8 Defects or Problems of Secondary Education
11.9 Major Defects in Higher Education
12. Educational Administration and Management: New
Challenges of the Twenty-first Century
12.1 Development of the School System
12.2 Challenging Tasks of Educational Administrators and
Managers
12.3 Programme of Action (POA) 1992 on – National Policy of
Education
12.4 Shortcomings of the Present Management of Education
12.5 Suggestions for Reforming Educational Management
Unit II Major Components of School
Management
13. School Management
13.1 Characteristics of Successful School Management
13.2 Principles of School Management
13.3 Scope of School Management
13.4 Practical Measures for School Management
13.5 Process of School Management
13.6 Comparative Study of Management and Administration
14. Role of the Headmaster
14.1 The Headmaster
14.2 Concept of Headmaster’s Role
14.3 Nature of Demands made on the School Headmaster in a
Democracy
14.4 Headmaster’s Duties
14.5 Headmaster’s Relationships
14.6 Problems of Staff Cooperation
14.7 Faculty Meetings
14.8 Staff Club
14.9 Some hints for the Headmaster to build Morale in his team
and secure Cooperation
14.10 Qualities needed in an Ideal Headmaster
14.11 Role of the Headmaster in Evaluation
14.12 Role of Headmaster in Guidance and Motivation
15. Role of the Teacher
15.1 Definitions of the Teacher
15.2 The Role of the Teacher
15.3 Duties of the Teachers
15.4 Teacher’s Relations with Others
15.5 Teacher versus Class-Teacher System
15.6 Qualities of a Teacher
15.7 Indian Education Commission 1964-66 and the Teacher
15.8 Teacher: A Good Counsellor
15.9 Problems of Teacher
16. The Pupils
16.1 Admission of Pupils
16.2 Pupil Attendance
16.3 Causes of Drop-out Behaviour
16.4 Classification of Pupils
16.5 Factors for Determining the Size of a Class
16.6 Basis of Classification
16.7 The Ungraded School
16.8 Promotion of Pupils
16.9 Principles of Promotion
16.10 Examination as a Basis of Promotion
16.11 Kinds of Promotion
16.12 Solution of Promotion Problems
16.13 Special Classes for the Exceptional Children
• Education of the Exceptional Child
• Education of the Retarded Pupils
16.14 Education of the Gifted Pupils in Secondary Schools
16.15 The Programme for Educating the Talented
16.16 Need of Articulation among Elementary, Secondary and
College Stages
16.17 Role of Parents and Teachers
16.18 Role of Counsellors
16.19 Conclusion
Unit III School Plants
17. School Building and Furniture
17.1 Meaning of School Plant
17.2 The Site
17.3 School Building
17.4 Master Planning
17.5 Classrooms
1. Library
2. Assembly Hall
3. Science Laboratories
4. Art Room
5. Workshops and Sheds
6. Music Room
7. Medical Examination Room
8. Office for the School Counsellor and the Career Master
9. Cafeteria
10. The Administrative Suite
11. Office Equipment
12. Staff Room
13. Storage and Supply Rooms
14. The Hostel
15. Teacher’s Quarters
16. School Farm and Agriculture Shop
17. Museum
18. The School Playground
19. Sanitation
20. Lighting
17.6 Planning and Designing School Building
17.7 Planning for Elementary Schools
17.8 Different Types of Designs for Secondary Schools
17.9 Essential Qualities of School Architecture
17.10 Tackling the Problem of Shortage of Accommodation
17.11 Recommendations of the Indian Education Commission –
1964-66
17.12 Furniture
17.13 The Campus
17.14 Plant Maintenance and Plant Utilisation
18. The School Farm and the Workshop
18.1 Principles of Farm Management
18.2 Planning the Farm Layout
18.3 Planning the Field Layout
18.4 Soil Management
18.5 Selecting and using Farm Equipment
18.6 Efficient Use of Labour
18.7 Efficient Use of Water
18.8 Proper Care and Feeding of Bullocks
18.9 Proper Use of Farm Waste and Green Manure
18.10 Green Manuring
18.11 Growing of Crops in the Field
18.12 Disposal of the Farm Products
18.13 Farm Records
18.14 Workshop Maintenance
18.15 Principles of Workshop Encouragement
19. The School Office
19.1 Functions of the School Office
19.2 The School Clerk
19.3 Duties of the Clerk
19.4 Filing and Filing Systems
19.5 Need of School Reports, Records and Registers
19.6 Kinds of Records, Reports and Registers
19.7 Mode of Keeping Records
19.8 Some Important School Records and Registers
20. The School Library
20.1 Unique Place of Library in a Modern School
20.2 Functions of the School Library
20.3 Important Library Resources
20.4 Requisite of an Ideal Library
20.5 The School Librarian
20.6 The Teacher
20.7 Library Service and its Function
20.8 Motivating Pupils to Utilise Library Resources
20.9 Conclusion
21. The School Exhibition and Museum
21.1 Museum as an Educative Agency
21.2 Importance of Museum in Schools
21.3 What Type of Exhibits in a School Museum?
21.4 Contents of the Museum
21.5 Value of School Exhibition
• What Type of Exhibits?
• Types of Exhibitions
• Guidelines for arranging an Exhibition
22. The School Hostel
22.1 Need for a School Hostel
22.2 Site of the Hostel
22.3 Building and Equipment
22.4 Cottage System and Dormitories System
22.5 The Hostel Superintendent
22.6 Duties of the Hostel Superintendent
22.7 Records and Registers for the Hostel
22.8 The Boons and the Banes of Hostel Life
22.9 Some Important Points Related With Girl’s Hostel
Unit IV Internal Organisation
23. Curriculum Construction
23.1 Meaning and Definition of Curriculum
23.2 Principles of Construction of Curriculum
23.3 Types of Curriculum
23.4 Bases of Curriculum
23.5 Purpose of Curriculum
23.6 Views of Education Commission about School Curriculum
23.7 Curriculum Prescribed by the Kothari Commission
23.8 Curriculum Prescribed by the Review Committee, 1997
23.9 Curriculum of School Education
23.10 Curriculum Prescribed by the National Review Committee
10+2 Committee
23.11 Outlines of Curriculum Prescribed for 8+4+3 Educational
Structure
23.12 Work Experience
23.13 Work Experience at Different Stages of School
23.14 National Curriculum
23.15 Defects of Present Curriculum
24. Co-curricular Activities
24.1 Advantages of Co-curricular Activities
24.2 Some Principles Essential to a Good Co-curricular
Programme
24.3 Aims of Co-curricular Activities
24.4 Guiding Principles for Organising Activities
24.5 Some Important Co-curricular Activities
24.6 Weaknesses in the Administration of Student Activities
25. The School Timetable
25.1 Meaning of School Timetable
• Definitions of a Timetable
25.2 Importance of the Timetable
25.3 Types of Timetables
25.4 Framing an Ideal School Timetable
25.5 Basic Facts of Timetable Construction
25.6 Defects in the Traditional Timetable
25.7 Timetable in Double-Shift School
25.8 Role of a Teacher in the School Timetable
26. Homework
26.1 Homework Necessary?
26.2 Amount of Homework
26.3 Reasons for Less Amount of Homework
26.4 Types of Work
27. Discipline in School
27.1 Meaning of Discipline
27.2 Concept of School Discipline in the Past
27.3 The Modern Concept of Discipline
27.4 Importance of Discipline
27.5 Need for Discipline in a School
27.6 Principles of Discipline
27.7 Good Classroom Discipline – How to Obtain it?
27.8 Good Discipline in a School – How to Ensure it?
27.9 Need of Positive and Negative Techniques of Discipline
27.10 Rewards as a Discipline Technique
27.11 Types of Rewards
27.12 Criteria of Sound Educational Rewards
27.13 Administration of Rewards
27.14 Punishment as a Support for Discipline
27.15 Principles of Punishments
27.16 Theories of Punishment
27.17 Forms of Punishment
27.18 Corporal Punishment
27.19 Views Disfavouring Corporal Punishment
27.20 The Present Position of Corporal Punishment
27.21 Arguments against Corporal Punishment
27.22 Student Indiscipline
27.23 What is meant by Indiscipline?
27.24 Types of Indiscipline
27.25 Causes of Indiscipline and its Remedies
27.26 Handling Problems of Individual Indiscipline
27.27 An analysis of the cause of Indiscipline made by the
Indian Education Commission
27.28 Remedies suggested by the Indian Education
Commission
28. Student Government in School
28.1 Meaning of Student’s Government
28.2 Specific Objectives of Student Participation
28.3 Scope of Student Government
28.4 Forms of Student Government
28.5 Some Cautions
28.6 Council Activities and Projects
28.7 Service
28.8 Advantages of Student Government
29. Guidance Programme in School
29.1 Meaning of Guidance
29.2 Need of Guidance
29.3 Types of Guidance
29.4 Essential Requisites of a Good School Guidance
Programme
29.5 Guidance Personnel
29.6 The Guidance Programme – Its Content
29.7 Essential Activities of a Good School Guidance
Programme
29.8 Views of Education Commission About Guidance
Programme
30. Evaluation
30.1 Meaning of Evaluation
30.2 Definitions of Evaluation
30.3 Purpose of Evaluation
30.4 Evaluation Devices
30.5 Functions of Evaluation
30.6 Principles of Good Evaluation
30.7 A Complete Programme of Evaluation
30.8 Evaluating Different Facets of Pupil’s Growth
30.9 Some more Techniques of Evaluation
30.10 School Records
30.11 Maintenance of Cumulative Record
30.12 Some Problems regarding the Maintenance of Records
30.13 Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record
30.14 Recommendations of the Indian Education Commission
(1964-66)
30.15 National Education Policy 1986 [POA]
31. Accountability in School Education
31.1 Accountability in School Education
31.2 Meaning and Definition of Accountability
31.3 Dimensions of Accountability
31.4 Components of Accountability
31.5 Responsibility of School Education
31.6 Headmaster or Principal: Accountability in School
Education
31.7 Teacher’s Professional Commitment and Enthusiasm
31.8 Issues Involved in Accountability
31.9 Assessment of Accountability in School Education
31.10 Accountability of State and Central Authorities in School
Education
31.11 Broad Parameters Determining Accountability of an
Institution
31.12 Tools and Techniques Used
Unit V Social Aspects of School
32. School and Home
32.1 Role of School and Home in the Education of a Child
32.2 Need of Cooperation Between the School and the Home
32.3 Methods of Obtaining Cooperation from Home
33. School and Society
33.1 Schools as a Social Institution
33.2 Schools as a Miniature Society
34. School and Community
34.1 School as an Agency of Education
34.2 School-Home Partnership
34.3 School’s Partnership with the Community
34.4 How to Make the School a Community Centre?
 Unit VI Health Education
35. The School Health Programme
35.1 Meaning and Definitions of Health
35.2 The Important Role of the School in Health Education
35.3 What do we mean by the School Health Programme?
35.4 Scope of Health Instruction
35.5 Mental Health
35.6 The Major Health Area
35.7 School Meals
35.8 Right Posture
35.9 Recreation
35.10 Safety Education
36. The School Physical Education Programme
36.1 Meaning of Physical Education
36.2 Importance of Physical Education
36.3 The Background
36.4 Present Position of Physical Education in India
36.5 Aims of Physical Education
36.6 The Objectives of Physical Education
36.7 Guiding Principles for Designing a Satisfactory Programme
of Physical Education
36.8 Physical Education in Secondary Schools
36.9 The Various Aspects of a Physical Education Programme
36.10 Activities in a Programme of Physical Education
36.11 Essentials of a Physical Education Programme
36.12 The Organisation of Physical Education and Health
Education
36.13 Improving Physical Education
37. Yoga for Educational Institutions
37.1 What is Education?
37.2 Does Yoga help one to build up such qualities?
37.3 Importance of Yoga
 Unit I

Administration and Management

 1
Educational Administration

“Administration means the overall determination of policies, the

setting up of major objectives, the laying out of broad programmes;
while management is essentially the executive function involving
actual direction of human efforts. The former is largely determinative
while the latter is essentially executive.”
— Herman
“Administration is the organisation and the use of men and materials
to accomplish a purpose.”
— Nigro
“Administration is the process and agency which is responsible for
the determination of the aims for which an organisation and its
management are to strive, which establishes the broad policies
under which they are to operate. Management is the process and
agency which directs and guides the operation of organisation in the
realising of established aims.”
— Oliver Tead
“Administration is a determinative function. Management, on the
other hand, is the executive function, that is primarily concerned with
carrying out broad policies laid down by the administration.”
— Spreigal
“Administration means business management of public affairs,
government, etc.”
— Oxford Dictionary
 1.1 Meaning and Definitions of the term
Administration

It is usually accepted that the concept of educational administration

derives its meaning and scope to a great extent from the concept of
‘administration’. Therefore, we may first look at the meaning of this
term.
The words business, public affairs, and government are used here
to indicate the forms of organisation or an institution. Thus,
“administration” involves two concepts, i.e., the “management” and
the “organisation.”
The example of a business is shop.
The example of institutions are hospitals, post office, school, etc.
(or for e.g. Public Affairs).
The example of a government is the Janata Government,
Congress Government, etc. The term “administration” is closely
related to education. In education the term administration is closely
related to such words as superintendence, supervision, planning,
guidance, direction, organisation, control, evaluation, decision-
making, and regulation.
Administration deals with the human individual. So it is an art and
not a science because it cannot deal with human beings ruthlessly or
mechanically, but should handle them tactfully, cautiously and
skillfully.
 1.2 Meaning of Educational Administration

Administration has been defined by Ordway Tead as, “a

comprehensive effort to direct, guide and integrate associating
human strivings which are focused towards some specific ends or
aims.” Educational administration is also a comprehensive effort
intended to achieve some specific educational objectives and it deals
with educational practices, whereas educational philosophy sets the
goal and educational psychology explains the principles, educational
administration tells the do-how of educational objectives and
principles. It is, in fact, the dynamic side of education. Educational
administration deals with educational institutions – right from the
schools and colleges to the secretariat. It is concerned with both
human and material resources. The human elements include—
•Children •Parents •Teachers, and •Other employees in general –
university or board of education at local, state, and national levels of
government.
On the material side there are:
•Money •Buildings and grounds•Equipments and instructional
supplies
Beyond these two elements are ideas, laws, and regulations,
community needs and so on. All of these have a bearing on the
educational process. The ‘integration’ of these ‘parts’ into a ‘whole’ is
educational administration.
 1.3 Definitions of Educational
Administration

Educational Administration has been defined variously. Some

important definitions explaining this concept are given below:
1. According to Samuel Mathai, “Educational Administration
presumably means the combined operation of a large number
of persons whereby the whole fabric of education in the
country is maintained in good working condition. An
administrator is the person who has a part to play in running
an institution. He is a responsible servant whose duties include
both giving orders and carrying out orders.”
2. According to the Concise Dictionary of Education (1982)
“Administration includes management, organisation, operation,
and supervision of an educational institution. Usually includes
all institutional functions other than teaching.”
3. Stephen J. Knezevich (1969) describes educational
administration as “a process concerned with creating,
maintaining, stimulating, and unifying the energies within an
educational institution towards the realisation of predetermined
objectives.”
4. The International Encyclopedia of Higher Education (1977) by
Asa defines it as, “Educational Administration, in general, is
concerned with the management of state and local school
systems and with local school attendance units. Identified with
the executive branch of government, educational
administration is treated usually as a field of study in itself and
not as a part of public administration.”
 1.4 Difference between General
Administration and Educational
Administration

Dr. S.M. Diwakar says, “The striking difference between the

administration and that of other business lies in the fact that the
former is a human process very much influenced and controlled by
various factors such as the philosophical, psychological, sociological,
historical and the political.”
Educational administration is different from other types of
administration in the sense that it concerns itself with the
development of human personality. As such administration of
education has to take into account life as a whole, ranging from
childhood to manhood. It is thus a difficult task which educational
administration undertakes.
 1.5 The Process of Educational
Administration

Gulick and Urwick have utilised the word POSDCORB to outline the
functions of an administrator. This is based on Henri Fayol’s work,
Industrial and General Administration. An organisation of duties
under these major headings is apropos to the section under
discussion.
POSDCORB refers to the functional elements of:
(i) Planning
(ii) Organising
(iii) Staffing
(iv) Directing
(v) Coordinating
(vi) Reporting
(vii) Budgeting
1. Planning: The plan should be flexible. There should be
enough scope of change to cater to any unforeseen situation.
There are many variables: the priorities may change due to
unforeseen circumstances; equipment and grants may not
become available as expected; personnel may be posted out
or proceed on leave. All these variables contribute to the
nonimplementation of decisions. The very existence of
variables and uncertainties, make decision-making and
planning a necessity.
2. Organisation or Organising: Organisation is the
combination of necessary human effort, material equipments
brought together in systematic and effective correlation to
accomplish the desired results. In education, we organise:
a. Human beings into schools, classes, committees, groups,
school staff, the inspecting staff.
b. Materials into buildings, furniture and equipment, libraries,
laboratories, workshops, museums, and art galleries.
c. Ideas and principles into school systems, curricular and co-
curricular activities, time schedules, norms of achievement and
the like.
 Organisation is the primary factor in efficient management.
According to J.B. Sears – “The term organisation is used widely to
refer to any collection of persons, materials, procedures, ideas or
facts so arranged and ordered that in each case the combination of
parts makes a meaningful whole.”
3. Staffing: The administrative duty of staffing refers to the
entire personnel function of selection, assignment, training and
providing and maintaining favourable working conditions. The
administrator must have a thorough knowledge of the staff. He
or she must select with care and ensure that each sub-division
in the organisation has a competent leader and that each
employee is assigned to the job where he can be of greatest
service. Personnel should exude energy, initiative and loyalty.
The duties for each position must be clearly outlined. All
members of an organisation must be encouraged to utilise
their own initiative. They should be rewarded fairly for their
services. The mistakes and blunders of employees must be
brought to their attention and dealt with accordingly. Vested
interests of individual employees must not be allowed to
endanger the general interests of all. The conditions of work
should be made as pleasant and as ideal as possible. Both the
physical and social factors should be provided for. Services
rendered by the individual increase as the conditions under
which he works also improve.
4. Directing: Directing is a responsibility which falls to the
administration as the leader. He or she must direct the
operations of the organisation. This means distinct and precise
decisions must be made and embodied in instructions which
will ensure their completion. The administration must direct the
work in an impersonal manner, should avoid getting involved in
too many details, and should see that the organisation’s
purpose is fulfilled according to established principles.
Executives have a duty to see that the quantity and quality of
performance of each employee is maintained.
The administrator is a leader. His or her success is
determined by the ability to guide others successfully towards
established goals. Individuals with a weak sense of
responsibility and limited capability cannot perform this function
successfully. Good administrators must be superior in
determination, persistence, endurance and courage. They must
clearly understand their organisation’s purposes and keep them
in mind as he guides and leads the way. Through direction it is
essential that faith be created in the cooperative enterprise, in
success, in achievement of personal ambitions, in integrity of
the leadership provided and in the superiority of associated
efforts.
5. Coordination: It is the process of harmonising in a uniform
programme of educational service all the elements – the
persons, materials and ideas, knowledge and principles so as
to interweave them to achieve a common objective and a
single effect. To carry on the difficult task of coordination
properly, the administrator should have the administrative
competence to see clearly (i) the relations among people (ii)
the allocation of tasks and (iii) division of labour necessary for
organisational achievement.
6. Reporting: Reporting and recording are also essential
elements of administration. The educational administrator is
answerable to parents, higher authorities, societies, etc. for
whatever is done in educational institutions. It is, therefore,
very important that a faithful record of all the events is
maintained and reports are sent to concerned persons.
7. Budgeting: As the word implies, budgeting refers to financial
planning and accounting. It is the duty of the administrator to
allocate to various sub-divisions the general funds allotted to
the organisation. This must be done in a manner which is
equitable and just. In carrying out this function, he must keep
the organisation’s purposes in mind and the apportionment of
the available money to those areas or projects which will help
most in achieving these purposes. It also means controls must
be established to ensure that certain limits will be observed,
so-called “budget padding” will be kept to a minimum and
complete integrity in the handling of all the budgetary aspects
of the organisation will be maintained.
 1.6 Purposes of Educational
Administration

The main purpose of educational administration is to educate the

youth, children and adults in a country like India.
Kandel, while writing about the purpose of educational
administration says, “Educational administration - fundamentally the
purpose of administration is to bring pupils and teachers under such
conditions as will more successfully promote the end of education.”
K.G. Saiyidain’s says, “Educational administration is not only
concerned with files, procedures and techniques or even tackling of
human relations, but should endeavour to become a living bridge
between ideas and tested scientific knowledge on the one hand and
practical problems and situations on the other hand.”
Sampurnananda says, “Educational administration should be
such that it must make the teacher believe in his work, bring out the
best of which he is capable, stimulate him to bigger and bigger effort,
come to his rescue when his courage begins to fail.”
The main purpose of educational administration is:
i. To frame well-defined policies and programmes for better
teaching and learning process.
ii. To make use of appropriate materials for effective
development of human qualities.
iii. To execute dynamically the programme and activities of the
organisation so that it must achieve its objects.
iv. To assume the growth not only of children but also of adults.
v. To achieve the growth of personnel involved in the
management of the organisation.
vi. Fulfilling the aims of education, to make a good citizen bring
about order and discipline in the organisation.
vii. Economy in expenditure, spending less money and good
results.
viii. Efficiency in execution.
 1.7 Characteristics of Successful School
Administration

There are some essential features in a good school administration:

(a) Flexibility: One of the essential characteristics of successful
school administration is its flexible character. The
administration should be dynamic, not static; it should provide
enough scope for additions and alterations. The rules and
regulations should act as a means to an end and not an end in
themselves. Dead uniformity and mechanical efficiency is the
very antithesis of good administration. The framework of
administration should provide enough scope to the
administrator to help needy students, and needy teachers, to
change the time schedule to suit the weather or to meet any
emergency. A word of caution here. Flexibility does not mean
that the administration should be in a fluid condition without
any specific norm or standard rules and regulations, creating
confusion and chaos at every step. What is meant is a proper
balance between rigidity and elasticity.
(b) Practicability: The school administration must not be a
bundle of theoretical principles, but must provide practical
measures to achieve desired objectives. Whatever objective is
decided upon must be achievable and practicable and avoid
frustration.
(c) Efficiency: Successful administration is that which results in
maximum efficiency. This will be possible only when human
and material resources are properly utilised – right man at the
right place; right work at the right time; and where every
activity and project is well-planned and wellexecuted.
(d) Successful achievement of desired objectives:
Successful administration is one which leads to the successful
achievement of desired objectives of education in a particular
community, for example, healthy social living, development of
good physical, social, moral, intellectual, and aesthetic
qualities and healthy democratic living.
 School administration must facilitate education. It exists for the
pupil and its efficiency has to be measured by the extent to which it
contributes to teaching and learning.
 1.8 Importance of Administration

The study of administration is important for all individuals. The

important reasons for such a study are listed here:
(1) Administration is important in social, economic, political,
religious and educational affairs. It affects every person. The
manners in which organisations are administered determine
the course for men’s lives. It affects their way of living, their
goals, ambitions, happiness and their achievements.
(2) Knowledge of administration will make it possible for the
individual to recognise unsound practices in administration.
Such knowledge will help in restricting the exploitation of
human resources and further efficient management and
organisation.
(3) Knowledge of administration will aid some individuals to
decide whether or not to select this particular field as a career.
It will aid them in evaluating their own qualifications for such
work and will help them to predict their own possibilities for
success.
(4) Administration is fundamental in achieving joint purposes.
Individuals are imbued with ideas which they want to see
come to fruition. These ideas do not materialise unless there is
planning and cooperative action. Knowledge of administration
facilitates the achievement of such aims.
(5) Knowledge of administration furthers good human relations.
Good administration implies cooperating with one another,
being able to overlook personal shortcomings, getting along
with people in order to obtain utmost work output and
efficiency, and possessing the ability to instill the feeling of
“one big happy family.”
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) The human elements include
(a) Children
(b) Parents
(c) Teachers
(d) All the above
(2) The administrator is a
(a) Leader
(b) Teacher
(c) Supervisor
(d) None of the above
(3) The main purpose of educational administration is to educate
the
(a) Youth
(b) Children
(c) Adults
(d) All above
(4) “Administration means business management of public
affairs, government, etc.” This definition is given by:
(a) Oxford dictionary
(b) Sprgal
(c) Oiver Tead
(d) Nigro
Fill in the blanks
(1) Administration involves two concepts i.e. the
_______________ and, the _______________ .
[Management, organisation]
(2) Administrator deals with the _______________ . [human
individual]
(3) _______________ administration is dynamic and free.
[Educational]
(4) _______________ is the primary factor in efficient
management. [Organisation]
 Important Questions

1. Define Administration and explain the meaning and concept

of Educational Administration.
2. Explain briefly the main purposes of Educational
Administration.
3. Explain the difference between Educational and General
Administration.
4. Explain the importance of Educational Administration.
 2
Educational Management
 2.1 Meaning and Definitions of the term
Management

Management is universal in the modern industrial world. Every

individual organisation requires the making of decisions, the
coordination of activities, the handling of people, and the evaluation
of performances directed towards group activities. Numerous
managerial activities have their own particular approach to specific
types of problems and are discussed under such headings as farm
management, hospital management, production management, and
others. All have elements in common.
 What is Management?

Experts agree that management is a distinct type of activity different

from all other types of human activities and all true managers in any
field of human efforts perform the typical managerial functions
irrespective of what they are managing. In other words, managerial
functions have universal application.
 Definitions

“Management is management of people, not things. It emphasises

personal management.”
— James
“Management is the art and science of organising and directing
human efforts applied to control the forces and utilise the materials
of nature for the benefit of man.”
— American Society of Mechanical Engineers
“Management is an activity involving responsibility for getting things
done through other people.”
— Cuthbert Ross
“Management is the art of knowing exactly what you want to do and
seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way.”
— F W Taylor
“Management is a continuous process through which members of an
organisation seek to coordinate their activities and utilise their
resources in order to fulfil the various tasks of the organisation as
efficiently as possible.”
— Hoyle E
We should modify the definitions to make it more comprehensive. A
revised definition may be – “A manager is a leader who gets things
done by working with people and other resources in an organised
manner and achieving the pre-planned requests through effective
communication, coordination and motivation.” Management is getting
the employee to want to do his prescribed work as planned, willingly
and with enthusiastic cooperation.
 2.2 Meaning of Educational Management

The origin of the concept of educational management as a field of

study may be traced back to the 1880’s with the publication of the
“Practical Handbook of School Management by Teachers” authored
by Harding (1872).
The development of educational management as a field of study
th
began in the United States in the early part of the 20 century. In the
UK, the concept of educational management found its place in
educational literature in the 1960’s.
Educational management is a field of study and practice with the
operation of educational organisations. There is no single, generally
accepted definition of educational management because its
development has drawn heavily on several more firmly established
disciplines like economics, political science and sociology. In the
words of Tony Bush (1986), “Most of the definitions of educational
management which have been offered by writers are partial because
they reflect the particular stance of the author. Those which attempt
a broader approach are often bland.”
Educational management has been defined in International
Dictionary of Education (1978) by G.Terry, Page and J.B. Thomas
as, “Theory and practice of the organisation and administration is of
existing educational establishments and system.”
Educational management is concerned with spelling out the
educational objectives, planning process, staffing pattern,
organisational process, budgeting, financing, directing activities and
evaluating performance.
 2.3 Definitions of Educational Management

Educational management has been defined variously. Some

important definitions explaining this concept are given below:
1) “Educational management is a distinct process consisting of
planning, organising, actuating and controlling, performed to
determine and accomplish stated objectives by the use of
human beings and other resources.”
—George R. Terry
2) “The management process is concerned with helping the
members of an organisation to attain individual as well as
organisational objectives within the changing environment of
the organisation.”
—Gray H. L.
 2.4 Scope of Management

The school’s management has to perform different kinds of activities

to achieve its goal and for providing good education to the pupils.
Those activities which a school manager performs come under the
scope of management. They may be described as follows:
I. The management prepares the school budget and secures
revenues for financing the school.
II. It ensures that all school money is economically spent and
every expenditure is accounted for.
III. It selects and purchases school sites.
IV. It is concerned with the selection, supervision and inspection
of the teachers and other employees. It also pays the teachers
and other employee and promotes them.
V. It arranges for in-service education and refresher courses for
the teaching staff.
VI. It ensures cooperation with the staff and promotes in them
esprit de corps.
VII. It selects and arranges the supply of textbooks.
VIII. It provides assistance in curriculum construction.
IX. It provides health services and medical supervision.
X. It makes provision for extracurricular activities.
XI. It takes school census, organises and makes proper use of
them.
XII. It ensures the regular attendance of the pupils in school.
XIII. It arranges for the guidance of pupils.
XIV. It maintains school records and accounts.
Besides these activities there are many other activities which are
of special nature and occur at special occasions. The management
has to pay full attention to them as well. For example, the training for
air-raid precautions at the time of war also come under the scope of
the school’s management. Every day there occur one or more
unique problems which are faced exclusively by others and may not
have been faced by one so far. An efficient manager is always
prepared to tackle them.
 2.5 Scope of Educational Management

Here, the ‘human elements’ include: (i) children (ii) parents (iii)
teachers and (iv) other employees in general, university or boards of
education at local, state and national levels of the government.
On the material side, there are: (i) money (ii) buildings and
grounds, and (iii) equipment and instructional supplies.
Beyond these two elements are ideas, laws and regulations,
community needs and so on. All of these have a bearing on the
educational system. The ‘integration’ of these ‘parts’ into a ‘whole’ is
educational management.
Thus, educational management process is the ‘coordination’ of:
 2.6 Principles of Educational Management

Henri Fayol’s 14 principles of management (1916) are given below:

(a) Division of work
(b) Parity of authority and responsibility
(c) Discipline
(d) Unity of command
(e) Unity of direction
(f) Subordination of individual interest to general interest
(g) Fair remuneration
(h) Centralisation and decentralisation
(i) Scalar chain of employees in ranks
(j) Order
(k) Equity (fair treatment)
(l) Stability of tenure of personnel
(m)Initiate (eagerness to work)
(n) Esprit de Corps (team spirit)
Management may be compared to a lens that brings everything
about the educational system into focus for the community, faculty
and students. If it is a poor lens, the image is fuzzy, obscure and no
one in the educational system or the community gets a clear picture
of the educational system. If it is a good lens, the educational system
becomes a clear-cut and vivid projection of the ideals and ideas
whose existence have been envisaged.
To sum up, educational management implies a comprehensive
effort to direct, guide and integrate associating human strivings,
which are focused towards some specific ends or aims set for the
society.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) “Management is management of people, not things. It
emphasises personal management”. This definition is given by
(a) James
(b) Ross
(c) Taylor
(d) Hoyle
(2) Educational management is a distinct process consisting of
(a) Planning
(b) Organising
(c) Actuating and controlling
(d) All the above
 Fill in the blanks

(1) Management is ________ in the modern industrial world.

[universal]
(2) School Management selects and purchases _______ .
[school sites]
(3) Management may be compared to a _______ . [lens]
(4) Managerial functions have _________ applications
[universal]
 Important Questions

1. What is Management? Give some definitions of Management.

2. Explain the meaning of Educational Management?
3. Give some definitions of Educational Management?
4. Explain briefly the scope of Management.
5. Explain the scope of Educational Management.
6. Describe the 14 principles of Educational Management.
 3
Educational Administration in
Independent India
 3.1 Historical Background of Educational
Administration

The shape of educational administration which we see today was

started as, public administration. Indeed educational administration
is a part of public administration. In spite of being a part of public
administration, it is different: because it is related to schools and the
school in itself is a specific institution. On the one hand, it keeps the
culture or society safe and on the other, it regulates a mind by
purifying it. At the same time, an institution or school acts as a
means or instrument of social change. In this way, education
becomes a social process. Its administration becomes different from
other kinds of administration.
The term “administration” has been used very little in Latin. But in
Roman literature, it has been used very much. In the Roman Age,
the term “administration” was used like it is used today. But the
definite shape and meaning of this term was determined by
“Camarial thought” (a school of thought) developed in Germany and
Austria. This school of thought attached the activities of persons
(government servants) working in public services with administration.
To take this theory ahead the following three elements played an
important role:
(a) Price defined administration in the form of “Policy”
(b) Zinky explained administration as “Management”
(c) Bonn Justy described administration as “Economy”
Camarial thought made administration sequential by providing a
th
scientific base to it. But in the later half of the 18 century, Alexander
Hamilton tried to define administration. At the same time he made
clear his concept. Hamilton was of the opinion that the functions of
the government in a broader sense are related to all those activities
which have to be done by body politics. The body politics has to
perform legislative, executive and judiciary activities. But
administration is related to the activities of the executive only. In this
way, the specific and delimited meaning of administration becomes
clear. For the aforesaid functions of government; both the terms
administration and management were used. On attaching
administration with government activities, public administration got
th
recognition. In the 19 century, the field of public administration
became very popular. Consequently a special branch of the study of
government activities emerged.
In 1887 A.D., Woodrow Wilson got a book published, titled “The
Study of Administration.” This book defined administration especially
in the form of government activities. With the result, in 1906, the
National Institute of Public Administration was established in the
United States of America. Woodrow Wilson related administration to
government activities, policies of states and plans, etc. Thereafter,
Frank Goodnow distinguished administration and politics as different
activities. The arena of politics is related to those functions of the
government that are related to the expression of ambition and
formulation of policies. In this way, Woodrow Wilson and Frank
Goodnow have explained administration with a different meaning.
Wilson expressed, “What kind administration ought to be” and
Goodnow explained, “What it is”. In this way the former explained it
as “Normative” and latter made it clear as “Descriptive.”
In post World War I, there were more developments in the study of
administration. In this period, three schools of thought developed as
follows:
1. Mary Parker Follett prepared the background of the social
philosophy of administration. In the development of this
philosophy, she took contents from industry, scientific
management, political science and public administration and
provided a new spindle to administration.
2. Morris L. Cooke, Peter Drucker, etc. supposed administration
as such a process in which art, science, and ethical values,
are coordinated.
3. About 1930, new things entered into administration.
Consequently, functions of administration were attached with
executive leadership. It was taken for granted that there
should be qualities of a leader in an administrator.
The qualities of a leader, such as, taking initiative, presence of
mind, the attitude to go ahead with a team, to create interest and
commitment in workers towards their work, etc. were expected in an
administrator.
Luther, Gulick and Urwick took sociological and psychological
elements to be important in the development of scientific
administration. On the basis of these elements; an administrator can
be farsighted in providing a scientific base to administration, and the
complementary variables to these are enumerated below.
1. Efficiency Method
2. Management Science
3. Quantitative Decision-making
These variables are affecting the process of administration in a
progressively greater manner. Due to the effect of modern science
mechanisation is affecting the variables, with the result that
administration is becoming more and more objective-based, skilled
and successful. Now an administrator is becoming capable in taking
decisions with no risks involved. Controlling, planning and other
administrative processes are running more easily. Today, the use of
computers in the development of classroom programmes, computer
time-tables, computer assisted timetables, and the use of computers
in controlling and planning due to the use of automatic apparatuses;
administration is becoming more and more scientific.
 3.2 Need of Educational Administration
after 2000 AD

The educational managers of India must change and use style that
fits into the socio-cultural and political change taking place in India.
The traditional bureaucratic style may not work in the changed
climate of the country. The educational managers in India are, in
fact, facing a very critical situation today. They find that no style,
neither bureaucratic nor democratic, is really working in most
schools and university situations. Let us examine the kind of
situation that exists in the field of education in which leadership has
to be exercised.
The whole field of education has been inundated with political
activism during the past twenty years. There are students’ unions,
teachers’ associations, class III and IV employees’ unions, citizens’
councils, and parents’ associations everywhere, which are becoming
increasingly active day by day. They are bringing on all sorts of
desirable and undesirable pressures on the educational managers to
influence their decision-making process. In order to deal with them a
new kind of insight and approach is required. It is not easy to say
what kind of managerial style will be suitable in these situations, but
a trained and insightful manager who is flexible enough can
immediately identify which style will work.
Since the private sector in the field of education has been
substantially cut down or made powerless, local control centres in
the institutions have been abolished and the principals are finding it
difficult to take work from teachers and other employees. Even the
higher level managers are failing to help them. In this situation they
are faced with the problems of maintaining the standards of teaching
and effectiveness of the institutions. This calls for new skills and
wisdom on the part of the administrators. An entirely new kind of
leadership is required.
Insufficient grants and inadequate financial support caused by
several factors have posed other problems for them. They are short
of equipments and other teaching-learning facilities such as
inadequate building, shortage of classrooms, staff rooms, sports
ground, laboratories, etc. This has resulted in teachers’ alienation
from work and has also become a de-motivating factor for students’
learning. How to manage this situation is another challenging
problem for the present day educational manager.
Due to loss of control and misinterpretation of freedom and liberty,
people in all educational organisations have become much more
selfconscious and rights-oriented. They fight for even the smallest of
things. The outcome is that the college and university are faced with
many kinds of conflicts. The managers are required to possess skills
and insight into management of these conflicts. Organisational
conflicts are going to stay with educational institutions in future also.
The educational administrators of tomorrow therefore, must learn
strategies to manage these conflicts.
Today, decision-making has become more complex in the field of
education with the advent of democracy in India. Democratic
tradition as part of society’s culture encourages the participation of
more and more of those who are concerned with the task. This
situation makes it imperative for the educational managers to
possess the skills in participatory decision-making.
The emergence of the new concepts and approaches in the field
of education such as non-formal education, vocationalisation of
education, etc. require still additional cognitive background and
specific skills on the part of educational managers.
 3.3 Educational Administration – A New
Chapter

With independence in 1947, a new chapter opened in educational

administration in India. There could be no room for central
administration in education. The roles outlined above became out of
tune with the massive demand for education. It was realised that in a
vast country like India, with its immense localdiversities, education
should largely be a responsibility of state governments and local
authorities. Entry 11 of list II of the seventh schedule of the
Constitution accordingly, makes education a state subject. However,
this provision is subject to the provisions of entries 63, 64, 65 and 66
of list I and entry 25 of list III. These entries are:
List I – Union List: Out of 97 items included in the Union List, the
following entries pertain to education:
Entry 13: Educational and cultural relations with foreign countries.
Entry 62: Institutions of national importance like National Library, the
Indian Museum, the Imperial War Museum, the Victoria Memorial
and the Indian War Memorial—wholly or partly financed by the
centre and legally declared as an institution of national importance.
Entry 63: The institutions known at the commencement of the
Constitution as the Banaras Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim
University and the Delhi University, or any other institution declared
by Parliament, by law, to be an institution of national importance.
Entry 64: Institutions for scientific or technical education financed by
the Government of India—wholly or partially and declared by the
Parliament, by law, to be an institution of national importance; partly
or wholly financed by the Government and legally declared as
institutions of national importance.
Entry 65: Union agencies and institutions for:
a) Professional, vocational or technical training including the
training of police officers;
b) The promotion of special studies or research and;
c) Scientific or technical assistance in the investigation or
detection of crime.
Entry 66: Coordination and determination of standards in the
institutions of higher educational and research.
Entry 67: Ancient historical monuments and records; archaeological
sites and remains legally declared to be of national importance.
List II: State List: Out of 66 items in this list, two pertain to
education. These are:
Entry 11: Entry 11 of the state list lays down that “Education
including universities, subject to the provision of 63, 64, 65 and 66 of
Union List and entry 25 of the concurrent list should be state
subjects.”
Entry 12: Entry 12 of the state jurisdiction; the libraries, museums
and other similar institutions controlled or financed by the state as
well as recent historical monuments and records (other than those
declared to be of national importance).
List III: Concurrent List: Out of 47 items in this list the following six
relate to education directly or indirectly:
Entry 20: Economic and social planning
Entry 25: Vocational and technical training
Entry 26: Legal, medical and other professions
Entry 27: Charities and charitable institutions
Entry 39: Newspaper, books and printing presses
Entry 40: Archaeological sites and remains other than those
declared by parliament, and law to be of national importance
There are certain provisions of the Directive Principles of State
Policy included in the Constitution which have a bearing on
education.
(1) Primary Education: Article 45 of the Constitution provides that
the state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from
the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years.
The expression ‘state’ includes the Government of India, the State
Government, and all local or other authorities within the territory of
India or under the control of the Government of India.
Economic and social planning (Entry 20 of List III) is a concurrent
responsibility of the centre and the states. Educational planning
being an essential element of economic and social planning, the
Government of India and the State Governments have to work
together in preparing and implementing national plans for the
reconstruction of education.
Article 282 of the Constitution also enables the Government of
India to give grants-in-aid to the states to develop their educational
programmes.
The Constitutional provisions quoted above envisage:
(a) Education is the main state responsibility;
(b) The Government of India has an indirect but significant
responsibility for education;
(c) There has to be a healthy partnership between the Central
and the State Government in the national task of educational
reconstruction.
For the purpose of implementation, the educational programme is
divided into three categories:
(1) State Programmes: These programmes are eligible for
financial assistance from the centre but the responsibility for
executing them largely rests with the states.
(2) Centrally Sponsored Programmes: These are drawn up at
the instance or suggestion of the Central Ministry, and have an
all India applicability. These are also implemented through the
state government like the schemes in the state sector.
(3) Central Schemes: These are entirely worked out and
implemented by the Central Ministry.
The programmes in each of the three categories are so formulated
that they reinforce and supplement the programmes in the other
categories.
 The Present Position

At present, schools are managed by three agencies: government,

local authorities and voluntary organisations.
The government institutions form only one-fifth of the total. The
institutions conducted by the local authorities are the largest in
number, a little less than half of the total and most of them are
primary schools. The institutions run by private enterprises form
about one-third of the total, and dominate pre-primary and
postprimary education.
As far as finances are concerned, the state supports not only its
own institutions but also the local authorities and voluntary
organisations to a substantial extent. In fact, it may be said that the
bulk of the expenditure on school education comes from the state
funds and fees and that only a small and relatively less significant
contribution is made by local authorities or private sources.
 3.4 Education on the Concurrent List

The forty-second amendment, 1976, brought about drastic changes

in the Indian Constitution. It put education, hitherto a state subject, in
the concurrent list.
The amendment makes Central and State governments equal
partners in framing educational policies. The Union becomes
supreme over states in e-law enactment regarding education. The
executive power is given to the Union to give direction to the states.
The states have the powers limited to the extent that these do not
impede or prejudice the exercise of the executive powers of the
Union. The centre can implement policies in any state. National
institutions like UGC, NCERT and national bodies like CABE have
higher power and strength to shape the education of the country.
nd
It was the 42 amendment of the Constitution which finally
brought education in the concurrent list.
 Advantages

1. The National Educational Policy can be implemented properly

and satisfactorily— The constitutional obligations in respect of
free and compulsory education and education for women and
weaker sections of the community can be more effectively
discharged if major decisions are taken by the centre and the
administration is left to the state.
2. Education and planning can be put in one category—hence
progress in education can be ensured.
3. States can be given financial help.
4. Centre can provide effective leadership.
5. Uniformity of educational objects, strategy and standards is
ensured.
6. Equalisation of resources and opportunities can be ensured.
7. Ensures implementation of recommendations of committees
and commissions.
8. Keeps vigilance over the educational activities of the states.
9. Supervises control over financial expenditure through central
assistance.
10. Promotes experiment and research in education.
 Disadvantages

1. Undesirable centralisation.
2. The local needs will not get proper attention.
3. Unwarranted interference in educational administration.
4. Uniformity will crush the elements of diversity in our cultural
pattern.
5. Centralisation of education will affect the self-confidence,
initiative, resourcefulness and competence of the state
governments and encourage dictatorial tendencies which are
harmful for the development of education.
6. Bureaucracy will delay the implementation of important
decisions made for the improvement of education.
The Government of India has so far been practicing methods of
goodwill and cooperation with the various state governments in
matters of education. Examples can be quoted: adoption of a
national scheme of basic education, locating the new primary
teacher training institutions in rural areas only, introduction of the
scheme of multipurpose schools and changing the first degree
course in general education to three years.
The above practice can continue even with concurrent states of
education. In special cases however, a central legislation can be
passed either to expedite the process or to bring about uniformity all
over the country.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) Price defined administration in the form of
(a) Policy
(b) Management
(c) Work
(d) Economy
(2) Mary Mark Parker Follett prepared the background of the
________ philosophy of administration.
(a) Political
(b) Social
(c) Economical
(d) None of the above
(3) At present, schools are managed by
(a) Government
(b) Local authorities
(c) Voluntary organisations
(d) All of the above
(4) Bureaucracy will delay the implementation of important
decisions made for the
(a) Improvement of education
(b) Improvement of standard
(c) Improvement of culture
(d) None of the above
Fill in the blanks
(1) Bonn Justy described administration as ______ . [Economy]
(2) Educational administration becomes _________ from other
kinds of administration. [different]
(3) ________ has become more complex in the field of
education. [Decision making]
 Important Questions

1. Describe the historical background of Educational

Administration.
2. Write a note on the “Need of Educational Administration after
2000 AD”
3. Educational Administration – A New Chapter. Explain.
4. What is the meaning of Primary Education?
5. Briefly explain the advantages of education being in the
Concurrent List.
 4
Nature, Objectives and Scope of
Educational Administration
 4.1 Nature of Educational Administration

Society is dynamic. It is subject to rapid changes—cultural,

economical, philosophical, political, scientific, social and
technological. It is therefore, very essential that educational
administration must conform to the changing situation and an
educational administrator must be very dynamic.
Educational administration is the embodiment of the ideal and a
spirit. It must enable different limbs of education enterprise to
function harmoniously in happy coordination; blending themselves
into a composite personality like the different rivulets which join
together.
Oliver Tead gives a definition which explains not only the
administration but also leads towards an understanding of the good
or bad administration. Tead says—“ ..... administration is conceived
as the necessary activities of those individuals (executives) in an
organisation who are charged with ordering, forwarding and
facilitating the associated efforts of a group of individuals brought
together to realise certain defined purposes.”
It may be quite clear from the above that good administration
involves associated efforts in realising the defined goals. For the
associated efforts to be successful, there must be certain principles
put forward which ought to be followed. It is true that there are no
perfect principles, which may lead to complete successful
administration. On the basis of experience of the people in different
directions in different types of organisations, certain ways of
approach, adoption of attitudes and methods of attack have evolved.
However, to apply them in specific situations, “comprises an art
requiring great skill; discernment and moral fortitude.” It is on
account of the requirement of such skills in administration that Tead
calls administration an art.
Administration involves creativity. A good administration is one
which exhibits human creativity at its best. Good administration is the
product of associated performance which continues towards
perfection. Thus, the four main ingredients of good administration
may be cited as (i) Associated performance – human beings work in
close collaboration. Their responsibilities are organised and there is
sharing of responsibilities and duties; (ii) Organised purpose –
human beings have well-defined purposes before them and through
mutual sharing of responsibilities try to achieve them; (iii) Creativity –
the path towards the achievement of purposes is not present. It is
through a dynamic approach that the group proceeds towards its
goals. The group makes efforts to increasingly improve its methods
of approach as it gets more and more insight into the problem; and
(iv) Achievement – the feeling of achievement marks the culmination
point of good administration. But achievement, good administration
and a quest for perfection are interlinked. A good administrator is not
only satisfied when he follows a particular pattern, he achieves
perfection within the limitations imposed by the environment and
thus allows his creativity to play fully.
 4.2 Objectives of Educational
Administration

Objectives of educational administration derive their inspiration from

the philosophy as contained in the Constitution of a country.
The following ladder explains how our way of life, objectives of
education, contents of education and educational administration
derive their strength from our Constitution which serves as a beacon
in our endeavours.
The foremost objective of educational administration is the
fulfilment of the educational goals as envisaged in the Constitution of
a country. As Kandel has observed, “Fundamentally the purpose of
educational administration is to bring pupils and teachers together
under such conditions as will more successfully promote the end of
education.”
While describing the educational needs of India, Secondary
Education Commission (1952-53) says that, “India has recently
achieved its political freedom and has after careful consideration
decided to transform itself into a secular democratic republic. This
means the educational system must make its contribution to the
development of habits, attitudes and qualities of character which will
enable its citizens to bear worthily the responsibilities of democratic
citizenship and to counteract all those fissiparous tendencies which
hinder the emergence of a broad, national and secular outlook.” The
Education Commission (1964-66) also emphasised, “In this context
special emphasis has to be laid on the development of values such
as temper of mind, tolerance, respect for the culture of their national
groups, etc., which will enable to adopt democracy not only as a
form of government but also as a way of life.” The objectives of
educational administration must broadly be seen in the development
of democratic values. If this point is lost sight of, then the very
purpose of educational administration goes into oblivion.
In operational terms, the objectives of educational administration
are to enable the right pupils to receive the right education from the
right teachers under conditions which enable the pupils to profit best
by their learning.
 4.3 Scope of Educational Administration

The term educational administration, due to variations in usages,

indicate different levels and types of application of management to
educational problems and situations. In its broadest sense, it applies
to the full range of administrative control in education ranging from
classroom operations, school management, administration of
educational institutions and programmes in a locality to the control of
educational policy of a nation as a whole. Educational administration,
in a narrower sense, refers to the operations of the administrative
bodies set-up for providing various educational services or facilities
with regard to “the direction, control and management of those
aspects of administration such as teacher and pupil, personnel,
programme of studies, programme of activities, curricula, methods,
instructional aids and guidance.”

In educational administration, various categories of personnel are

employed at different levels—some of them at leadership and
decision-making, some at technical, and some at office and clerical
positions. Some employees are engaged in operations related to
general management of the system such as personnel, finance and
procurement while other employees are responsible for operations
related to the educational process such as teacher-education,
curriculum development, planning, educational evaluation and the
like.
 The scope of educational administration is very vast. In includes
within its scope the building up of personnel, appointment of men,
running the administrative machine, seeking cooperation of people,
informing and educating the public and finally, organising a sound
system of planning based as much on the participation of people at
each level as on the best technical, economic and statistical
information available.
Educational administration includes everything regarding the
functioning of educational institutions – securing the greatest benefit
to the greatest number through an adoption of practical measures. It
interprets and clarifies the functions and activities of an educational
programme in fruitful relationships and harmonises their mutual
action. It ensures sound planning, good direction and efficient
execution.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) Administration involves
(a) creativity
(b) flexibility
(c) perfection
(d) None of the above
(2) The scope of educational administration is very
(a) slow
(b) vast
(c) All the above
(d) None of the above
 Important Questions

1. Explain the nature and scope of Educational Administration.

2. What are the objectives of Educational Administration?
3. Why does the nature of Educational Administration change?
 5
Institutional Planning

“I have a thesis about the manner in which a revolution in Indian

education can come about. I have no hope of carrying; a revolution
from Delhi to the thousands of schools. That is impossible; partly
because no revolution can be born in Delhi and partly because even
if such a revolution is born there, it will die by the time it reaches the
remotest village. But there is every possibility of carrying out a
revolution from the village school to Delhi. In other words, if we get
some creative thought at the centre, the chances of this creative
thought reaching the remote school and doing something useful
there are rare. But if teachers are trying to face their problems
creatively and originally, some new ideas might be born which might
travel up to Delhi and fertilise the whole field of education. If this faith
has some justification, I believe it has, we have to find a method
wherein freedom can be given to teachers who want to do something
so that they can become effective.”
— J.P. Naik

New thoughts can enter social life only when the education system
of that society is dynamic. A dynamic education system is capable of
adapting to time and situations that makes progress possible. In this
context the Education Commission (1964-66) quotes: “If the
education system does not renovate itself continuously that goes out
of time and situations and prevents the progress, because that
creates a quantitative and qualitative ditch in between its working
system and objectives, and new demands of development and
requisitions.”
Thus for the reconstruction of society and development, education
has to be reorganised and developed. Education can be agreeable
to the needs and demands of society only when its schools or
institutes bring change in themselves; quantitative and qualitative for
the progress and development of self by institutes whose
programmes or plans are qualitative ultimately made only to provide
help in reconstruction and development of education. Thus
educational planning should not be kept limited to the centre,
notwithstanding that it should also be carried to the institute which is
supposed to be a unit. In other words, we can fulfil the need of
organisation and reconstruction of education widely by bringing
planning to schools and institutes which form the units.
 5.1 Meaning of Institutional Planning

Institutional Planning is the description of programmes constructed

by an institution. This is the detailed description of those
programmes and activities which are to be performed by the school
or institute throughout the session. Prof. M.B. Buch has defined
institutional planning – “An institutional plan is a set of programmes
prepared by an institution on the basis of its felt needs and the
knowledge of its resources available and likely to be available with a
view to improve the school standards and practices and with a view
to provide for the future development of the institution.” This plan can
be short-term or long-term. It is based on the principle of maximum
utility of resources available with the school and community.
By foregoing discussion, the following points are threshed out:
1. Institutional planning is a means of accomplishing widespread
targets of education.
2. For the construction of institutional planning, knowledge is
necessary of human and physical resources.
3. Maximum utilisation of available resources which are
available with the institution and community.
4. This plan may be of long or short-term or both.
 5.2 Need and Essence of Institutional
Planning

An institutional plan is a programme of development and

improvement prepared by an educational institution on the basis of
its needs and available resources. It is based on the principle of
optimum utilisation of the resources available to the school. The idea
of an institutional plan was first conceived by the Education
Commission (1964-66). The Commission felt that there were a large
number of programmes which an institution can undertake on the
basis of human efforts.
A tree simultaneously grows above and below the ground; while
the roots penetrate deep into the soil, the branches spread out with
the same zeal. So it should be the five-tier process of educational
planning in India – Institutional, Block, District, State and National
tiers. All these tiers are interdependent and they should be
complementary to the total educational development—both
quantitatively and qualitatively.
Every institution has to plan its growth and development keeping
in view the resources for a period of one year in the beginning and
long range plans after gaining a sound footing. These plans would
constitute the block and district five-year plans. The district plans on
the other hand, would form the basis of the state plans. These state
plans are to be the ingredients of the national plans. Therefore,
institutional plans are not opposed to the national plans; rather they
form the basis of the national plan. This is the process of
decentralisation in accordance with the main spirit of our
Constitution.
 Essence of Institutional Plan

An institutional plan is not the plan prepared by one individual. It is

the plan of all sections of the institution. Human resources are the
greatest resources and they are more important than the material
resources. Whatever exists must be utilised fully. There is always
scope for improvement. Tomorrow must be better than today.
 5.3 Requisites of an Institutional Plan

The following are the requisites of a good institutional plan:

I. The plan should be prepared on the needs of the school as
identified by the school staff.
II. It should be based on the principle of optimum utilisation of
the resources available within the school and the community.
III. It should be a cooperative venture of the community,
management, school staff and the students.
IV. It should be goal-oriented.
V. It should be tailor-made for an institution—there cannot be a
plan for all institutions.
VI. It should result in the establishment of democratic
procedures within the school.
VII. An important outcome of institutional planning should be the
establishment of a better rapport with the community.
VIII. It should aim at school improvements as well as school
development.
IX. It should be continuously developing. An institutional plan
should not be rigid; it should admit changes.
X. It should result in improvement and motivation on the part of
teachers, students, community and the management.
 5.4 Objectives of an Institutional Plan

Shri J.P. Naik has listed the following objectives of an institutional

plan:
1. It aims at imparting realism and concreteness to educational
planning.
2. It aims at providing the local community with an opportunity to
join hands and improve the school.
3. It aims at shifting the emphasis from expenditure-orientation
to that of proper utilisation of resources.
4. It aims at encouraging the teachers to do something creative
and thus provides job satisfaction to them.
5. It aims at involving every teacher in the formulation and
implementation of plans.
 5.5 Motto of Institutional Planning

Shri J.P. Naik has observed, for institutional planning our motto
should be ‘Not high aim but failure is a crime.’ I do not mind how
small a plan a teacher prepares. Let somebody say, ‘I want to
improve the handwriting of the children,’ I will be quite happy; what
we decide to do is immaterial. But once you decide to do something,
I will not accept any excuse for a failure. This is what we have to
insist upon; doing things with dignity, with pride in oneself and with
success. If we can follow this up, the institutional plan is put
successfully on the ground.
 5.6 Steps in the Preparation of an
Institution Plan

The major steps in preparing a plan of improvement and

development for a school are:
1. Survey the felt needs of the school, and resources that are
likely to be available in the school and the community.
2. Prepare plans and projects; experimental or developmental,
or both, taking into consideration the school needs and
available resources and local, district, state, and national
plans.
3. Execute plans within resources and with maximum effort.
4. Evaluate improvement and development programmes in
terms of needs and resources and find out if the plan is
successful. If yes, institutionalise the principles and projects. If
not, investigate the causes, remove defects and bottlenecks
and evaluate.
Remember, in institutional administration no planning is a crime
but failure is a worse crime; the best efforts are required to be
successful.
 5.7 Areas of Improvement and
Development Programme

Institutional plans may be prepared to effect improvement in the

following areas:
(a) Administration: A number of projects can be taken up to
improve administration; for instance, developing procedures to
increase the effectiveness of staff meetings; improving
supervision; improving principal-faculty relations; improving
staff relations; democratic organisation of school, giving main
responsibility to pupils.
(b) School-Community relations: Utilising community
resources for better learning in different subjects; arranging
talks by community members, etc.
(c) Academic: Improving reading habits through a planned use
of library; improving internal examinations; reducing wastage
and stagnation; assistance to physically and mentally
challenged students; education of the gifted; use of bulletin
board for improved teaching.
(d) Co-curricular Activities: Trying out different ways of
organising co-curricular activities; better use of leisure by
teachers as well as students; trying out new programmes in
the school assembly; promoting student interests in school
activities; developing hobbies among students and so on.
This is a mere list of suggestions. It should not be difficult to think
of other areas where we could do a great deal even within the
existing resources, however limited they may be.
 5.8 Scope of an Institutional Plan

Prof. J.P. Naik has spelt out the scope of an institutional plan as
follows:
1. Improving the School Plan –
(a) Provisions for more amenities to pupils – sanitary facilities,
drinking water, transport, midday meals, medical aids, uniform,
etc.
(b) More and better equipments in the school – reading rooms,
library, teaching aids, laboratory, etc.
(c) Maintenance of school buildings – voluntary labour,
contributions, etc.
2. Improvement of Instruction –
(a) Supervised study and special tuition facilities.
(b) Visiting teachers from the teaching fraternity as well as from
outside.
(c) Support to teacher improvement programmes like in-service
training, refresher courses, summer schools, etc.
3. Extra-curricular Activities for Pupils –
(a) Social service projects.
(b) Work experience through participation in community
projects.
(c) Athletics and games.
(d) Literary activities.
4. Community Programmes for the Schools –
(a) Youth related activities and services.
(b) Adult education programme.
(c) Literacy programmes.
 5.9 Basic Elements involved in the
Preparation of an Institutional Plan

1. Where are we? (Existing situation.)

2. Where do we want to go? (objectives)
3. Which is the road to reach the destination or to achieve the
objectives?
4. What are the means for the realisation of the objectives of the
plans?
5. Whose help is needed to achieve these objectives?
6. How much time is involved?
7. What can be the problems in the implementation of the
plans?
8. How can these problems be overcome?
9. How to evaluate the achievement regarding fulfilment of the
objectives?
 5.10 Institutional Planning and the
Headmaster

It is the duty of the school headmaster to provide superior leadership

to enable him to involve students, the faculty and the community in
the preparation and implementation of an institutional plan. As
planning is intended to introduce changes, he might have to face
opposition by the teachers, who are threatened by the advent of
changes. The headmaster must move cautiously.
He should look at the whole school as a system, assess the
strengths and weaknesses of its staff members, and carefully create
the feeling of readiness for change. His supervisory functions can be
helpful in bringing about a sense of readiness among the teachers.
The headmaster should proceed in a planned step-wise manner
for the preparation of an institutional plan.
The first step might be a series of individual conferences with the
staff followed by group conferences. After this, there might be the
staff meeting in which the headmaster and an outside expert like the
D. E. O. or the extension worker may explain the whole purpose and
the need for preparing an institutional plan. The headmaster should
be very careful in evaluating the result of the first staff meeting.
The second step will be a discussion about the survey of the
needs. Experts from outside, senior teachers and the headmaster
himself will have to work with individual teachers and subject teacher
groups to have a survey of the needs for improvement in various
areas.
The third step will be survey of the resources available in the
school and the community.
The fourth step will be the preparation of improvement
programmes. Expert guidance and facilities should be provided to
the teacher for the improvement programmes.
The fifth step will be the evaluation of the programmes after they
have been implemented.
 Special role of the Head of the school:

1. The head of the school should not expect the same

performance from every teacher. He should appreciate
limitations.
2. A school should not blindly follow the institutional plan of any
other school. It should be clearly understood that every school
has its own needs and resources.
3. The head should try to seek the maximum involvement of the
school community.
4. The institutional plan should be prepared before the
beginning of the school session.
5. In the preparation of the institutional plan, the head would
seek the guidance of the officers of the education department/
department of public instructions.
6. It should be ensured that the institutional plan becomes an
integral part of the overall planning.
7. The staff should be given adequate freedom.
8. The institutional plan should not be over ambitious. It must be
based on feasibility.
 5.11 Institutional Planning – A Challenge
and an Opportunity

Shri J.P. Naik has observed, “The programme of institutional

planning is both a challenge and an opportunity.
It is a challenge because of the several intricate and complex
problems for which practical and realistic solutions will have to be
found. It also requires that all the persons concerned—officers of the
department, headmasters, parents and students—should be properly
enthused. This is by no means, an easy task.
The programme is also an opportunity. It is probably the principal
tool which will enable us to improve education in the present
situation when financial resources are so scarce and the need to
improve education is so urgent.”
Institutional planning aims at placing the major responsibility of the
improvement of the school on the school itself.
It reverses the normal trend followed today where the direction of
planning is from top to bottom. Institutional planning will give the right
direction to educational planning in the country, i.e., the upward
direction from bottom to top.
Institutional planning introduces a scientific way for the
improvement and development of education within the country.
 5.12 Involvement of the Teachers

As a teacher is instrumental in any educational effort, his role is

especially important in institutional planning. Education, they say, is
essentially a stretching process. Naturally, teachers and students
have to stretch themselves to their utmost, only then will good
education be possible. It is good for the teacher to remember;
A poor teacher tells,
An average teacher explains,
A good teacher demonstrates,
And a great teacher inspires.
What is required to be planned at the teacher’s level is the
occupation of the students in a meaningful and challenging task.
This is the challenge. How can it be met? We have to be committed
persons, committed to knowledge, committed to social service,
committed to hard work.
 5.13 Role of the State Education
Departments

They should not emphasise rigidity and uniformity, conversely, they

should favour elasticity and dynamism and encourage creativity,
freedom and experimentation on the part of institutions and teachers.
It should be the responsibility of the departmental officers to guide
the institutions in making and implementing their plans. The
departmental officers will ensure that institutional plans of the
educational institutions become a part and parcel of the state plans
of education. Funds for the development and improvement of
educational programmes of the school should be allocated on the
basis of the institution’s plans. Arbitrary decisions should be avoided.
The needs and requirements of the institutions should be kept in
view. The system of grant-in-aid should be reformed to encourage
excellence. The state education departments should prepare
guidelines for the formulation and implementation of institutional
plans.
 5.14 The Role of Management

In India, many institutions are under private management. They may

be classified as:-
I. Religious organisations
II. The Registered trust boards
III. Private boards
IV. Certain individuals
A number of religious organisations like the Christian Missionary,
the Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, Muslim Wakfs and the
Khalsa Diwan, etc., are running private institutions. The atmosphere
here is generally tinged with caste or religious prejudices but many
of them are quite efficient and sound institutions. Even the
institutions run by trust boards are meant to serve and promote the
interest of certain sections of the society. This is all objectionable
and against the directive and spirit of the Constitution. These
institutions have their own managements – elected, selected or
appointed. There are institutions like Jamia Milia Islamia in Delhi,
Vanasthali in Rajasthan which are run by the teachers themselves. It
may be noticed here that quite a number of institutions do not pay
adequate salaries to the teachers and the institutions run by them
are not well-equipped. This may be mostly for want of funds. The
worst of it is some individuals are running these institutions for
personal benefits.
 Problems of Private Institutions

1. Financial problem; government aids are not adequate.

2. Difficulties in raising funds.
 Remedies:

Nationalisation of schools or providing adequate funds.

 Difficulties of the Government

(1) Popularity of good private institutions.

(2) Government’s desire to involve the community in the
educational enterprise.
(3) Faith of the people in religious and sectarian organisations
and individuals.
(4) Limited resources of the government.
 Recommendations of the Educational
Commission

The Commission recommends that in spite of all deficiencies and

limitations, the private institutions should be treated as an integral
part of the common school system of public education. The good
institutions should be developed as quality institutions by offering
them more financial aid and granting them more freedom to manage
their own affairs. The sub-standard schools should be given time and
assistance to put their house in order. In case they fail to rise to the
occasion they are to be dealt with firmly and either closed down or
taken over by the government.
The Commission has recommended the abolition of stage up to
th
standard 10 . It has also recommended that each private school
should have managing committees consisting of the representatives
of the management, the education department, and the teachers. It
recommended staffing of the schools on the pattern of government
or local authority schools.
 5.15 Improvement of Granting Aids

The private institutions have done great service to the country. They
have provided adequate number of schools at all stages of
education. Reforms in their working are urgently needed and efforts
should be directed towards them. Most of these recommendations
have been accepted at the administrative level of the privately
managed schools and colleges and they have improved
comparatively.
In Karnataka, all the primary schools are taken over by the state
government run by it. Except for these, the management is unwilling
to hand over the institutions. In place of secondary schools and
colleges, the state government has taken the responsibility of paying
the staff all the schools, aided schools, and colleges.
Even in case of aided schools, there are other problems like
building, playground, equipment, furniture, laboratory, etc. The
Government is trying to look for solutions to these problems.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option) option)
(1) The idea of an institutional plan was first conceived by the
(a) Education commission 1964-66
(b) Education commission 1986
(c) Review committee 1992
(d) None of the above
(2) The headmaster should proceed in a planned step wise
manner for the preparation of an
(a) Information
(b) Institutional plan
(c) All of the above
(d) None of the above
Fill in the blanks
(1) In India, many institutions are under _________
Management. [Private]
(2) The educational commission has recommended the ______
th
of stage up to 10 standard. [abolition]
 Important Questions

1. What is Institutional Planning? Why should the schools have

Institutional Plans?
2. Explain the major steps involved in preparing Institutional
Plans.
3. What are the problems faced by private managements in
administering their schools?
4. Explain briefly the recommendations of the Education
Commission for improving institutional administration.
 6
The Educational Ladder

The educational structure ladder, as they call it, means the different
stages of education connected with each other in an ascending
order, each stage preparing for the next – higher level. There is a
systematic order of the various stages. An ideal educational
structure should have the following qualities:-
(i) There is no overlapping.
(ii) There are no gaps and lapses.
(iii) There is no duplication of effort.
(iv) It is uniform throughout the country to ensure smooth
migration of the student community from one state to another.
 6.1 History of Earlier Schools

The earlier schools in India were ungraded. The Brahmanic and

Buddhistic schools and Maqtabs and Madrasas of the Muslims were
supposed to accomplish limited-instruction. Any one who needed the
instruction that these schools offered, attended them, no matter what
his age might be. These were usually single teacher schools. The
single teacher was every thing for the pupils in the school.
Enrolments were usually small.
The education ladder in a systematic form was introduced in India
by Wood’s Despatch in 1854. This Despatch laid down the scheme
of education from the elementary to the university stage. Before this
Despatch, the structure of education presented a picture of a body
without a head or a tail. The Great Despatch completed the picture
by furnishing it with a head and a tail in the form of university
education and the elementary education respectively. The entire
educational programme constituted four stages – the primary, the
middle, the high school, and the university. Although during the long
years that followed, there have been changes here and there, but
the main educational structure has remained almost the same.
 6.2 Recommendations of Secondary
Education Commission – 1955

The Secondary Education Commission, 1955 suggested some

changes and adjustments. The recommendations were in brief as
follows:-
(i) The first stage of the ladder should be 4 or 5 years or primary
or junior basic stage;
(ii) The second stage will be middle or junior secondary/or
senior basic stage- covering a period of 3 years;
(iii) The third – a higher secondary stage – which should cover a
period of 4 years;
(iv) The fourth stage – the first degree of 3 year’s duration.
In 1956, the Central Advisory Board urged speedy conversion of
all the Secondary Schools to the new pattern.
In 1959, it recommended that high priority should be given to the
conversion programme.
In 1962, in the Jaipur session, the Central Advisory Board
considered the following memorandum of the Madras Government:

The board approved of the 15 years education scheme including

12 years of schooling. It laid emphasis on speeding up the Higher
Secondary School pattern, and not making frequent changes in the
number of years.
In 1963, the Central Advisory Board decided:
(i) Frequent changes in the educational pattern will be contrary
to the aim of evolving a broadly uniform pattern.
(ii) It would be desirable to have 15 years of duration, including
12 years of schooling.
(iii) The states that can have 12 years of schooling instead of 11
years may do so. But in no case should the duration be 10
years for school education plus 3 years for college education.
 In October 1963, the All India Council of Secondary Education
outlined the desirable national pattern as under:
(i) A total schooling of 12 years to the students admitted at the
age of 6;
(ii) At least 4 years of education at the higher secondary stage;
(iii) Two examinations during these 4 years – one after 2 years
called higher secondary part I, and second at the end of 4
years, called part II.
(iv) The standard of higher secondary part II should
approximate to the old intermediate standard, and make the
student eligible for admission to the 3 year degree course,
without undergoing pre-university course.
(v) The transition may take place in two stages. First stage
addition of one year at the end of 10 year course. Second
stage addition of another year at the end of 4 year course.
In 1963, the conference of State Education Ministers, Vice-
Chancellors, and eminent educationists recommended:
(i) The 12 year plan of secondary education should continue;
(ii) The courses should be job-oriented;
(iii) The age of entry into university should be 17+;
(iv) The first degree course should be of 3 years duration.
The Sampurnanand Committee on Emotional Integration, 1962
mainly concerned as it was with the problem of emotional
integration, laid due stress on evolving an effective uniform national
policy to coordinate and maintain standards in the interest of
emotional integration.
The Seventh Education Ministers Conference, 1964 noted the
confusion in the educational pattern prevailing in the various states.
It found a large variation in the pattern of school system of the
country due to the non implementation of the reforms suggested
from time to time by All India Bodies. The Conference made the
following recommendations:-
(i) Schools in all states should confirm to a uniform school living
standard;
(ii) The standard to be so achieved at the end of the secondary
stage should be at least the Intermediate level of the former 4
year college with provision for appropriate diversified courses;
(iii) A 12 years course of schooling, before admission to the
degree course, is the goal towards which a country must work,
even though consideration of finance and manpower may not
make it possible to implement such a scheme for all states in
the immediate future;
(iv) The entire education at the secondary stage should be
completed in the schools; classes such as the pre-university
class started in the universities as a temporary measure,
should be transferred to the schools as soon as possible in
accordance with a phased programme;
(v) The new schools should be started in accordance with the
accepted uniform pattern;
(vi) An appropriate machinery for determining the equivalence
of standard at the school stage in order to facilitate the mobility
of students from one state to another and for promoting
uniformity in the school system, should be established by the
Union Ministry of Education;
(vii) Every state should review the existing position and draw
proposals for completing the proposed upgrading on the
th
accepted lines by the end of the 4 plan as far as possible.
(viii) In order to reach the uniform school leaving standard,
special assistance from the centre should be given to all states
both for the programme of upgrading the schools and for the
transfer of the pre-university class to the school stage.
 6.3 Recommendations of the Indian
Education Commissions – (1964-1966)

The Education Commission of India (1964-66) emphasised that

there is a direct link between education, national development, and
prosperity and stated that this can be possible only when the
national system of education is properly organised both qualitatively
and quantitatively. Realising that the total period of educational
course and the duration of its different stages have a direct bearing
on the quality of education imparted, it recommended a broadly
uniform pattern of education and an extension in the total period of
schooling to bring about a general rise in the standard of attainment.
The Commission proposed the following educational structure:
One to three years of pre-school education.
(I) A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into—
(a) A lower primary stage of four or five years; and
(b) A higher primary stage of two or three years.
(II) A lower secondary stage of two or three years.
A higher secondary stage of two years of general or one to three
years of vocational education.
A higher education stage having a course of three years or more
for the first degree and followed by courses varying duration for the
second or research degree. The Commission recommended that the
age of admission to class I should ordinarily be not less than six
years.
The first public examination should come at the end of first 10
years of schooling which would provide a course of general
education without specialisation. The Commission recommended
that no attempt should be made at specialisation until beyond class
X.
The Commission visualised:
(i) The first ten years of schooling, covering a primary stage of
seven or eight years and a lower secondary stage of three or
two years, will provide a course of general education without
specialisation.
 (ii) The primary stage will be preceded, wherever possible, by
pre-primary education of one to three years.
(iii) The age of admission to class I will ordinarily be not less
than 6 years.
At the end of the primary stage, a proportion of students should
step off the school system and enter working life (about 20%); some
more should step off the stream of general education into different
vocational courses whose duration may range from one to three
years (20%); and the remaining should continue further in the stream
of general education (60%).
The Commission also recommended that secondary school should
be of two types—
(a) high school providing a 10 year course;
(b) higher secondary schools providing a course of 10 or 12
years.
Only the bigger and more efficient schools – about one fourth of
the total – should be graded. The existing higher secondary schools
should be downgraded if they do not deserve that status. A new
higher secondary course, beginning in the class XI should be
started. Classes XI and XII (and during the transition period class XI
only) should provide specialised studies in different subjects. Where,
however, existing higher secondary schools with integrated courses
in classes IX, X and XI are running satisfactorily, the arrangements
may continue until class XII is added.
There should be, as a rule, no integrated course of studies
beginning with class IX. Classes IX and X should now form part of
the first ten years of general education and classes XI and XII (and
during transition period, class XI only) which should provide for
specialised studies in different subjects at the higher secondary
stage, should become an independent, self-contained unit like the
sixth term in England.
The pre-university course should be transferred from universities
and affiliated colleges to secondary schools by 1975-76 and the
duration of the course should be increased to two years by 1985-86.
The University Grants Commission should be responsible for
effecting this change.
 6.4 The Recommendations of the National
Committee on 10+2+3, Educational
Structure

The Government of India, Ministry of Education, and Social Welfare

appointed a National Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. P.D.
Shukla. The committee gave the following considerations for
introducing a broadly uniform educational structure of 10+2+3 in all
the states and Union Territories:
(i) A broadly uniform pattern all over the country will strengthen
national integration.
(ii) The proposed structure will rationalise and strengthen school
education.
(iii) It will send more knowledgeable and mature students to the
universities.
(iv) It will reduce pressure for admission on universities and
other centers of higher education.
(v) It will provide an opportunity and a means to introduce
appropriate vocationalisation at the higher secondary stage.
(vi) It will provide an opportunity and a means to modernise and
strengthen school and college curricula and to restructure
them on mere scientific lines as well as to serve the social and
economic needs of the adolescents and youth in a better
manner.
(vii) A broadly uniform pattern in all states and Union Territories
will facilitate implementation of educational programmes,
production of books and reading materials and teaching aids,
training of teachers and their movements, reconstruction of
syllabi, and improvement in examination practices.
(viii) It will remove difficulties in the matters of education of
children of the mobile population, which is continuously
increasing in the country.
(ix) It will help to solve educational problems of the minorities at
least in two ways: (a) the minority language books produced in
one area can be easily used in all other concerned areas, and
 (b) the schools adopting the minority languages as media of
instruction in any state and Union Territories can be
considered for affiliation to a Board of Secondary Education
outside that State or Territory. The latter arrangement should
reduce administrative costs and difficulties of some of the
State Boards.
(x) It will do away with the criticism that is generally levelled
against the present higher secondary system that the students
are required to take a decision at too early an age about the
particular stream to be studied by them.
(xi) It will contribute to raise the general standard and quality of
education at all stages – school and university.
The Commission proposed a ten-year common undiversified lower
secondary and a two-year higher secondary course, followed by a
three-year degree course. It is argued that this merely combines the
last year of the present secondary course and the existing Pre-
University of First year. “This will have the startling effect” of lowering
the standard of the general course equivalent to matriculation by one
year, when the real need is for raising the standard. Secondly, as the
upper secondary course examination is to be in the charge of
another board, this will result in a needless multiplication of such
bodies,” says G.N. Acharya
 6.5 Pre-Primary Education

Pre-primary education is of great significance to the physical,

emotional, and intellectual development of children, especially those
coming from unsatisfactorily home backgrounds. Modern
researchers have shown that the years between three and ten are of
the greatest importance for the healthy growth of the child.
James gave a public lecture and afterwards was accosted by an
anxious mother with the question, “Dr. James, how soon can I begin
the education of my child?”
“Madam”, he asked, “How old is your child?”
“He is only a year old now”, said the mother.
“Go home at once madam. Don’t waste another minute!” said
James.
Thus the modern trend is to emphasise pre-primary education to
lay a healthy foundation for the future of the child.
Recommendations of the Indian
Education for the Development of Pre-
Primary Education
The Commission recommended that the preprimary education
should be developed on the following lines during the next twenty
years:
(1) State level development centres for preprimary education
should be set up in each State Institute of Education; in
addition, a district level centre should be set up in each district
for the development, supervision, and guidance of pre-primary
education in the area.
(2) Private enterprise should be made largely responsible for
setting up and running pre-primary centers, the state assisting
with grant-in-aid on the basis of equalisation.
(3) Experimentation in pre-primary education should be
encouraged especially to devise less costly methods of
expanding it. Children’s play centers should be attached to as
many primary schools as possible and should function as pre-
school classes.
(4) The state should maintain State and District level play
centers, train pre-primary teachers, look after research and
preparation of literature on primary education, supervise and
guide pre-primary schools and training institutions, assist
private agencies with grant-in-aid and run model pre-primary
schools.
(5) The programme of pre-primary schools should be flexible
and consist of various types of play, manual, and learning
activities accompanied by sensorial education.
 6.6 Types of Nursery or pre-primary
Schools

In India, there are a number of Nursery or pre-primary schools – the

Kindergartens run by Convents or Missionary; Nursery schools;
Montessori AMI schools affiliated to the Association Montessori
International; Montessori schools that are strictly Montessorian; and
the Pre-Basic schools.
1. The Kindergartens run by Convents or
Missionaries/Missions: - These schools are essentially
foreign in their culture and ways; and Christianity is of major
importance to them. These are generally well-provided,
spacious, and with healthy surroundings. Since their cost of
education is rather high, only children of the upper socio-
economic group usually join them. The medium of instruction
is English. They do not necessarily use the Montessori or
Froebelian apparatus.
2. Nursery Schools: - They cater mainly for the wealthier
sections of the society. Being under the management of
Indians, they are close to the students’ own culture and ways.
They serve a very useful purpose by helping the total
development of the child’s personality.
3. The AMI Montessori Schools: - These schools are affiliated
to the Association Montessori International and are a practical
counterpart of the Montessori method as advocated by
Montessori. There are about a dozen such schools in India.
The full use of the Montessori apparatus – a complete set of
which is required for every thirty children – is one of their main
features. Only teachers trained under AMI are considered fully
qualified.
4. The Montessori School not Strictly Montessorian:- These
constitute the largest group among the pre-schools in India.
Though called Montessori, they do not strictly adhere to the
Montessori method; they freely make addition and alterations
according to convenience and needs. Consequently, they are
often biased towards one or the other of the K.G., the Nursery,
 or the Pre-Basic methods. Under competent and interested
teachers, they seem highly efficient, presenting a happy
adaptation of the Montessori method of varying Indian
conditions.
5. The Pre-Basic Schools: - Though the Pre-Basic method is
of Indian origin and is associated with the sanctity of Mahatma
Gandhi’s approval, purely Pre-Basic Schools are very few in
India. These schools are inexpensive. In fact, the principle of
inexpensiveness is carried to an extreme. Neither the
necessary equipment and teaching-aids nor wellpaid and fully
satisfied teachers are there. The aims before these schools
are lofty, namely child development and social regeneration.
But how can anything substantial be done without proper and
enough equipment?
6. The Privately-sponsored, Single Teacher, Single Room
Pre-Schools: - These schools are generally started by an
individual, usually a woman, in a room of her own house, or
elsewhere, with a few children taught by herself.
There is sufficient impetus to start such schools on account of the
popular acceptance of the results of researches on child
development. It has been established that early environments
exercise a great influence on the child’s development. The child’s
intellectual potential, it is recognised, will be developed better if an
early environment is favourable than if it is not. The early years of a
child’s life are impressionable, plastic, and educationally potent.
What is lost in these early years cannot be made up even by
improved conditions in later life. The cost of later life is set in the very
early years. So, to be fair to the future citizens, the society will have
to ensure that such conditions prevail as will make it possible for
parents, schools, and communities to deal justly with the very young.
For this reason, the nursery school becomes important in the
educational ladder.
 6.7 Primary Education

Our Constitution (Article 45) provides that the State should strive to
provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age
of 14 years. This was to have been achieved by 1960 but due to so
many factors as, (i) lack of adequate resources; (ii) tremendous
increase in population; (iii) resistance to the education of the girls;
(iv) large number of children of the backward classes; (v) general
poverty of the people; (vi) the illiteracy and apathy of parents, it was
not possible to make adequate progress in Primary education and
the Constitutional Directive has remained unfulfilled.
The provision of free and universal education for every child is an
educational objective of the highest priority for various reasons:
(a) Social justice and democracy;
(b) For raising the competence for the average worker; and
(c) For increasing national productivity.
The Education Commission suggested the following programmes:
(1) Five years of good and effective education should be
provided to all children by 1975-76.
(2) Seven years of such education should be provided by 1985-
86.
(3) Emphasis should be laid on the reduction of wastage and
stagnation. The objective should be to ensure that not less
than 80 percent of the children that enter class I reach class
VII in a period of seven years.
(4) Children who are not yet fourteen-years-old at the end of
class VII and who do not wish to study further should be
reinstated in the educational system till they complete 14 years
of age but should be provided with short vocational courses of
their choice.
(5) Each state and district should be required to prepare a
perspective plan for the development of primary education in
its area in the light of the targets stated above and its local
conditions. It should be given full assistance to move forward
at its best face, and care should be taken to see that the
progress is not held up for want of financial resources.
The Commission suggested a three-pronged attack on the problem:
-
(i) Universal Provision of Schools: The expansion of primary
schools should be so planned that a lower primary school is
available within a distance of about a mile from the home of
every child. A higher primary school should be available within
one to three miles from the home of every child.
(ii) Universal Enrolment: A programme of universal enrolment
should be organised simultaneously with the emphasis on the
following:
(1) The present heterogeneity of age in class I should be
reduced and the bulk of students in this class should consist of
children in the age group 5-6 or 6-7;
(2) A system of pre-registration should be introduced;
(3) The transfer rate of students from the end of the lower
primary stage to the higher primary (which is now about 80
percent) should be raised to 100 percent by the end of the fifth
plan.
(iii) Universality of Retention: The most important programme
to be implemented during the next ten years is to improve the
quality of primary education and to reduce stagnation and
wastage to the minimum. The target should be to reduce
stagnation and wastage by about half by 1976 and to almost
eliminate by 1986.
(1) Stagnation and wastage are very high in class I and their
reduction should be a major programme. Of the various
measures to be adopted for the purpose, three are very
important:
(a) Treating class I and II (and wherever possible even classes
I-IV) as one integrated unit;
(b) Introducing a year of pre-school; and
(c) Adopting play-way technique in class I.
(2) Stagnation and wastage in other classes should be reduced
by providing various forms of part-time education, by
implementing a nation-wide programme of school
improvement, and by an extensive programme of parental
education.
 (3) All children in the age group 11-14 not attending schools and
who have not completed the primary stage of education and
become functionally literate should be required to attend
literacy classes for a period of at least one year. These classes
should be organised in primary schools in a flexible manner to
suit the convenience of the pupils.
(4) Similar facilities for part-time education should be provided
for children who have completed the lower primary stage and
who desire to study further.
Expansion of facilities at the primary stage and programmes of
universal enrolment and retention should be accompanied by
qualitative improvement. Attempts should be made to take the
primary schools as close to the home of the child as possible, even if
this implies the establishment of smaller and costlier institutions.
 6.8 Types of Primary Schools

Primary Schools: In the primary schools, children between 6-14

years without the distinction of caste, creed or colour, are gathered
together to share a common experience which carries them beyond
the family group, and introduces them under the sympathetic
guidance of a teacher, to that larger group of life which they will
always be a part. Most states have enforced some sort of act of
compulsory education. The aim is to liquidate the colossal illiteracy
of India. Efforts are being made to open a primary school in every
village or within a radius of five miles.
There are two kinds of primary schools – single teacher school
and multiple teacher school. These schools have 4 or 5 classes.
 6.9 Administration of Primary Education

There are two important objectives of the administration of primary

education in India. According to Article 45 of the Constitution of
India, achievement of the objectives of the universal primary
education and on the standard of the universal education, the basic
education is to be implemented in the form of Ideal Excellence or
Model of the National Education.
According to the Constitution, the state shall endeavour to provide
free and compulsory education to all the children within the period of
ten years from the commencement of this Constitution. This
education will be provided to them until they attain the age of
fourteen years. In this way, under the provisions of the Constitution,
the arrangements for free and compulsory education for all the
children till 1960 was the responsibility of the state but this objective
could not be achieved till now. According to the Annual Report of
1960-61, this programme was not possible to be completed within
the defined period due to several social and economic reasons.
Therefore, the term of the educationist appointed by the Planning
Commission, suggested in their meeting held at Poona that till 1965-
66, the immediate efforts should be made to arrange the education
for all the children of the age group of 6-11 years. The Government
of India accepted the suggestions and took steps to achieve this
goal. But the speed, in spite of the efforts made by the government
too, remained slow. On this the Government of India appointed the
Education Commission in 1964. The Education Commission
suggested that till 1975-76, for all the children of the age group of 6-
11 years and till 1985-86 for all the children from class 6-8 the
objective of free and compulsory education should be attained
definitely.
Through the Education Policy of 1986, it was declared that the
objective of the education providing to all the children of the age
group of 6-11 years could be achieved till 1990. Along with, the goal
was fixed for providing education to all those children of the age
group of 11-14 years. But this goal could not be attained till today.
The slow progress of the primary education is being shown through
the following table:

Till 1990-91 there were 41.4% girls in primary classes and 37.4% in
upper primary classes, out of the total enrolment. These facts tell us
that we could not have provided 50% of free and compulsory
education up to this level to the girls till today.
th
Under the 7 Five Year Plan, the accent was laid for achieving the
goal of Universal Elementary Education till 1990. But that goal could
th
not be attained. Thus, under 8 Five Year Plan, the following targets
were fixed for elementary education:
th
(A) Enrolment: Under the 8 Five Year Plan, the accent has
been laid down on the following points for attaining the above
goals:
(1) For achieving the goal of elementary education, the
expansion of formal system would be done. Along with it
improvement would also be done.
(2) Open education system will be developed.
(3) Arrival of minimum learning level will be decentralised.
(4) School complexes will be developed.
(B) Reach:
(1) To make available primary school to all children at the
distance of one kilometer around and to provide facility of non
formal education to those who have left their studies in
between such as boys who are working and girls who cannot
go to school.
(2) At the level of upper primary to enhance the participation of
girls in the present ratio from 1:4 to 1:2 in the form of
 precondition for additional opportunities from primary school to
upper primary school.
(C) Retention for Continuing Studies:
(1) To reduce the present rate of the children who have left their
studies in classes 1-5 and 6-8 to 20% and 40% from 45% and
60% respectively.
(2) Operation Blackboard is also to be increased to the level of
upper primary and the school facilities are to be expanded.
 6.10 The Role of the Union Government in
the Administration of Primary Education

The Union Government is a partner in the distinguished piece of

work of making primary education universal and free. After achieving
independence, a functional partnership was developed among the
Union and State Governments in the reconstruction of education. For
completing its liability in the field of primary education, the central
government has made an All India Elementary Education Council
under the Ministry of Education which advises the union government
as an expert institution on the matter of expansion and development
of primary or elementary education. In the present state of time in
the Education Department, there are Joint Education Advisor and
Director, etc.
The works done by the Central Government for extension of
primary education can be divided in the following three categories: -
(i) Programmes implemented by the Central Government: -
Programmes of these categories are planned and
implemented entirely by the Union Government.
(ii) Financing of the Programmes of State Governments by
the Central Government: - The state governments receive
financial aids from the Central Government for their
programmes which they formulate and implement.
(iii) Programmes formulated by the Central Government and
implemented by the State Government: - Some of the
programmes are formulated by the Central Government, but
they are implemented through the agency of the state
governments.
 6.11 Secondary Education

The duration of the high school course is 3 years. The subjects

taught at the middle stage are continued at high schools. There is a
public examination S.S. L.C. at the end of the course in all states. It
enables the students to have fundamental education necessary for
choosing a career or entering the university. The examination is
conducted by a special board established for the purpose in most of
the states.
Objectives of Secondary Education
The following are the objectives of secondary education:
1) To give the student such education as will make it
possible for him to play the role of a useful citizen. It gives
him adequate alertness and capacity to further his own
progress by the training that he has had.
2) To provide a sufficiently comprehensive scope for those
who finish successfully to further their education. So there
should be several avenues. It may lead to university education
of the usual pattern or it may lead to technical and
technological studies which will ultimately fit the candidates to
various professions.
3) To give an opportunity for students of diverse capacities
and aptitudes to follow their logical inclinations after the
compulsory stage of study. Multipurpose schools should be
set up to offer diverse courses of instruction. It can be
concluded that Secondary Education does not primarily aim at
fitting students to the universities. But this education has to be
such that it gives a finishing touch at that stage so that the
individual concerned may be a useful citizen of the society;
gives him the wherewithal for a useful existence or gives an
attitude for climbing up the ladder of education.
The Commission (1964-66) recommended the following enrolment
policy:
1) The overall enrolments in secondary education should be
broadly governed by the need for trained manpower.
2) It is essential to vocationalise secondary education and to
work toward a target wherein about 20% of the enrolments at
the lower secondary stage and about 50% of those at higher
secondary stage would be in vocational education.
3) There should be an emphasis on equalisation of opportunities
in secondary education, and from this point of view, a large
programme of scholarships should be developed at this stage.
Efforts are also needed to reduce the large imbalances now
seen in the expansion of secondary education in the different
 parts of this country and to spread secondary education
among girls, scheduled castes, and scheduled tribes.
4) In identifying the children to be assisted in studying further at
the secondary stage, ‘ability’ should not be understood in the
narrow traditional sense to mean merely intellectual
competence but the concept should be broadened to include
all types of abilities.
Earnest efforts should be made to identify and develop talents.
The Commission suggested the following for the expansion of
Secondary Education:
1) Enrolment in secondary education should be regulated during
the next 20 years by (a) proper planning of the location of
Secondary Schools; (b) maintaining adequate standards and
to that end by determining the enrolment in terms of facilities
available, and (c) selecting the best students.
2) A development plan for secondary education should be
prepared for each district and implemented in a period of ten
years. All new institutions should satisfy essential standards
and existing institutions should be raised to the minimum level.
3) The best students should be selected for admission into
Secondary schools, through a process of self selection at the
lower secondary stage and on the basis of external
examination results and school records at the higher
secondary school stage.
Vocationalising Secondary Education
1. The Commission recommended that secondary education
should be vocationalised in a large measure and enrolments in
vocational courses raised to 20% of the total enrolment at the
lower secondary stage and 50% of total enrolment at the
higher secondary stage by 1986.
2. A variety of part time and full time facilities in vocational
should be available at both these stages to meet the needs of
boys and girls in urban and rural areas. Special sections
should be set up in the Education Departments to help young
people who drop out after class VII or VIII to obtain training on
a full time or part time basis and to be in overall charge of the
organisation of these courses.
3. The Central Government should provide special grants to
State Governments in the centrally sponsored sector for the
vocationalisation of secondary education.
 6.12 Types of Secondary Schools

1) The Secondary School: The Secondary School comprises

two stages-Junior and Senior. The former is also called the
middle school or Lower Secondary School; or, if it adopts the
Basic System, it shall be called the Senior Basic School. The
junior stage extends in most states over 3 years, whereas in a
few states, 4 years. The senior stage, known as high school
stage is spread over 3 or 4 years. But in some cases, where
th
the middle school goes up to the 8 grade or class, the high
th th
school consists of the last two classes – 9 and 10 . The
middle school is generally attached to the high school so that
th th
the 6 and 7 years of the secondary stage form one course.
Quite often the middle school classes form the apex of the
elementary school.
After the introduction of the reorganised pattern of secondary
education in 1955, two other types of senior secondary or high
schools have been coming up, viz. the higher secondary school
and the multipurpose schools. The higher secondary school
adds two more years of study in order to upgrade the standard
of attainment of the school leavers. The pre-university course is
transferred to the school.
Besides the upgrading of high into higher secondary schools,
efforts are being made to provide in higher secondary schools
diversified courses of study such as Science, Technology,
Commerce, Agriculture, and Fine Arts. The aim is to meet the
varying aptitudes, interests, and talents of pupils. Such higher
secondary schools are called multilateral or multipurpose
schools. The diversification into different streams begins at the
age of 14 plus. In some states diversified courses of instruction
have been introduced in the high schools without the
accompanying upgrading.
Secondary school leavers can proceed to colleges,
polytechnics, or vocational institutions such as Trade schools
and Industrial schools. Those who wish to join professional
colleges in Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture, and Commerce
have at present to pass the pre-university, the professional or
the intermediate courses.
2) Middle Schools and Senior Basic Schools: These cater to
pupils of the age group 10 to 13. Although both these types of
schools are a continuation of the primary or junior basic stage
and cover a similar educational programme, they adopt
different methods of approach and teaching. The curriculum of
this stage includes Language and Literature, Social Studies,
General Science, Mathematics, Citizenship Training, Art and
Craft, Music, and Physical Education. The languages taught
include the mother tongue or the regional language, English in
most states, and the national language Hindi or some other
Indian Language in areas where Hindi is also the regional
language. The aim of instruction at this stage is to introduce
the pupil in a general way to significant departments of human
knowledge and activity.
3) High School, Higher Secondary, and Multipurpose
Schools: This stage covers the age group 14 to 18. Although
the trend is to convert all high schools into higher secondary
schools yet there are, for the present, functioning side by side
both high schools and higher secondary schools. The high
schools curriculum framed on the basis of abilities and
interests which have taken shape in the middle schools,
enlarges, and enriches the general courses already covered.
In most states, the course subjects are the same as in the
previous stage i.e., Languages, Science, Mathematics, Social
Studies, (or History and Geography), Arts and Crafts, Physical
Education and Citizenship Training. Some states have not yet
made Science a compulsory subject to study. But several
states have made provisions for special courses in
Mathematics and Science as optional.
The higher secondary Craft provides (a) to all pupils a
common curriculum consisting of languages, General Science
including Mathematics, Social Studies and a Craft (b) diversified
courses of study in one of the seven groups, namely
Humanities, Sciences, Technology, Commerce, Agriculture, Fine
Arts, and Home Science. The last year of the middle Craft is
generally exploratory stage when teachers are expected to
discover the particular programme most suited to the pupil’s
abilities and interests. Crafts includes hand spinning and
weaving, wood-work, metal-work, gardening, tailoring, needle
work, and embroidery, leather work, clay modeling, and paper
mache, workshop practice and printing technology. Each
diversified course includes several interrelated subjects, out of
which the pupil elects his group according to his tastes and
interests.
India is committed to a democratic socialistic pattern.
“Training for democracy postulates a balanced education in
which social virtues, intellectual development and practical skill,
all receive due consideration and the pattern of such an
education must be envisaged on an all-India basis.” It is now the
main responsibility of the schools to prepare citizens who would
have the knowledge, skills, and the values essential for the
creation and stabilisation of this social order.
4) Public Schools: There are a number of public schools on the
lines of those in advanced European countries. In these
schools, mostly boys and girls of rich people get their
schooling. These impart education up to the Senior Cambridge
Certificate. Most up-to-date progressive methods are followed
in these schools and education is imparted on European lines.
While discussing the role of the Indian public schools in the
democratic set-up of our country, the Secondary Education
Commission acknowledged their contribution in these words:
“There are greater opportunities in these schools (public) than
in the majority of Secondary Schools for developing certain
essential traits of character, including the qualities of
leadership.”
5) Military Schools and Academies: Ambitious and suitable
adolescents are picked up in the impressionable days and
then are given training for careers in the Army, Navy, and Air
Force. These cadet recruits are given training for 3 to 4 years
in different branches of the three wings. They are later
absorbed therein.
 6.13 Agriculture Education

1) Manjri Type School: In such type of schools, a farm of at

least 150 acres is attached to each school. The students do all
the work, including cooking, laundry and cleaning. The object
is to make each school self-supporting on the products of the
farm. The programme of studies, which covers two years,
includes agriculture, animal husbandry, dairying, animal
disease, horticulture, marketing, and village industry. These
schools are primarily organised to prepare students for village
leadership. Those who have gone through a Basic school and
had some secondary examination but have not necessarily
passed the Matriculation Examination are admitted to the
Manjri School.
2) Rural Institutes: The rural institutes have been functioning
since 1956-57 under the direction and supervision of the
National Council of Rural Higher Education. Four courses are
offered in these institutes:
(i) 3-year diploma course in rural education;
(ii) 2-year certificate course in Rural and Civil Engineering:
(iii) 2-year certificate course in Agriculture Sciences;
(iv) Preparatory course for Matriculates for entry into the
diploma course.
The diploma course follows on after the Higher Secondary
Examination, and the diploma is regarded as equivalent in standard
to an ordinary degree at a university. Core subjects such as rural
problems, the history of civilisation and regional languages, are also
taught in these institutes.
 6.14 Technical Education

Technical Education includes vocational, technical, and professional

training. The Ministry of Labour and Employment is in charge of
industrial training institutes, while the Ministry of Education is
seeking to expand the provision of technical courses in multipurpose
schools, private industry is also being urged to launch technical
training programmes.
1) Industrial Training Institutes or Centres:- The period of
training in the vocational trades is 12 months. The period in
the technical trades is 2 years, of which the first 18 months are
spent in the institute and the remaining 6 months in a factory
or in an industrial plant. Technical trade schools admit only
high school students between the age group 16 to 25. But the
vocational trade schools admit trainees of 14 years upwards,
serving the same age group as the Secondary schools. Study
up to the Matriculation stage is required for certain technical
trades only. A certificate of proficiency is awarded to each
trainee on the completion of the programme.
2) Technical High School: - Separate technical high schools
have been established in Bombay State for teaching the
elements of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, and for
providing a certain amount of workshop practice to students of
the high school classes. Along with the technical subjects, the
students also study certain core subjects such as regional
languages, Hindi, Social Studies, and Science. In fact, these
schools correspond to the technical streams of the
multipurpose schools. They give a vocational bias but do not
train the students for any specific vocation. Many of the
students from these schools go on to a polytechnic or an
Engineering College.
3) Schools of Industry:- Such schools provide craft training in
weaving, carpentry, auto-mechanics, turning and printing. The
programme is of 2 years duration. Students who have passed
the middle school or its equivalent are admitted. The minimum
age of admission is 15 years. Students who complete their
 training are considered semi-skilled. They can complete the
training by apprenticing under a skilled worker.
4) Junior Technical School: - This is a scheme proposed by
the Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs. These
schools are to be established in industrial centres and
wherever possible attached to a polytechnic so as to share
common instructional facilities. The course is of 3 years
duration and is intended to provide vocational training
opportunities in technical trades to secondary school-age boys
of 14 to 17 years. The curriculum is to include a study of the
Humanities and Languages, General Science and
Mathematics, Elementary Mechanical Engineering, Drawing
and Workshop training. Specific training is to be provided in
turning, machining, fitting, smithing, tool-making, winding,
sheet metal work, pattern-making, electrical work, motor
mechanics, and other technical trades. Completion of the 3-
year programme is expected to lead either to further vocational
training at an industrial training centre or to further technical
education in a polytechnic.
 6.15 Commercial Education

1. Commercial High School: - These schools correspond to

the commerce stream in the multipurpose school. The course
includes Commerce and Bookkeeping, Type-writing and
Shorthand, and prepares students for the Secondary School
Certificate Examination. Then they will become eligible for
entrance into a Commerce or Arts college.
2. Government Commercial Diploma and Commercial
Certificate Examination: -Bombay State has established a
Government Commercial Diploma and Government
Commercial Certificate. They qualify for positions in
government service. To be eligible for the Diploma
examination, a candidate should attend a recognised
institution for 1 year if he is a Matriculate and for 2 years if he
is a non-Matriculate. The examination covers English,
Commercial Arithmetic, Elements of Bookkeeping,
Commercial Geography, Methods of Business and the subject
elected from Shorthand, Accountancy, Typewriting, Indian
Administration, Indian Banking, Insurance, Secretariat
Practice, or Salesmanship. Commercial Certificate
Examinations are usually taken by government servants and
employees in commercial concerns.
 6.16 Administration of Secondary
Education

The development of secondary education in the country, in last two

decades, has been rapid. The progress of this can be watched from
the table given below:
 Progress of the Secondary Education in
Independent India Enrolment according to Sex (in
lakhs)
Situation of Secondary Schools and Teachers in
Independent India
 6.17 University Education

The Government of India assumed responsibility for university

education in 1855, and its association with the subject has continued
unbroken to this date. The first universities were established under
Acts of Central Legislature in 1897. Even when education was
provincialised in 1870, the authority to legislate for universities
continued to vest in the Centre. Under the Central Acts, the
University of Punjab was established in 1882, and that of Allahabad
in 1887. Between 1915 and 1922 Central Universities of Aligarh,
Banaras, and Delhi were established. At this time, there are 94
universities in our country.
 6.18 Objectives of the Universities

The objectives of the universities, as stated by the Indian Education

Commission are:
1. To seek and cultivate new knowledge, to engage vigorously
and fearlessly in the pursuit of truth, and to interpret old
knowledge and beliefs in the light of new needs and
discoveries.
2. To provide right kind of leadership in all walks of life, to
identify gifted youth and help them develop their potential to
the full by cultivating physical fitness, developing the powers of
the mind and cultivating right-interests, attitudes, and moral
and intellectual values.
3. To provide society with competent men and women trained in
agriculture, arts, medicine, science, and technology and
various other professions who will also be cultivated
individuals, imbued with a sense of social purpose.
4. To strive to promote equality and social justice and to reduce
social and cultural difference through diffusion of education.
5. To foster in the teachers and students and through them in
society generally the attitudes and values needed for
developing the ‘good life’ in individual and society.
6. In addition to these broad functions of the universities, Indian
universities have to shoulder some special responsibilities in
the present state of our social and educational development.
7. They must learn to serve as the conscience of the nation; and
from this point of view they should encourage individuality,
variety, and dissent, within a climate of tolerance.
8. They should develop programmes of adult education in a big
way and to that end evolve a widespread network of part-time
and correspondence courses.
9. They should assist the schools in their attempts at qualitative
self-improvement.
10. They should shake off the heavy load of their early tradition
which gives a prominent place to examinations and strive to
 improve standards all round by a symbolic development of
teaching and research.
11. They should create at least a few centres which would be
comparable to those of their types in any other part of the
world and thus help to bring back the ‘centre of gravity’ of
Indian academic life within the country itself.
The Commission recommended the following three programmes
for the development of higher education: -
1) A radical improvement in the quality and standards of higher
education and research.
2) Expansion of higher education to meet the manpower needs
of national development and to some extent, the rising social
ambitions, and expectations of the people.
3) Improvement of university organisation and administration.
 6.19 Role of Universities and Colleges:

The Indian Education Commission suggested some programmes

which can be undertaken:
1) Each college can be functionally related to a number of
secondary schools in the neighbourhood and can provide
extension service and guidance to them to improve their
standards. A similar programme for the college themselves
could be developed through the universities.
2) The universities can conduct experimental secondary or
primary schools to evolve improved techniques of teaching
and organisation.
3) The universities can conduct special diploma courses, either
pre-service or in-service for improving the competence of
secondary teachers. There can preferably be correspondence
courses, requiring only short-term personal attendance.
4) The University and College teachers can take upon
themselves the responsibility for improving school textbooks
and providing better types of instructional materials.
5) The universities and colleges could select talented students
from the schools in different subjects at an appropriate stage,
say, in the age group 13-15, and help them to develop their
knowledge in special fields through individual guidance,
provisions of laboratory facilities, etc., over and above regular
school work.
 6.20 Expansion of Higher Education

The Indian Commission recommended that the expansion of

facilities in higher education should be planned broadly in relation to
manpower needs and employment opportunities. On the basis of the
present trends the enrolments in undergraduate courses will have to
be increased from about one million in 1965-66 to four million in
1985-86. Facilities in professional courses such as agriculture,
engineering, or medicine and those at the post graduate stage have
to be specially expanded.
 6.21 Administration of University
Education

By University Education is meant not only the education imparted

directly by the universities, but also includes that education which is
imparted in colleges connected or affiliated with universities. The
university is an autonomous body, which manages its affairs
according to the law viz. act, statutes, ordinances framed or
approved by the Government. Before explaining its internal set-up, it
is necessary to know the types of universities that exist in India.
These can be classified as under:
1) Central Universities: - These universities are administered
by the Central Government which bears their financial
responsibility. There are 3 such universities in the country.
2) State Universities: - They are managed and financed by the
state Governments.
 3) Institutions Deemed to be Universities: -

34 institutions have been established under Article 3 of the

University Grants Commission Statute.
The first and second type of universities can be classified in 3
categories according to their organisation:
1. Affiliating University: - This university provides recognition
to the colleges located in its jurisdiction. It controls them, fixes
syllabi for them, and organises examination for the students
who study in them. In this way, we can put Agra, Faridabad,
Reeva, Bangalore, and Jhansi universities etc. in this category.
2. Unitary University: - The teaching programme is conducted
by this university through the teaching staff appointed by it. It
has full command on its administration. This sort of universities
are – Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar; Jadhav Pur
University, Calcutta; Jawahar Lal Nehru University, Delhi;
Narender Deo Agriculture and Technological University,
Faizabad; Jawahar Lal Nehru
Technological University, Hyderabad; and Rorkee University,
Rorkee.
3. Federal University: -Under this university associated
colleges impart education of university level. There are some
universities in India—Cochin University, Cochin; Indore
University, Indore; Mahatma Gandhi Agriculture Vidyapeeth,
Rahuri; and Bombay University, Bombay(now Mumbai).
In 1950-51 in India, there were only 27 universities but now there
are 200 institutes imparting higher education in which universities,
deemed universities and the institutes of national importance are
included, account of which has been given in appendix (2).
 6.22 Internal Set-up of the Universities

The internal set-up of universities, barring slight disparity, generally

conforms to a uniform pattern, leaving apart the central universities;
the Chancellor of a university is the Governor of the state concerned.
In addition, the Vice-Chancellor is a salaried whole time official, who
conducts the day-to-day administration of the university. He enjoys a
fixed tenure. It ranges between 3 to 5 years. The University
Education Commission was of the view that the Vice-Chancellor
should be a person who can win the confidence of both the faculty
and the student community by virtue of his scholarship and
personality. The Vice-Chancellor is supposed to be able to keep the
university in a state of continuous animation. He should serve as
liaison between the university and the community. Some universities
have also a Pro-Vice-Chancellor or a Rector, who assists the Vice-
Chancellor in his work. The Vice-Chancellor is selected by the
Chancellor with the help of a Selection Committee.
Generally, a university has three administrative bodies:
1. Senate or Court—This body represents various interests
such as those of principals, teachers, Nagarpalikas, vocations,
industries and local affairs in addition to state legislature,
donors and registered graduates. Some head of government
departments are honorary members. Besides the Chancellor,
the government also nominates some members. Policies
touching on various functions of the university are formulated
by this body. It also exercises authority on matters concerning
budget. Of late the elected bodies also have started getting
represented on this body. The Education Commission is of the
view that students should also find representation on the body.
2. Syndicate or Executive Council— In the administration of
the university, this council serves as a king-pin. It performs all
the functions related to university administration and it carries
on the day-to-day administration and manages the property
and funds of the university. It is a small body on which the
following persons are represented:
(i) Vice-Chancellor.
(ii) Director of Education of the State (Exofficio member).
(iii) Representatives of the Senate or Court.
(iv) Members of the different faculties.
(v) Senior Principals of Colleges.
3. Faculties—They function through the agency of boards of
studies. Actually, their function is to serve as a coordinating
agency and take care of the common interests relating to
different subjects. With the help of the academic council, they
lay down the syllabi, teaching programmes, and procedural
details of examinations. In some universities there are also
boards of university teaching which control teaching in
constituent colleges and bring about coordination between
them. In many universities there is a statuary provision for
creating a standing finance committee and selection
committees for teachers. In Uttar Pradesh, important changes
have been affected in the administrative framework of the state
universities through the University Act. Its details are
described in the next chapter.
Autonomy of the University
The Kothari Commission is of the view that autonomy of the
university is inherent:
(a) The selection of the students,
(b) The appointment and promotion of teachers, and
(c) Selection of different areas and problems for research in
subjects of study and teaching methods.
Central Government and Universities
The University Grants Commission of India is a body of the central
government that provides support to Aligarh, Banaras, Vishva-
Bharati, Delhi, and Jawahar Lal Nehru universities with funds. It
appoints the Vice-Chancellor and Pro Vice-Chancellor of these
universities and their entire financial burden is borne by it.
Besides, the onus for maintaining exemplary levels of education in
various universities and colleges falls on the central government. For
keeping this objective in view, the central government established
the University Grants Commission in 1953 on the recommendations
of the University Education Commission. Since 1956, it has been
functioning as an autonomous body. Through the agency of the
University Grants Commission, the Union Government is doing work
of great consequences in regard to the expansion and improvement
of university education. This Commission offers grants for
appointment of additional teachers, for augmenting library and
laboratory facilities, research work, purchase of books, furniture and
for student welfare schemes.
In addition to carrying out the responsibilities mentioned above,
the central government offers grants-in-aid to state governments and
voluntary organisations for propagation and development of higher
education and also conducts various educational schemes and
programmes with international collaboration towards the same end.
 6.23 National Educational Policy, 1986 and
Higher Education

Under the National Policy on Education, it has been envisaged that

the higher education should be so dynamic which was never before.
For providing essential speed to the system of higher education, the
following points would be included in the main features of
programmes and policies:
1) Integration and extension of institutes.
2) Development of autonomous colleges and departments.
3) Reorganisation of courses.
4) Training of teachers.
5) To strengthen researches.
6) Improvement in the working capacity.
7) At state and centre level, to prepare structures for
coordination.
1) Integration and Extension of Institutes— Out of the many
universities and 5000 colleges, many have not been provided
establishment of minimum level for keeping their category and
standard. For preventing downfall this system is inevitable to
th
make available facilities. In the 7 Plan, there is a proposal to
begin with the improvement in the facilities of these institutions
th
which will continue in the 8 and later plans also. To achieve
these goals, the following are the proposals:
(i) To prepare a programme for equipping of present institutes in
the phases on the basis of fixed standards.
(ii) To prepare a scheme by U.G.C. for providing monetary help
and other encouragements with model methods of
development and progress of autonomous departments under
the university.
(iii) To design guidelines for affiliating new colleges in which with
other things, there should be facilities of audio-visual aids,
V.C.R. and computers new teaching aids in each institute
which are the minimum requirements.
(iv) On the basis of physical facilities, to control the admissions
and develop entrance examination for the admission in the
institutes of higher education.
2) Development of Autonomous College and Departments—
To achieve this objective, the proposals being:
(i) The method of aids and guidelines should be prepared.
(ii) Liberty for preparing of teaching schedule, syllabus, and
evaluation method of their own, should be given to the
universities.
(iii) Special aid for selected colleges, for example, to establish
the scheme of incentives.
(iv) For the programme of autonomous college, a full grant
should be given by the central government.
3) Reorganisation of Courses—For the achievement of this
target, the following are suggestions, that:
(i) Study circles should be reorganised in universities for making
approachable the reconstruction of courses and for the
development of subjects relating to employment.
(ii) Make sure the full participation of universities and faculties in
reconstruction and re-establishment of courses of higher
education.
(iii) Autonomous colleges and autonomous faculties would be
the main resources in the development of reconstruction of
courses.
4) Training of Teaching—Following are the proposals for
achieving this goal:
(i) For newly appointed teachers, especially established
programmes should be organised in science of teaching
methods, education, and educational psychology etc.
(ii) For in-service teachers, a re-orientation course should be
organised for each teacher, once at least in 5 years.
(iii) The teachers should be encouraged for participating in
seminars and symposiums.
5) Research Work in Universities— Suggestions are as
following:
(i) Establishments should be strengthened and budget for
research work in university should be raised.
 (ii) In the field of university co-research services should be
established.
(iii) Relating education with research and starting such
programmes which could be conducted under the framework
of university contacted or the formal contacts could be
developed with various research authorities.
(iv) At undergraduate and post-graduate levels schemes should
be started for talent (geniuses)–search and pedagogy-stipend.
excessively academic and the vocational(v) All India Admission
Examination should be organised for admission in Research
Programmes.
6) Improvement in Efficiency—For achieving this goal, the
following are the suggestions:
(i) In every university, there should be arrangement of computer
that is in each university there should be computer for student
record, accounts, and for administrative management and
other data, upkeep of required files and papers.
(ii) Required information for research and to make sure
approach for resource material.
7) To Prepare Structures for Coordination at State and
National Levels—Suggestions for this are:
(i) To establish state councils of higher education in the form of
legal institute.
(ii) For the guidance of state government, to keep models and
rules, etc. prepared by the University Grants Commission
(U.G.C.). In this there must be description of rights and
organisation of state.
(iii) The chief functions of the Council will be the following:
(a) To prepare the integrated development programme of higher
education in each state.
(b) Elementary protection of developmental programmes of
universities and colleges (graduate and post-graduate).
(c) To give counsel and help or to give cooperation to U.G.C. for
keeping the standard.
(d) To help the state governments in making sure of grants
blocked.
(e) To encourage the programmes of autonomous colleges.
 (f) To give pieces of advice to state governments in establishing
new institutions.
(iv) An apex institute would be established at the national level
to start integrated scheme for the settlement of the policy
matters of higher education and for strengthening post-
graduation education and inter-disciplinary research. The
functions of this institute will be the following:
(a) To give control to the government regarding policy.
(b) To integrate the activities of other institutes in different areas.
(c) To encourage interdisciplineship and interdependence in
different areas.
(d) To allocate the resources.
(e) To establish general organisations and institutes and
manage them.
(f) To coordinate policy on external educational relations.
Mobility—For achieving this goal, states and universities will be
desirous for providing admissions on the basis of knowledge of the
students without considering their local domicile. For giving
admission to the students of other states, plans would be prepared
for providing necessary help and guidance to the institutes so that
uniformity may be made everywhere in the country in the enrolment
of students and capability of the staff of faculty. Priority will be given
to the arrangements of hostels and construction of houses for
students. Scholarship or stipend will also be given priority. Extension
service and continuous education programme will be an inevitable
part of the programmes and activities of all universities.
 6.24 State Government and Universities

As we have already seen the university is an autonomous body.

Although the government exercises no direct control over them yet,
in reality, the government exercises adequate control over them in
the following ways:
1. The Governor of the state is the Chancellor of the university.
2. The Chancellor appoints the Vice-Chancellor.
3. The rules and regulations as framed by the Senate do not
become operative until and unless approved by the
Chancellor. Only after receiving his assent, such rules and
regulations get the authority of law.
4. The government has its nominees in the executive council
and senate. Through them the state government influences
the policies and decisions of the universities.
5. The government arranges the audit of the university accounts
as the main source of their revenues is grants-in-aid given by
the government.
6. State government provides grants to the state universities
through the University Grants Committees.
 6.25 Funds for University Education

The chief source of income of universities and their colleges are:

(i) Grants from State Governments.
(ii) Grants from the Central Government.
(iii) Fees.
(iv) Donations, etc.
Education is a joint responsibility of the central and state
governments. The central government is playing a very important
part in the sphere of education. The institutions which are playing
important role in improvement and development of national
education are the University Grants Commission, the National
Council of Educational Research and Training and the National
Institute of Educational Planning and Administration. They are
involved in the implementation of the Policy. They have made
important contribution towards development, improvement, and
administration of education at all levels including pre-primary
education, because it is at this level, that the foundation of the future
of the child can be securely laid.
 6.26 Multipurpose Experiment

The Secondary Education Commission recommended diversification

of studies at the end of class VIII and the provision of a variety of
courses in classes IX to XI. A number of multipurpose schools were
opened offering different groups of elective subjects to students in
the last three classes. Students were divided into streams according
to their optional groups. But the experience of the last few years has
shown that the experiment has not met with commendable success.
Many administrators, heads, and teachers all over the country are
seriously questioning not only whether the multipurpose experiment
has been or will be a success, but whether it was ever necessary in
the first place. At a recent convention on Secondary Education,
organised by the All India Federation of Secondary Education, the
consensus of opinion appeared to be that the scheme of Higher
Secondary Education, which is an integral part of the multipurpose
experiment, had failed and that it had been an obstacle rather than a
help to the progress of Secondary Education, in the country.
Again, at a recent meeting of the Central Advisory Board of
Education, a proposal was seriously mooted by the Madras
Government, supported by some other State Governments that the
existing Higher Secondary pattern of eleven years schooling on the
Multipurpose pattern—followed by a Three-Year Degree Course—
should be replaced by the old pattern of the Ten Year High School, a
Two-Year Intermediate and a Two-Year Degree course.
 6.27 Defects in the Scheme

(i) Schools are not Multipurpose. Most of the students who join
these schools have only one purpose in view – to pursue their
studies at a University. Consequently, streams like fine arts,
and agriculture and even the technical stream, which do not
lead to popular courses at the university stage, are taken up
by a few students as the Science course is at a high premium.
(ii) The Higher Secondary School Certificate is a College
Entrance rather than a Life Entrance Certificate. This puts it
intellectually beyond the reach of a large percentage of the
adolescents studying at the Multipurpose Schools who are, on
leaving these schools, fit neither for college nor for a job.
(iii) Even these diversified courses—Technical, Agricultural,
Home Science and Commerce – which were specifically
meant to be terminal, strongly vocationally biased courses
have been made excessively academic and the vocational
element in them has been considerably watered down. With
the result these courses not only requires as much intelligence
as the mere academic courses—Humanities and Science—but
also provide totally inadequate training for entry into vocation
on leaving school.
(iv) The Secondary Education Commission did not supply the
details for organising and administrating the curricular in the
multipurpose schools. It was left open for the Centre as well as
for the States to work out the details and carry out the scheme.
By the end of 1965-66, many schools were upgraded to
multipurpose schools. The policy of upgrading the old schools
is like teaching the old dogs some new tricks. The old types of
schools with the traditional outlook, the existing staff, and the
usual administrative procedures failed to fulfill the objectives
envisaged by the Commission. An adequate supply of trained
teachers for vocational subjects, adequate teaching aids,
proper textbooks, guidance programme and such other
paraphernalia were not provided. At present, the position is not
 very different from what Dr. Harap remarked in his study about
our Secondary Schools in 1959.
“The term multipurpose school stands for an idea rather than
for a common practice, at least in the liberal sense of the word
since I have not encountered a secondary school which offers
more than two fields of specialisation, it would be more nearly
correct to call the multipurpose school a dual purpose school, at
least up to the present.”
(v) The comprehensive curriculum of multipurpose schools is so
overloaded that apart from not providing an all round
development even the study is not carried on right lines. In the
curriculum, there are nine subjects—three languages, three
special subjects and three general subjects—Social Studies,
General Science, and Craft. This leads to such a stress on the
schools, time-table that no subject can be allotted adequate
time. The cut is mostly applied to the study of general subjects
—depth is lacking in the knowledge acquired by students.
Dynamic methods have not acquired popularity due to
inadequacy of time and fear of public examinations.
(vi) Amongst the special subjects for which instruction is
provided in schools only the Science group has gained
popularity. Study of other subjects is resorted to because of
inability to seek admission to the Science Courses. Hence, the
study of these subjects has recorded a fall in standards; the
condition of humanities is pitiable to the extreme. The number
of students offering humanities is so small in some schools
that any expenditure on this item is unjustifiable.
(vii) Arrangement for educational and vocational guidance in
schools is not satisfactory. Many a career has foundered on
the rock of failure and frustration due to wrong choice of
subjects. In the absence of standard tests, guidance has failed
to inspire confidence in students and guardians alike.
What needs to be done?
1) The multipurpose school for a start should not be regarded as
a panacea for all the ills to which secondary education in India
has been heir to in the past or is likely to suffer in the future,
nor should it be regarded as the only possible form of
organisation for secondary education in our country. India
needs multipurpose schools, but side by side, there also
remains a need for separate specialised types of secondary
schools. There should be Multipurpose, Bilateral, and
Unilateral specialised high schools to meet the diverse
educational needs and interests of the entire adolescent
population.
2) The multipurpose experiment is only likely to succeed if it is
carefully planned, supervised and nursed; if all those engaged
in making it a success— administrators, heads and teachers
and parents and the community at large are made fully aware
of its many-sided implication, its strengths and weaknesses,
and if they work together in fruitful partnership to capitalise on
the former and to mitigate, if they cannot entirely eliminate, the
latter.
“The greatest single obstacle to the successful working out of the
Multipurpose School Experiment” wrote Austin A.D’Souza and
K.P.Chaudhary, “are cynicism and deliberate obstruction on the one
hand and complacency on the other.”
(i) What is needed is its proper exposition, good implementation,
coupled with experimentation. Educational reforms cannot
function in a vacuum; a favourable climate of opinion has to be
created to give it a fair trial. The multipurpose idea is fruition of
a long period of the development of educational theory and
practice. The theoretical basis of this idea needs a much fuller
and more complete and convincing exposition than is provided
in the Mudaliar Report, i.e., to convince the doubting
Thomases about the feasibility of the idea.
(ii) Enough coordination between State and State and enough
give and take of experience needs to be provided. Efforts
 should be made to bring about the necessary degree of basic
uniformity, coordination, and cross-fertilisation of Multipurpose
theory and practice throughout the country, to make the
experiment a real and lasting thing.
(iii) Since the Multipurpose school is very much in a fluid and
experimental stage, a very real degree of autonomy be given
to the State Governments by the Centre, and in turn,
delegated by the State Governments to the multipurpose
schools themselves to work out the experiment in a manner
best suited to local conditions—within broad limits so that they
can experiment and break new grounds.
(iv) A few schools in each state should be singled out for
intensive study by teams of experts with a view to gleaning
valuable information and experience as to the basic
preconditions to be fulfilled if the multipurpose school is to
function effectively. A pilot scheme of this type should be put
into effect immediately so that our infant multipurpose schools
may be helped to grow into a healthy childhood, and gradually
to reach full maturity.
(v) In selecting high schools for upgrading into Higher
Secondary Multipurpose schools, State Governments should
make sure that certain basic minimum physical and material
conditions are fulfilled. The school should be well suited, it
should have adequate grounds, it should have adequate
classrooms, and special room accommodation—and the
school should have enough scope for expansion.
(vi) Some schools are staging a stage back giving a signal that
the experiment has failed. It should not be allowed by the
Department. If there are weak and ill-equipped multipurpose
schools, the remedy in most cases is not to reconvert them to
high schools, but to reinforce and strengthen them so that they
are successful experiments. It is really a big tragedy if such a
good idea is allowed to stagnate or die because of indifference
or sheer inertia.
(vii) The Central and State Governments should provide
adequate funds in the shape of generous recurring and non-
recurring grants, especially in the form of teaching staff grants
 to enable all Multipurpose schools, Governments and non-
Governments, to provide the staff, accommodation and
equipment for the successful working of the Multipurpose
schools.
(viii) An effective school guidance service can do a lot to cater
for the individual needs and problems of every child at certain
critical periods of his life and to build up a healthy staff-student
relationship.
There is no fun in undertaking an experiment and doing that in a
half-hearted way. We must carry it to the logical conclusion.
 6.28 The Common School System and the
Neighbourhood School

The Indian Education Commission gave a new concept of public-

education—the concept of Common School System, the philosophy
behind this concept is that such a system would provide “equality of
access” to all children irrespective of their caste, creed, and
community and social and economic status. All schools will cater to
the needs of the “haves” and “have nots” alike and do away with the
undesirable discrimination between school children coming from the
different socio-economic brackets.
The Commission further stressed that the system will include all
schools under the different management, viz. Government, local
bodies, and private organisations (only recognised aided schools) in
all parts of the country and thus allow for adequate coordination
which is a sine qua non for the smooth functioning of the common
school system. The Commission expressed a desire that such a
system should be maintained at an adequate level of quality and
efficiency so that no parent would ordinarily feel any need to send
his child to the institution outside the system such as independent or
unrecognised schools.
The Commission suggested some steps for the early realisation of
the goal of Common School System:
1. Doing away with the discrimination between school teachers
working under the different managements by providing uniform
pay scales and other service conditions and by adopting the
same method of recruitment in institutions of various
categories.
2. Provisions of tuition-free education at the school stage.
3. Integration of the roles of the local bodies and the private
managements in school education with those of the State
Governments for the purpose of ensuring minimum conditions
necessary for the successful functioning of educational
institutions.
4. Neighbourhood school plan to realise this goal of the
Common School System of public education. The Commission
 felt that this would provide an opportunity to all school children
to share life with common people and that it would also make
the privileged classes interested in the system of public
education and thereby help in its improvement.
Some Practical Difficulties: - There are many practical difficulties
which might arise in the implementation of these concepts.
(i) Inter-State disparities and the disparities in schools run by the
local bodies and the private managements within each State
are very much pronounced. Unless considerably larger outlays
are provided for education in the overall development plans
and the principle of equalisation (giving higher grants to poorer
local bodies and private managements and lower grants to the
richer ones) for the purpose of grants-in-aid adopted, the task
of equalising the salary scales and other service conditions of
teachers working in schools managed by the different
agencies, may be difficult to accomplish.
(ii) Provisions of minimum conditions for the successful
functioning of educational institutions involves adequate
finances— thus the proposals may fall flat because of this
limiting factors.
(iii) There are a number of difficulties at the working of the
neighbourhood school plan. Children in all rural areas and in a
large majority of urban areas are already attending schools in
the neighbourhood. The concept is thus only applicable to the
metropolitan big cities which are small in number and where
the heterogeneity among the population belonging to the
different socio-economic groups is much wider. In these cities,
parents from the higher stratum of society and also from the
middle income groups vie with one another to send their
children to independent public schools which are mainly
residential in character and are generally located at places
other than those where the children live. Thus, on the one
hand, it is difficult to remove segregation between schools for
the rich and those for the poor, on the other hand, the problem
of effecting improvements through privileged and rich people
will not get solved.
(iv) There might be indirect resistance from the privileged
classes also. The political leaders may conspire with
bureaucracy and the intellectual elites to maintain segregation
between the privileged and the underprivileged classes.
Thus, it is obvious that the implementation of the
recommendations of the Commission of the common schools
system and the neighbourhood are fraught with practical
difficulties.
 6.29 Conclusion

When all has been said, what is needed the most is proper
articulation between the different stages of education by making the
educational institutions function in small groups instead of in
isolation.
“One of the biggest problems at this time is there is little practical
coordination between educational institutions functioning at different
levels of education. The people at the university stage criticise those
at the secondary stage for a fall in standards, and those at the
secondary stage pass the blame on to the persons at the primary
stage. This situation of mutual recrimination has to be changed into
one of mutual help, and this can be done by making each higher
stage of education take the responsibility for improving standards at
the lower stages.”
The Education Commission (1964-66) has suggested two ways in
which this can be done:
1. The universities and colleges can assist the secondary
schools in improving their efficiency.
2. The secondary schools can help the primary schools to
improve their efficiency.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) Educational Ladder in a systematic form was introduced in
India by Wood’s Despatch in
(a) 1854
(b) 1852
(c) 1853
(d) 1856
(2) The entire educational programme constituted how many
stages
(a) Three
(b) Five
(c) Four
(d) Eight
(3) Our Constitution (Article 45) provides that the state should
strive to provide all children
(a) Free education
(b) Compulsory education
(c) both ‘a’ and ‘b’
(d) None of the above
(4) The union Government is a partner in the distinguished piece
of work of making primary education
(a) Universal
(b) Free
(c) Both universal and free
(d) None of the above
(5) The duration of the high school course is _____ years.
(a) 3 Years
(b) 4 Years
(c) 5 Years
(d) 2 Years
(6) Technical Education includes (a) Vocational training
(b) Technical training
(c) Professional training
(d) All of the above
(7) Industry schools provide craft training in
(a) Weaving
(b) Carpentry
(c) ‘a’ and ‘b’ both
(d) None of the above
(8) At this time, there are how many universities in our country?
(a) 92
(b) 94
(c) 93
(d) 96
 Fill in the blanks

(1) __________ university provides recognition to the colleges

located in its jurisdiction. (Affiliating)
(2) In the administration of the university ______ council serves
as a king pin. [executive]
(3) The ____________ of the state is the Chancellor of the
university. [Governer]
(4) Education is a _________ responsibility of the central and
state government. [joint]
 Important Questions

1. Describe the history of earlier schools.

2. Compare and contrast the educational ladders as
recommended by the Secondary Education Commission
(1966). Which one do you prefer? Why?
3. Discuss the different types of Nursery Schools existing in
India.
4. Discuss the concept of Common School System and
Neighbourhood School in detail.
5. Discuss the arguments in favour and against on introduction
of 10+2+3 pattern.
 7
Inspection and Supervision

Adynamic system of supervision and inspection has been

recognised as the cornerstone of a sound system of education. In a
set up where all change tends to be initiated from the top and filter
down through the administrative hierarchy to the schools and
inspectorate forms an important link. With one foot in the
administration and the other in the schools inspectorate forms a
natural bridge between the policy framers and the teachers in the
field. An educational system will not be able to rise above the level of
its inspectorate; that is why supervision and inspection are today
being considered as the backbone of educational improvement.
 7.1 The Retrospect

(i) An inspection system on the British lines was set up in India

on the recommendation of Wood’s Despatch of 1854. A
director of Public Instruction was appointed in each province:
an education directorate and an inspectorate were set up. The
authors of the Despatch stated: “An adequate system of
inspection will also, for the future, become an essential part of
our educational system and we desire that a sufficient number
of qualified inspectors be appointed who will periodically report
on the state of the colleges and schools which are managed
by the Government, as well as such as will hereafter be
brought under Government by the measures we propose to
adopt. They will conduct or assist at the examination of the
schools and these institutions.” Thus from the very start, the
inspector assumed the role of law-enforcer-cum-examiner.
(ii) In 1858, the Directors issued circulars specifying the
conditions of grant-in-aid. The directors had inspectors to
assist them and they not only inspected the schools but also
recommended the amount of grant each school should get,
thus the powers of the inspectors increased.
(iii) As a result of the Hunter Commission 1882, many changes
were made by the East India Company in the educational
organisation in this country. One of these changes was the
appointment of inspectors for the purpose of checking the
quality of instruction that was being offered and the manner in
which the public money given in the shape of assistance and
grants was being utilised.
(iv) After this, the inspectorate was given additional powers –
the enforcement of discipline. Attempts were made by the
British masters to curb the upsurge of Nationalism through this
agency. In the wake of the Parliament Agitation of Bengal in
1908, the inspectorate of Bengal was given additional powers
to suppress the national spirit of our schools. The condition of
the aided schools deteriorated so much that national leaders
 tried to set up their own educational institutions which would
be free of control.
Thus, by this time, the inspector had become a law-enforcer-
cum-examiner-cum-disciplinarian. Discipline in the context had a
new connotation, namely, a curb on the resurgent nationalism.
(v) The Sadler Commission of 1919 commented on the
inspection practices. “Inspection in most cases is hurried and
lacking the friendly suggestions as to the methods of teaching
and organisation which are most valuable functions of the
school inspections.”
(vi) In 1928, the Simon Commission appointed a sub-committee
with Sir Philip Hartog as the Chairman to enquire into the
growth of education in British India. The committee reported –
“We have referred many times to the absence of an adequate
number of well qualified and experienced inspectors and
inspectresses and to the waste and ineffectiveness in the
system of education which we believe to be due, in large part,
to that inadequacy.”
(vii) Commenting on the work of an inspector, the first Narendra
Deo Report says, “The Education Code makes inspector’s
work too mechanical and too much occupied with routine. The
office swallows the man.”
(viii) The Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 remarked:
“It was pointed out by several witnesses that inspections were
‘perfunctory’ that the time spent by the inspector at any
particular place was insufficient that the greater part of his time
was taken up with routine administration.”
This Commission made the following significant recommendations–
1) Academic work of the school should be thoroughly inspected
by a panel of experts with the inspector as chairman.
2) The inspector should have academic and administrative
duties, i.e. annual inspection of records, office routine, etc. He
should have a competent staff for administrative duties.
3) The Inspector should render help for the improvement of
schools.
One Secondary Education Project Team was appointed by the
Government of India in 1954 and funds to support the study of the
Team were provided by Ford Foundation. In composition the team
was of international character.
The team made the following recommendations:
1. The spirit of administration must undergo a change. The
inspector should take his work as a matter of human
relationship, rather than mechanical application of rules and
regulations.
2. The inspector’s function is to advise rather than to judge.
3. The Inspector should have specific training for the job.
4. Training courses should be organised for them.
5. Routine administrative work of the inspector should be
delegated to an administrative assistance of Gazetted rank.
The school should be given more freedom. Each school should
have the suitable organisation for effective teacher participation in
planning and executing the school programme.
(ix) The Indian Education Commission 1964-66 also realised the
importance of a dynamic inspectorate for accelerating
educational reform. It outlined seven reasons for the weakness
of the programme of supervision such as:
(a) Large expansion in the number of institutions which has not
been accompanied by a corresponding increase in the number
of inspecting officers;
(b) The combination of administration and supervisory functions
in the same officer which affects supervision adversely
because administrative work which has increased greatly in
recent years always has a priority;
(c) The use of supervisory officers when they are members of
the block development team, for non-educational work, leaving
them very little for their own responsibilities;
(d) Continuance of old techniques of supervision, oriented-to
control rather than to develop; and
(e) Lack of adequate competence in the inspecting staff.
The Commission recommended that one of the major programmes
in the reform of school education should be to overcome difficulties
and to create the new system of supervision.
 7.2 Meaning of Inspection

The term inspection means static. It wants things to remain in the

position in which they originally were. Educational institutions are
ever growing-ever changing. Children grow every minute in mind,
body, and emotions; teachers grow in knowledge and experiences
every minute, and situations in the institutions also go on changing. It
is therefore; wrong to expect things to remain static which the term
inspection connotes. The educational inspection is altogether
different from that of the term inspection used in other departments
i.e. police, revenue, etc. Today, the word supervision is more popular
than the word inspection.
According to the dictionary, meaning of inspection is to give test
and test meant is to probe with easy and critical view. In the area of
education also this sort of test is reflected from the inspection of
school with activities related to education and conditions. The school
inspector appointed by the government goes to various schools at
times. There he tests some classes, laboratories and playgrounds.
Besides, he receives some other information by asking questions
from the principal/headmaster and teachers and by doing inspection
of registers regarding office, financial matters with a view of critical
appreciation. The information received in this way and on the basis
of self-observation, the inspector prepares his report, and produces
the report before his high officials. This report comes in the hands of
various officers and each officer gives his remarks on it and passes it
to the next one. In this way the remarks are entered on it. With the
result, when it reaches the principal, a lot of the situation has
changed which was criticised in the report. Thus, the result of
inspection to a great extent automatically goes meaningless.
 7.3 Meaning of Supervision

In the modern era, in the field of education new attitudes,

movements and thoughts and tendencies have been born, with the
result, revolutionary changes have taken place in the nature,
objective, syllabus, and teaching methods of education, and with the
changes the concept of inspection has also changed. The
educationists have used a new word for expressing the new concept
regarding inspection which is known as “Supervision.” It is not
merely change of words; notwithstanding, there is also difference of
objective, field, method and viewpoint in these. For clarifying the
concept of “Supervision” views of some learned persons are being
expressed here:
(i) According to Burton and Bruecknor, “Supervision is an
expert technical service primarily aimed at studying and
improving cooperatively all factors which affect child growth
and development.”
(ii) In the words of Ayer, “At its best, supervision is the most
noble and dynamic of all educational endeavours. It is the
most noble because it is the most considerate; it is the most
dynamic because it is the most creative.”
(iii) Briggs and Justman Joseph writes, “In general
supervision means to coordinate, stimulate, and direct the
growth of the teachers in the power to stimulate and direct the
growth of every individual pupil through the exercise of his
talents towards the richest and the most intelligent
participation in the civilisation in which he lives.”
(iv) Adams and Dicky define supervision as a “planned
programme for improvement of institutions.”
(v) Moorar says, “In modern education the term ‘Supervision’ is
used to describe those activities which are primarily and
directly concerned with studying and improving the conditions
which surround the learning and growth of pupils and
teachers.”
(vi) Wiles defines modern supervision as “assistance in the
development of a better teaching-learning situation.”
 (vii) Another writer says, “Supervision means essentially
‘Superior Vision’. It is that phase of administration which
undertakes the direct tasks assigned to individuals or small
groups in order to assume correct and adequate
performance.”
An analysis of these definitions will show that there are certain
distinct characteristics of supervision:
(a) Supervision’s main purpose is improvement. It is a service
activity.
(b) It is intended to stimulate, coordinate and guide and make
the teachers self-directive.
(c) The concept of supervision is based upon the belief that the
improvement of instruction is a cooperative enterprise.
 7.4 The Modern Concept of Inspection and
Supervision

The concept of inspection has undergone a vital change during the

recent times. The following are noteworthy changes:
(i) The concept of inspection is being transformed to one of
healthy supervision and guidance. Supervision is intended
to cause improvement of teaching and learning by working
with teachers who are working with pupils. It is now generally
recognised that the School Inspector is primarily an
educational advisor, charged with the duty not of finding fault
but of giving practical help and guidance, it is democratic, not
bureaucratic, or autocratic. Direction and regimentation have
to be replaced by wise and constructive suggestions and
expert guidance.
(ii) It is experimental in nature and scientific in method. This
characteristic distinguishes it from the authoritative supervision
of the past. One of the foundation stones of emerging
philosophy and practice of supervision is the belief that current
practices should always be questioned, examined, evaluated,
and placed under the searching light of critical analysis and
that such analysis should be applied to supervisory practice
itself. Any aspect of learning situation is dropped or modified
accordingly.
(iii) An attempt is being made to make the inspector
powerful with the idea that the powers will be used to
promote growth, responsibility, freedom, creativity, and
initiative rather than conformity and obedience to orders.
When the inspector is equipped with authority – present and
obvious and is enlightened and creative – he can become a
positive force for the improvement of educational activities in
schools. He can help the schools to attain quality by bringing
about significant improvements in the methods of teaching and
learning, in the use of teaching aids, and in the school
environment.
(iv) It is coming to be realised as a service activity intended
to help teachers to grow professionally and do their jobs
better. It is being rightly felt that teachers have greater
potentiality than they use. Lack of vision, past experience,
community pressure, lack of adjustment in human relations,
poor personnel administration, inability to evaluate their work –
all these factors prevent teachers from utilising all their skills
and abilities. The inspector has to create congenial conditions
where the best qualities, talents, and energies in teachers are
realised for the benefit of the school. This is only possible
when the inspector becomes a friend, philosopher, and guide.
(v) Supervision today is becoming a technical sort of thing.
The inspector can become an effective guide only if he is
trained for the job and continues to educate himself in the
latest developments in education and techniques of
supervision. Good supervision is not everybody’s cup of tea
and a miscellaneous gentleman will not be able to do the job.
One should have innate as well as the acquired ability to
deliver the goods.
(vi) It is participatory and cooperative. It offers the teacher
rich opportunities to right the wrong, to commend the good and
propagate the best. The supervision is a partner to teachers to
help the teaching, not a detective to outwit him.
(vii) It is a planned programme for the improvement
instruction. The inspector employs various activities like
individual conferences, group meetings, visitation, use of
instructional material, and exchange of ideas to direct teacher-
learning and growth. As teachers learn, grow, and improve,
pupils will also learn and grow. The pupils’ growth in the last
analysis is the ultimate goal of the total educative process.
Supervision, therefore, is concerned with everything that
furthers the development of teachers and pupils.
(viii) It focuses attention upon the whole range of elements
effecting learning. Through supervision, emphasis is placed
upon the teaching-learning situation and not upon a person or
the techniques he uses. A cooperative formulation of aims and
objectives, a study of the curriculum, the equipment and the
 materials of instructions and an evaluation of the results
achieved are the conditions which affect teaching and learning,
and, therefore, are the primary aspects of modern supervision.
(ix) It is a carefully planned technical service designed to
improve the learning situation for children. Without
planning, time and energy will be wasted or frittered away.
Planning is both necessary and desirable because most
supervisory activities stem from the needs of a situation in
which many participate. Pupils, parents, teachers, citizens,
administrators, and supervisors are all involved in some way
or the other in a school situation. These are the persons who
will determine cooperatively the functions and activities of the
inspector.
(x) One of the major emphasis in modern supervision
centers about the relationship between supervision and
curriculum development. Although a variety of duties are
performed by the inspector, the ultimate objective of each
activity is the improvement of instruction and the curriculum.
Because the programme of supervision cannot be developed
fully when separated from the programme of curriculum
development, every aspect of supervision should give
attention to such curricular problems as the development of
materials, the fullest utilisation of community resources, the
capitalisation upon parental resources and the development
curriculum planning procedures.
(xi) It inspires teachers, lifts them above themselves, and
invigorates their flagging spirits. It does not furnish a
detailed plan of action for the teacher and chart his every
move but rather serves as a supplementary guide to assist him
in working out his own plan of action. It is not expected of the
supervisor that he can tell exactly what to do and furnish all
the right answers. The teacher grows not by being “told” but by
actually “doing” and “experiencing” through conferences,
seminars, workshops, etc. He has to be exposed to practices
and experiences to grow professionally.
(xii) It is harmonising. There is increased respect for human
personality; there is a sense of purpose which overrides
 material self-interest; there is free and responsible
participation; there is appreciation for leadership and respect
for authority.
(xiii) Modern supervision is taken for coordination and
integration of an educational effort. The sole aim is to effect
improvement in the total educational programme. The
inspector has to coordinate the school with the community, the
school with the other schools and the school with the
Education Department. Thus, the inspector is a key person in
the community. Like an excellent doctor he not only diagnoses
the disease but also offers a cure.
(xiv) The spirit of modern supervision stresses not merely
teacher growth but teacher-participation in the study and
improvement of the total teaching-learning situation. This
necessitates a progressive movement away from the
presumption of specific devices and towards the constant
stimulation of the teacher to the understanding of principles
and their use in guiding behaviour. The teacher of the future
should be free, ingenious individual evolving his own everyday
techniques by the intelligent use of principles. Supervision
through minor suggesting techniques when necessary will
always strive to develop in all workers the basic
understandings underlying the various aspects of the entire
educational organisation and process.
This changed attitude of inspecting officers and the general
change in the character and sprit of inspection is an interesting
feature of the educational systems in several countries of the world.
In Germany, for example: “The inspectors are the educational
advisors who cooperate with the teachers: according to recent
regulations, they must encourage good and promising teachers to
use their opportunities and for the exercise of freedom and
independence and must deal patiently with poor teachers.”
A changed attitude is visible among Her Majesty’s Inspector of
Schools in Great Britain. The Report of the Advisory Council on
education in Scotland says: “Increasingly in recent years, the
Inspectorate has come to be looked on and have come, we believe,
to look on themselves as, above all, consultants and collaborators,
able to bring to the problems of any one school the experienced
culled in many and to contribute to the solution of difficulties a
judgement at once disinterested and well informed. To stimulate by
discussion and suggestion, to spread ideas and be a link between
school and school, to provoke the unreflective to thought and to
awaken healthy doubts as to the sufficiency of familiar routines in
such service lies the most valuable function of the Inspectorate and
we would stress the very special value of its guidance and
encouragement to the hundreds of small schools where teachers
often inexperienced are working under conditions of difficulty and
isolation.”
To conclude we can say that supervision has emerged from the
early emphasis upon weeding out the deficient to the current
challenge which seeks to help teachers become efficient. The
modern supervisor is a democratic leader, a coordinator, a
resourceful person and is one in a strategic position to pool together
the threads of evaluations.
 7.5 Difference between Traditional
Inspection and Modern Supervision

(i) The traditional inspection is limited to examine the

shortcomings of current situations of schools and not
responsible to remove them. According to modern tendency,
supervision is related to the total agreement of school, their
direction or running, day-to-day problems and their solution.
(ii) The traditional inspection is of short period, while supervision
is related to looking after the day-to-day working and
development of skill of the persons related to it; and there are
provision for each individual to get educational suggestions
and inspiration.
(iii) Current inspection is lawfully authorised or legalised, while
supervision is democratic, cooperating and affecting
(pathetical). According to some learned persons, the position-
holders like, supervisor, school managers, headmasters,
teachers and other persons appointed by the government, with
the help of each other, do for the interest of the school respect
reciprocally to each other’s personality.
(iv) In traditional ways of inspection, mostly one man is held
responsible for all arrangement for schools, but supervision is
a process of cooperation in which efforts of all are jointly
included, such as the headmaster, senior teachers, other
teachers, manager and inspector (supervisor) appointed by
the government.
(v) Current inspection is formal and unnatural. Besides, it is
forced. The supervision is informal and natural, and it is
originated from the real situations, that is, its demand
originates according to the requirement.
(vi) In traditional ways of inspection, it lacks leadership. In
these, the inspector does not motivate his subordinates for
doing any work; notwithstanding, he compels them for doing
that work. The supervision is based on creative-leadership. In
this, supervisor forwards his colleagues for doing work by
providing inspiration and guidance.
 7.6 Need for Supervision and Inspection

There is a need for an agency of supervision and inspection in

education for various reasons:
(i) Supervision as expert service on the consultancy basis
needed in complex human undertakings like education.
Supervision as expert service on the consultancy basis is the
accepted principle in all difficult and complex human
undertakings. Education particularly is complex and intricate
and further more is carried on in minute divisions, classrooms
scattered throughout a community and over the nation. In
order that education is able to deliver the goods, it must
continually change, modify, and sharpen. This is possible only
when an expert service is made available right at the doors of
the schools.
(ii) To ensure continuous growth, continuous evaluation is
necessary. The Indian society in the post-independence
period is making fantastic, yet exciting demands upon the
schools. It is expected of the schools to lend vitality and vigour
to society. To achieve national development in all its
parameters, the obligations of the schools have increased
manifold. “The destiny of India is now being shaped in her
classrooms” – with this statement opens one of the greatest
Reports on Education. This tremendous responsibility on the
temples of learning necessitates that whatever is done is A-
one. This will be possible if there is continuous growth.
Continuous growth can be ensured through continuous
evaluation. Hence, the need of supervision and inspection.
(iii) Supervision is necessary for effective coordination of
the total programme. With increased demand for education
at all levels, effective coordination of the total programme –
pre-primary through high and higher secondary schools has
become one of the pressing needs of education today. We can
no longer afford to have the waste of human resources that is
involved in overlapping courses, duplication of teaching effort
and lack of continuity from one school to the next. Some
 careful research and experimentation by the external agency
whose focus of work is school is very much needed. An
efficient inspectorate is the right answer.
(iv) Introduction of various programmes and services in the
school programme requires the service of a team to
coordinate and direct. The growth in enrolment of schools,
due to social and economic factors in our nation, requires a
vast expansion of services like, guidance programmes,
remedial reading, health services, vocational training, and an
understanding of the world’s political problems. If these varied
and important problems are to be met satisfactorily, an expert
team, rather than an individual, is necessary to coordinate and
to direct.
(v) Dispersal of good practice to improve the intellectual
tone of the schools. Inspection is an opportunity for seeing
good work done in schools by pupils, teachers, and parents.
The Inspector can dispense the good practices and improve
materially the intellectual tone of the schools.
(vi) To provide an opportunity for self-criticism, self-
analysis and self-development. When expert guidance is
readily available, teachers will grow and become selfdirective.
(vii) To provide extraneous motivation to refresh and up-
date the institution. It is said that all systems once
established, tend to cease thinking except intermittently and
operate by their own momentum. The machine, once started,
functions as an end in itself, and self-content forgets the
purpose for which it was created. Some agency is of utmost
importance to provide extraneous motivation and to refresh
and up-to-date the institution. In any scheme of educational
improvement and expansion, it is the administrative machinery
which can do the job. On this administrative framework, school
inspection plays a very important role. Improvement of schools
depends upon good teacher and efficient supervisory staff. To
quote the Zakir Hussain Committee’s recommendation:
“An efficient and sympathetic supervisory staff is almost as
important as the new schools as well as well-trained teaching
personnel.”
(viii) Supervision and inspection is essential for untrained
as well as for old teachers. There are still a large percentage
of teachers who are untrained. There are a number of
problems associated with beginning teachers that make good
supervision essential. There is the problem of inexperience
and the zeal to attempt too much.
There are a number of problems associated with the old
teachers, who resist change. They lose professional ambition
and thus cease to grow. They have to be brought around for
accepting change.
(ix) For increasing the degree of perfection in schools,
regular supervision and inspection are essential. No
school is perfect nor has any attained perfection. If the process
of training and learning were flawless, society could do away
with an inspection. But, in a changing society, the kind of
perfection we want has remained a myth; hence, the need for
some kind of inspection of educational activities to ensure
improvement.
 7.7 Objectives of Supervision

1) Improve classroom teaching.

2) Evaluating the scholastic performance of the students.
3) Knowing the genuine difficulties of the teachers in teaching
and organising various activities and suggesting ways and
means for overcoming them.
4) Promoting the professional growth of the teachers by
providing them in service education.
5) Discovering whether school is related to the community and if
not suggesting ways and means to do so.
6) Acquainting the Department with the progress of the scheme
of education and giving a factual account of the working of
schools.
7) Demonstrating instructional, administrative, and supervisory
techniques which are found effective.
8) Disseminating effective teaching methods and techniques in
various schools.
9) Preventing misdirecting of resources and energies.
10) Helping administrators and teachers to deal successfully
with the increasing complexity of the responsibilities of the
profession.
The Kothari Commission 1964-66 realised the importance of a
dynamic inspectorate and stated, “A sympathetic and imaginative
system of supervision and administration is essential for initiating
and accelerating educational reforms.”
 7.8 Scope of Supervision

Supervision is a multifaceted technique. The area of supervision is

quite varied:
1. Supervision of Instructional Work: The Supervisor or the
Inspector supervises the effectiveness of the methods of
teaching used in a particular institution, the audiovisual aids
employed to make the teaching interesting and effective, the
time-table enforced to carry out the instructional work,
distribution of work among the members of the staff;
distribution of the prescribed curriculum in suitable terms in the
school year, written work done by the students and
experiments conducted, etc. In fact, he is concerned with the
entire planning of the institutional work. He inspects the
teachers’ diaries also.
2. Supervision of Co-curricular Activities: As the present
education is not concerned with the mere teaching of three
R’s, the supervisors also supervise the work carried on in the
co-curricular field. They are concerned with scouting, games
and sports, clubs, school government, school magazine,
library service, hobbies, school museum, school exhibition,
and the like.
3. Supervision of School Environment: The supervisors are
concerned with the discipline of the students, their personal
habits, their general behaviour, etc. They look up into the
cleanliness of the students, cleanliness of the school
surroundings, beautification of the school, hygiene conditions
of the school canteen, proper drinking water arrangements,
cleanliness of urinals and latrines. They evaluate the steps
taken by the school authorities for the welfare and the safety of
the students.
4. Supervision of the School Registers: The inspecting staff
examines all sorts of school records and registers. They
scrutinise all accounts and boys funds. They see whether or
not proper use of school funds is being made. They examine
the school apparatus and equipment also.
5. Supervision of Development Aspects: The supervisors try
to assess whether the school is justifying its existence or not.
They examine the various steps taken by the school to serve
the locality in which it is situated. They report about the
school’s participation in the social, cultural, and recreational
programmes of the community.
6. Supervision of Pupil’s Growth: The supervisors are also
concerned with the many sided development of the children.
 7.9 Changing Concepts of Supervision and
Inspection

Today, supervision is greatly influenced by the increasing insight into

the aims of education, the relation of the school to the society in
which it exists, by the scientific method, and by the democratic
philosophy. Supervision is becoming participatory and cooperative,
that is, democratic; is increasingly oriented towards the fundamental
aims of education and of society.
Beginning slowly in the twenties, developing rapidly in the thirties
and forties, was the concept of cooperative supervision and
democratic leadership. The supervisor being regarded as an
individual who served to assist the staff, as consultant and friend,
rather than as inspector and critic. Democratic supervision demands
respect for personality. It makes ample provision for self-direction on
the part of teachers, and participation to a great extent in their in-
service growth.
 7.10 Inspection Procedures

Important inspection procedures in vogue in our country are listed

below:
(i) School Visits: - School visits can be of three types (a) visits
undertaken after giving due notice to the school, (b) surprise
visits, (c) visits by invitation. The inspectors visit each school in
their areas at least once a year. Some problems may
necessitate in more than one visit. It will be better if such a
visit is undertaken after giving due notice to the school. In
addition to the planned visit, there should be a surprise visit
also to enable the Education Officer to check up the work of
the teacher in actual classroom situation as well as the
activities of the pupils inside and outside the classroom. The
Education Officer can also be invited to the school for
guidance or for showing some worthwhile practice or prospect,
etc.
The Indian Education Commission recommends that every
school should have two types of inspections – annual and
triennial and two different forms should be used for the purpose,
the former will be conducted by the D.S.B. for primary schools
and State Education Department for the Secondary School. The
Triennial inspection will be conducted by the D.E.O. for primary
schools and the State Board of School Education for the
Secondary School.
(ii) Teachers’ Meetings and Conferences: Holding teachers’
meetings and conferences is another inspection procedure.
Conferences may be held as a result of the classroom visits
and observation as will involve consideration of teachers’ weak
and strong points and opportunities for improvements.
Difficulties and limitations of the teachers are also noted and
efforts are made to remove them. The teachers’ meetings may
be held for consideration of common major instructional
problems. The problems may be discussed and solutions
suggested.
(iii) Issuing Orders and Circulars: Regular guidance is
provided to teachers through circulars, containing suggestions
for improved methods of teaching and for the study of books
and journals containing the latest techniques of education. The
circulars are sent to the schools for sending information on
educational matters like change in syllabus, textbooks,
examination system, decision of the Education Department
and educational conferences, etc. Orders are also issued for
various activities like contents, competitions, and tournaments.
(iv) Demonstration Teaching: Another inspection procedure of
special value in certain situations is demonstration teaching.
Its purpose is to illustrate a recommended method, teaching
material or instructional approach. The demonstration teaching
may be a work of the inspector himself, a classroom teacher or
by some expert from outside. The Inspector sometimes
teaches a lesson – taking over the teacher’s class so that the
teacher can observe his own students’ response to a new
procedure or approach. Often teachers are able to profit
greatly from the experience of seeing another person teaching
their class.
Demonstration teaching must be oriented to the needs and
concerns of the teacher involved. The inspector and teacher
identify specific problems and plans to use the technique of
demonstration teaching to help resolve these difficulties.
Demonstration teaching, as an inspection procedure, requires
careful planning and preparation. The objectives of the lesson,
the content to be presented, the nature of the activities to be
used and the evaluating measures to be employed – all must be
carefully discussed.
The inspector and teacher should establish the nature of the
demonstration. The lesson may be suggestive, try out or
experimental. It may be a recommended procedure or model
given for the benefit of an inexperienced teacher or it might
simply show an experienced teacher meeting the normal
instructional demands, in a fairly typical classroom. Each
demonstration should be followed by a discussion session, as
soon as possible, to compare impression, discuss the
 application of principles, evaluate the apparent success of
procedures or materials used, explore applications or
adaptations potentially useful to the observing teacher and
clarifying misunderstandings.
(v) Planned Intra-School and Inter-School Visits: Visits within
the school itself— intra-school visits, and visits among other
schools— inter-school visits, may also be used as inspection
techniques. In visits the problem of arranging a productive
experience is vital. The Inspector must plan closely with the
headmaster of the school or schools involved, must prepare
teachers in advance of the observation, and must follow-up the
experience, in order to ensure the most value from the activity.
The teachers need to prepare for the visit. They must have a
worthwhile purpose in mind and they should have specific and
significant things to observe. The teacher to be visited must be
informed of the impending visit. He should also know the needs of
the visitor. In this way, the Education Officer makes sure that his
teacher has nothing to observe but a fun day of review, activity,
work-book assignments, motion pictures and a unit examination.
The host teacher must have consented to the visit and be willing to
discuss his instruction with the visiting teacher afterwards. This post-
visit conference is essential, for it provides the opportunities to the
demonstration teacher to explain his aim and procedures to be
observed. It allows the visitor to ask questions, clarify impressions,
and secure specific assistance. A follow-up discussion may be held
in a committee, department, or faculty meeting in which the visiting
teacher brings the results of his experience back to his own
colleagues. In the case of intra-school visits, an inspector-teacher
conference provides needed follow-up.
 7.11 Types of Supervision and Inspection

1) Authoritarian: Authoritarian supervision is based upon

practices like “I told you to do this.” This kills the creative ability
and initiative of the teachers and is a hindrance in improving
instruction.
Authoritarian supervision forces and prescribes methods. An
authoritarian thinks that because a method works well for him, it
must be used by the teacher, and that it will succeed in the
same way and to the same extent. Authoritarian supervision
fails to take account of the fact that what produces results for
one teacher in his particular situation with his individual
personality may not produce same result in the case of the
other.
Authoritarian supervision implies that the supervisor is a
master, or super teacher, who can walk in, take over the class,
and get the desired results. The teacher works in such a
situation not by actually doing and experiencing but by being
‘told.’
2) Corrective: This is also known as ‘faultfinding’ expedition. In
this case, the Inspector visits a school to pick holes here and
there and is always on the look out of bringing out
inconsistencies and gaps to the notice of the head of the
institution. Such an inspection does not serve any useful
purpose. It simply makes the teachers unhappy. An inspector
must remember that progress depends upon a judicious
combination of encouragement to good work and removal of
defects.
3) Creative: According to Fred C Ayer, “Creative supervision
should encourage the discovery of all kinds of better ways of
learning, teaching, and community improvement, not merely
those who relate to self-expression and problem solving.
Barr, Burton, and Bruecknor think, “Creative leadership in the
long run is vitally necessary to the success of democratic life.”
Creativeness has been linked closely with such words as self-
expression, initiative, originality, experimentation, and
improvement.
Supervision seeks for latent talents. It provides opportunity for
the exercise and originality and for the development of unique
contributions.
4) Humanistic: This type of supervision aims at developing a
healthy human relationship among all the partners of the
educational enterprise, i.e., the pupils, the teachers, the
parents, staff personnel, the managers, and the supervisor.
5) Inspirational: It inspires teachers, lifts them above
themselves, and reinvigorates their flagging spirits. True
inspirational supervision must strive to broaden the base of
leadership by utilising the full potential of teachers. It will
nurture qualities like initiative, originality, creativity, sincerity,
and honesty. It will discourage rigidity and sameness in
teaching. It will meet the needs of teachers sufficiently to serve
as the foundation for a good programme of supervision.
Inspirational supervision allows the freedom so necessary for
real growth.
6) Preventive: This type of supervision helps the teachers to
anticipate new situations and to find ways and means to
remove them. It is obvious that this type of inspection is helpful
to teachers.
7) Democratic Supervision: Democratic supervision eliminates
the feeling that the supervisor is a superior being and the
teacher an inferior worker. Democratic supervision tends to
cooperative endeavour for the common good. Democratic
supervision does not allow the supervisor to impose his will
upon the teachers. It builds upon the power of the teacher to
exercise self-direction through his participation in the
formulation of methods and procedures for improving
instruction. Democratic supervision seeks for the development
of the highest potentialities in all. Democratic supervision
recognises the dignity and worth of the individual.
Democratic leadership generates more leadership by
providing opportunities to more and more persons to exercise
leadership. It must be adapted to the levels of professional
ability and to the differences in teachers – whether they are
novices or veterans, weak or strong, poorly trained or
professionally prepared.
Democratic supervision provides for group planning. It
connotes a better organisation among both groups – teachers
and children.
Democratic supervision is also concerned with coordinating
the work groups in different schools and on various levels.
Democratic supervision encourages freedom while furnishing
direction, advice, and suggestion.
 7.12 Types of Inspection according to
Supervisory Procedures

1. Annual Inspection: This is a detailed and comprehensive

inspection of all aspects of the school; its staff, all subjects in
all classes; its equipment and organisation.
2. The Follow-up Inspection: The follow-up inspection is
conducted to ensure that the previous recommendations have
been carried out.
3. Partial Inspection: This may constitute the inspection of the
teaching of one subject only or some special aspect of the
school life.
4. Surprise or Unannounced Visits: Supervisors visit schools
without giving any prior notice. The idea behind such visits is
to observe the working of the school under normal situation.
 7.13 Duties of Educational Officers

1. Administrative Duties: An Education Officer is supposed to

discharge various administrative duties. They are: executive,
advisory, integrating, statistical, and departmental.
Executive: He has to visit schools and see that the school laws
and regulations are being followed. His executive duties pertain
to correspondence, communication of Director’s orders,
disbursing of grants-in-aid, settlement of disputes between
teachers and the management. Advisory: He has to give
advice to his assistants and to the management of schools.
Integrating: He has to attend meetings of various State Boards
and establish relationship among the various educational
elements within his jurisdiction.
Statistical: He has to handle the collection and analysis of
educational statistics of the schools under his jurisdiction.
Departmental: He has to appoint government teachers and
clerks. He has also to deal with the case of their transfers,
leaves.
2. Academic Duties: On the academic side, the education
officer is expected to guide the school in its entire programme
of curricular and co-curricular activities. He will thus help to
improve the standard of education in the State. Such guidance
has become even more necessary now, with the introduction
of work experience, varied courses, and integrated curriculum
of core subjects at the secondary stage. But, as the Secondary
Education Commission has pointed out, the multiplicity of the
subjects taught in the school by specially qualified teachers
now, makes it very difficult for any single officer, however
qualified he may be, to inspect them thoroughly and to advice
them on all their problems. The Commission has, therefore,
recommended that the academic work of the school should be
thoroughly inspected by a panel of experts with the Education
Officer as their Chairman. Three experts, chosen from senior
teachers or headmasters, should visit schools in the company
of the Education Officer. They should spend two or three days
 with the staff. They should discuss with them all aspects of
school life – the organisation of the curriculum; the crafts and
other special subjects taught; the library and laboratory
facilities; the programme of co-curricular activities; the use of
holidays; and all other problems connected with school work.
This should be done at least once in three years for every
school.
3. Establishing Contact between the Public and the
Administration: It is desirable to entrust the education officer
with the task of establishing contact between the public and
the administration on educational matters. A new programme
of education can only be accepted by the people if they realise
its value and significance. Dissemination of information to the
public and preparation of material for publication through the
publicity organs of the State Government may well form part of
the Civil Education Officer’s Office. The Inspectorate should
also keep in touch with the various training Colleges and
Training Schools in the State, and give them all facilities for
organising extension services for in-service teachers. The All
India Council for Secondary Education has recommended that
Boards of Secondary Education in the different states should
have small research units to carry out investigations on
examinations, school records, etc. The Secondary Education
Commission has recommended that for improvement and
assessment of textbooks. A high-powered committee should
be appointed in every state. The Education Officer is in the
best position to pose problems which have been brought to the
forefront during discussions with teachers and Headmasters,
to prepare a schedule of priorities, to get in touch with the
various research units, and to find a solution or an answer to
them. A problem may be big and complex and may have to be
tackled from different angles by the various units concurrently.
The Education Officer should serve as an important link,
because, if research is to prove fruitful, the posing of problems
in their order of priority and putting into practice the results of
the work done, are as important as the solutions of a problem.
The education officer is in a very good position to supply
quantitative data to these workers about schools, teachers,
etc. as he himself is a field worker.
 7.14 Qualities of a Supervisor or Inspector

Brilly suggests that the motto of an Inspector should not be “Check

your teachers, frighten your teachers, weaken your teachers, and
examine them,” but its variant, “Train your teachers, inspire your
teachers, encourage your teachers, and trust them.” Important
qualities of such an Inspector are:
(i) Man of Faith: There is no use of being impatient, for growth
and improvement always takes time. The inspector must have
a far reaching programme, but putting through it, he should
proceed item by item.
(ii) Man of Planning: The inspector should plan his work
thoroughly and should not undertake it at random.
(iii) Man of Educational Vision: He should be aware of new
trends in education, latest techniques in education, recent
problems in the field and their solutions. He should not merely
assess the academic achievements of the schools but also the
all-round progress of the school should occupy his attention.
(iv) Man of Experiments: He must be an experimenter. An able
inspector will select forward looking schools where the
teachers and the headmasters have a progressive outlook on
education and are imbued with the spirit of experimentation
and will turn these schools nurseries wherein the seeds of
educational reform and progress are sown, cared for and their
progress carefully watched and the message carried to other
schools.
(v) Expert in Various Subjects: An inspector should be a
specialist in many languages and subjects. This is particularly
important in our schools where different media of instructions
are followed.
(vi) Organising Capacity: As he is to serve as “teacher of
teachers”, he should have the capacity to organise refresher
courses, meetings, seminars, and discussions.
To sum up the qualities of an inspector, it may be stated that he
should be a man of learning, faith, and imbued with a spirit of
progress and experimentation and above prejudices of all sorts and
petty personal affiliation.
7.15 Checklist for Evaluation and
Supervision of Instruction
Arrangement of the Subject-matter
Teaching Devices
Aims
 7.16 Supervising Procedures and
Guidance

A capable supervisor will not limit his supervisory procedures to the

traditional classroom visits and the teacher’s meeting. He will render
assistance to teachers through such procedures as the following:
A. Guidance: - The supervisor or the inspector is expected to
help the individual teacher or group of teachers to plan and
carry forward the class projects which have a direct bearing on
the improvement of learning conditions. These projects are:
(i) Planning, testing programmes, and constructing tests.
(ii) Analysing test results and planning remedial procedures.
(iii) Collecting supplementary materials.
(iv) Undertaking special projects in the use of audio-visual aids.
(v) Planning and initiating instructional devices suiting individual
students.
(vi) Conducting workshops for the study of special problems.
(vii) Utilising community resources for enriching classroom
teaching.
B. School and Classroom Visits:- The procedure and
techniques of visits are:
(i) Observation of the work of teachers with a view to
discovering opportunities for improvement.
(ii) Rating the teacher with some special device for diagnostic
purposes.
(iii) Taking up demonstration lessons.
(iv) Making suggestions to teachers regarding new devices and
methods, supplementary aids, economy of time, pupil control,
adapting methods to pupil differences, and so on.
C. Teacher’s Meeting and Conferences:- This point may be
illustrated under two headings:
(i) Holding Conferences with the Individual Teacher: Such
conferences will be held as a result of the classroom visits and
observations and will involve consideration of teacher’s weak
and strong points and opportunities for improvement.
(ii) Holding Teacher’s Meeting for Consideration of Major
Instructional Problems: Points of common interests, some
difficulties, and certain policies are discussed and suggestions
made to improve school work.
Specific Guidance: Role of the
Supervisor/Inspector
1) To provide professional leadership to educational institutions
so as to improve their work and put them on the right direction
and path.
2) To set suitable goals for the educational institutions.
3) To appraise the work of the educational institutions and to
give suitable suggestions of work being carried on.
4) To help teachers to define and use the purpose of education
as a dynamic force in their work with pupils.
To promote the professional growth of all teachers, by providing
them ‘in-service training’.
The main motto of the inspectors should not be, “Check your
teachers, frighten your teachers, weaken your teachers, and
examine them,” but its variant, “Train your teachers, inspire your
teachers, encourage your teachers, and trust them,” writes an
educationist.
 7.17 Defects in the Present Supervision
and Inspection

It is generally observed that the present type of supervision and

inspection hardly serves the purpose for which it is designed. From
time to time, this system has been examined by experts, measures
suggested but without any substantial improvement. By and large, it
is still the same as was the case before independence.
Here we can give the views of some experts on the state of
supervision and inspection in India.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) noticed the
following defects:
(i) Inspections are perfunctory.
(ii) Time spent by the inspectors is insufficient and greater part
of the same is taken up with routine work pertaining to
checking of accounts, time-table, curriculum, etc.
(iii) Enough time is not devoted to the academic side.
(iv) Contacts between the teachers and inspectors are casual.
(v) The number of schools entrusted to the care of an inspector
is too large and the range too wide for him to be able to
acquaint himself with their work and appreciate their problems;
nor is he in a position to advise and guide the teaching staff in
improving the work of the school.
The inspector instead of being “the friend, philosopher and guide”
of the school, behaves in such a critical and unsympathetic way that
his visit is looked upon with some degree of apprehension, if not of
resentment.
In the words of W.M. Ryburn, “The inspector holds an extremely
autocratic position, where, if his will is not exactly law, it is so near to
it that for all practical intents and purposes, the teacher and the
headmaster regards it as such.”
‘Education in Eighteen years of Freedom’ reads as, “Before
1947, inspection was a device to ensure that an institution receiving
grant-in-aid from the Government utilised money correctly. Another
function of the inspector was to extend recognition to privately
managed schools on the basis of certain criteria. The concept of
inspection has now changed, and inspection tends to promote the
professional growth of teaching personnel. The role of inspector is
that of a senior colleague to teachers. The re-designation of
‘inspector’ as ‘education officer’ in many states marks this shift in the
emphasis of duties.”
 7.18 Suggestions for Improving
Supervisory Practices

1) Changes in the Techniques of Supervision: Since

environmental conditions vary from time to time, teacher to
teacher, subject to subject, and group to group, supervisory
techniques cannot be wedded to any set theory and practice,
and, therefore, the Education Officer should have a plan ready
in hands as to ‘What’, ‘Where’, ‘When’ and ‘How’ to observe
and revise the plans periodically.
2) Strengthening of the Supervisory Staff: A major part of the
time of the Education Officer is being spent on administrative
activities with the result that adequate time is not left with him
to discharge his supervisory activities. Keeping in view the
present situation it is not advisable to separate the
administrative and supervisory work. However, it is extremely
important that the supervisory staff should be strengthened.
3) More Clerical Staff is needed: More clerical staff is needed
to cope with the routine type of work of supervision and
inspection. In many cases supervisory remarks (Reports)
remain un-typed for months because of the shortage of typists
and other clerical staff with the result that schools fail to derive
immediate benefits from the supervisory remarks.
4) Behaviour of the Supervisor: The supervisor should greet
the teacher in a friendly and courteous manner. Usually he
should seat himself at the rear of the room. Generally
speaking he should not interrupt the work of the class or take
over any part of the instruction. He should record his
observations as objectively as possible.
5) Inter-school Visitation: In many cases, teachers can offer
valuable assistance or guidance to one another by mutually
visiting their classes. For this it is very essential that a
cooperative attitude may be developed among the teachers
and the practice of inter visits of this type encouraged.
6) Frequency of Inspections and Follow-up Work: With
regard to frequency of inspections, it is suggested that there
 should be at least two inspections in one year, one of them
may be an informal visit and the other a regular annual visit.
More visits are desirable especially in the case of those
schools which in the view of the Education officer require
special measure to become educationally sound. The needs of
each school should be ascertained and remedial measure
adopted.
The remarks and suggestions of the Education Officer should
be sent to schools within one week of the visit of the supervisor
so that these may be considered by school personnel without
delay.
School inspections without any regular follow-up programme
do not prove to be effective. Planning of follow-up programme is
as essential as regular inspection.
7) Encouraging Professional Growth: Very little is done by the
Education Officer for the professional growth of teachers.
A number of teachers may be asked to demonstrate the
techniques in which they are most successful. Discussion
should always follow immediately after the demonstration. The
observers should be given an opportunity to ask whatever
questions they wish. All suggestions should be made and
accepted like an ideal sportsman.
Motion pictures film strips may be used wherever possible.
The demonstrator should explain the application of principles
in his procedure after the demonstration is over.
Adequate preparation should be made by the supervisor while
giving demonstration lessons as this is likely to serve as a
model for teachers. It should be well thought-out and well-
planned and efficiently executed.
8) In-service training for Teachers: Refresher courses,
seminars, workshops, study circles etc. should be organised
for the benefit of principal and teachers. These will enable
them to be in touch with day-to-day changes in the field of
education.
9) Dissemination of Educational Literature: The supervisor
may issue a bulletin at regular intervals for encouraging
 professional growth among teachers. The following types of
material may be included in the bulletin:
(a) Abstracts or brief quotations from books, articles, or
speeches.
(b) References to articles appearing in current educational
periodicals to which the teachers have access.
(c) New items of what various schools or teachers are doing.
(d) Results of research, reports, etc. which have come to the
attention of the supervisors.
(e) Brief review of the latest educational literature.
(f) Articles from teachers and other educationists on different
aspects of education.
(g) Bibliographies of good references upon selected topics
considered of immediate interests to teachers.
10) Supervisor’s Meeting with Teachers: There are three
chief types of teachers’ meeting which should be held:
(a) Meeting for routine administrative purposes.
(b) Meeting for special purposes.
(c) Meetings that deal with the improvement of instruction.
These meetings should help in stimulating a desire to learn among
school personnel for solving their own problems.
 7.19 Conclusion

It must be remembered that when the teachers feel that the

supervisor is one of them and is always there to help them as a true
friend, philosopher, and guide, they will be able to discuss all their
problems with the supervisors. All this requires that supervisors must
be endowed both with the qualities of head and heart, i.e., keep
themselves abreast with the growing and latest pedagogical
literature as well as develop in themselves the behaviour pattern that
would endear themselves to the teachers. This may appear to be a
pious hope but the recent studies reveal that all people in the field of
education right from the pupils up to the Department feel that the
supervisor is an important link that can help in the growth of
educational institutions in the proper direction. We may bear in mind
that respect for personality is fundamental in democratic supervision
for it recognises each individual as a person in his own right and as
such entitled to growth along the lines of his own social choices.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option) option)
(1) One secondary education project team was appointed by the
Government of India in
(a) 1954
(b) 1956
(c) 1955
(d) 1952
(2) “Supervision is an expert technical service primarily aimed at
studying and improving cooperatively all factors which affect
child growth and development” This definition is given by
(a) Ayer
(b) Briggs
(c) Burton and Bruecknor
(d) Adams (3) Supervision’s main purpose is
(a) Growth
(b) Improvement
(c) To guide
(d) None of the above
Fill in the blanks
(1) ____________ is related to the total agreement of school.
[Supervision]
(2) ____________ supervision forces and prescribes methods.
[Authoritarian]
 Important Questions

1) Write the meaning of Inspection?

2) What do you mean by Supervision?
3) “Good supervision is good teaching”. Discuss.
4) Discuss the prevailing system of school inspection in your
state. What suggestions would you give to make it more
effective?
5) Point out the main defects of present supervision and
inspection. Suggest measure for its improvements.
 8
Communication in Educational
Administration

Just as the previous centuries experienced their technological

revolutions – the ‘agriculture’ and ‘industrial’ revolutions that radically
changed the worldwide patterns of production and distribution – so
the twenty-first century is said to have experienced a ‘communication
revolution’ that is affecting the world scenario.
At the centre of the ‘revolution’ are communication technologies.
Some are long established, like radio, television, and telephones.
Others such as satellites, optical fibre, microcomputers, and video-
recording on tape or video disc are quite new. Among the older ones,
radio and television broadcasting have been improved, adapted, put
to new uses, or linked with newer communication technologies. The
result is wider distribution, greater accessibility, and more clarity,
consumer control and economy. They have also been improved by
techniques that enhance recording, text screening and printing, and
the editing and manipulation of recordings.
 8.1 Meaning of Communication

Communication means getting across ideas and information from

one person to another. For communication to take place, it should
originate from an individual and be transmitted to another who
receives it and acknowledges it. Sending the message alone does
not complete the process of communication. The sender might use
language, signs, or actions to transmit a message. The receiver
might use it by listening, reacting or by simply observing. In any
case, the process of communication involves three things, a
communicator (sender), a communicatee (receiver), and the
contents of communication (message).
The word ‘communication’ originates from ‘communis,’ a Greek
word, meaning ‘to make common.’ Thus a concept, fact, idea,
principle, or theory is passed from one individual to the other or
others to affect communality.
According to Aristotle, communication is a means of persuasion to
influence the other so that the desired effect is achieved.
Dewey defines communication as a process of sharing
experiences till it becomes a common possession. It modifies the
disposition of both the parties who partake it.
 8.2 Process of Communication

D. Berlo thinks that communication is a process of interaction of

ideas between the communicator and the receiver to arrive at a
common understanding for mutual benefit.
Elements involved in the
Communication Process
(a) Sender: Sender is the person who intends to send the
information.
(b) Message: Message is the information in the form of an idea,
feeling, attitude, opinion, thought, etc.
(c) Receiver: The person (staff) willing to share the message
with the sender.
(d) Feedback: The reactions and responses of the receivers to
the sender after receiving the message.
(e) Noise: The barriers of the message resulting in the distortion
or black-out of communication.
Steps in the Process of
Communication
Step 1: To have a clear perception of the idea or the problem by
the sender.
Step 2: To secure the participation of other persons involved in
the decision to communicate the message.
Step 3: To decide what to communicate, when to communicate,
and how to communicate.
Step 4: To prepare the subject matter of communication in a
suitable language.
Step 5: To select the forms or means of communication.
Step 6: To transmit the message to the receiver.
Step 7: To ensure the correct interpretation of the message.
Step 8: To evaluate the effectiveness of the message.
 Forms of Communications

Importance of the Listener (Learner): The

following diagram shows consideration to the
learner. The earlier diagram can be amended.
 8.3 Need of Communication

Man’s need for communication is as strong and as basic as his need

to eat, sleep, and love. The severest punishment for a child is to be
isolated, to be left alone, to be told, “I refuse to talk to you.” Grown-
ups too, and especially the aged need company, to communicate.
Society punishes criminals by locking them in solitary cells, thus
starving that basic need to communicate. Only for a short time can
man do without communication. For modern man it would be
impossible to function without the mass media of communication, as
they have become part of the fabric of modern civilisation – at least
in the West.
Communication involves interaction with our environments –
physical, biological, and social. Deprived of this interaction we would
not be aware of whether we are safe or in danger, whether hated or
loved, or satisfied or hungry. However, most of us take this
interaction for granted, unless we experience some deprivation,
when that happens we adapt ourselves, to the environment to state
we don’t lose touch, in both the literal and figurative senses. To lose
touch is to suffer isolation.
This basic need for communication can perhaps be traced to the
process of man’s evolution from the lower species. Animals, for
instance, ‘have to be in sensory communication with their physical
and biological surroundings to find food, protect themselves and to
reproduce their species. A loss of sensation – the inability to hear a
predator, for example – can mean loss of life. Similarly, to be lost
from primitive social communication – from the pack, the herd, or the
tribe – is to be condemned to death.’ [Clark and Blankenburg: You
and Media, 1973]
But sensory communication alone was not enough for man to
survive. Hence, the invention of symbolic communication called
language – from non-verbal gestures, grunts, and grimaces to the
verbal, and then to the written and printed word. The acts have
grown out of this same fundamental desire to express one and to
reach out to others. Man adorned his caves with painting of animals
and hunters. Modern man shows a preference for the abstract and
‘pop’, for the electronic and computer acts. But the human need to
communicate has remained the same, only the forms have changed.
What happens to a person who is ‘excommunicated’ – cut off from
communication by his group or society? Malcolm X, the Black
Muslim leader, describes the experience as ‘a state of emotional
shock’, when he was expelled by the Black Muslims from the group.
Elaborating, he said that his state was like that of someone “who for
12 years had an inseparable, beautiful marriage – and then suddenly
one morning at breakfast the marriage partner had thrust across the
table some divorce papers. I felt as though something in nature had
failed, like the sun or the stars. It was that incredible a phenomenon
to me – something too stupendous to conceive.”
Others who have been isolated for a period of time from human
company are known to have experienced nightmarish hallucinations.
Lack of human communication can be as terrible an experience as
too much of it as is the case today when we in the cities are
bombarded by the mass media excessive information. The result
very often is a mental and physical distress which Alvin Toffer calls
‘future shock.’
Indeed, “The apparent effects of sensory deprivation and sensory
overload are similar— anxiety, frequently impaired judgement,
strange visions, and something akin to apathy, schizophrenia.”
[Source: - You and Media, page-42.]
 8.4 Models of Communication

Here we give the models of communication.

(1) Shannon-Weaver model or Telephonic Model
Shannon and Weaver (1949) have given a mathematical theory of
communication as shown in Fig. 4.
This model consists of five key components, via an information
source, which involve:
(i) Message;
(ii) A transmitter for transmission;
(iii) A channel, which carries signal from transmitter to receiver;
(iv) The receiver, which reconstructs the signal into a message;
and
(v) The destination, the final consumer of the message. A novel
component is its noise source, i.e., the interference.
In this model, communication is an information source that creates
a message, transmitted by an electronic device (telephone speaker)
through an air channel with noise interference (such as telephone
wire and sound waves) to the hearing mechanism of the person
acting as a receiver (telephone receiver) that creates the message.
This model introduces the concept of noise. Noise in this model
refers to disturbance in the channel that may interfere on the signal
transmitted and produce different signals.

(2) Schramm’s Model Schramm’s (1963) gave another model

in “The Science of Human Communication: New Directions
and New Findings in Communication Research,” New York.
 (3) Lasswell’s Model
Five essential elements in the communication process have been
summarised as shown in fig. 6 by Harold D. Lasswell in an answer to
this question, “Who says, what, in which channel, to whom with what
effect?”
 8.5 Communication Network

One of the ten wishes to reach out to more than one person. Then it
is necessary to establish a network, i.e., a pattern of the relationship
between the sender and the receivers. One may choose a network
from a large number of possibilities, some of which are outlined as
follows:
Chain Network—In a chain network, the sender communicates
with one receiver, number 1, who then communicates with the next
receiver 2 and so on until the last receiver n as shown in fig 7:
There are some variations of the wheel pattern called Radial and
Polygonal patterns. A radial pattern permits 2-way communication
directly between the sender and each of his receivers. A polygonal
pattern is an extension of the radial pattern where, in addition to 2-
way communication between the sender and each of his receivers,
there is some scope for adjacent receivers to communicate with
each other.

A vertical chain for downward communication is often adopted in

government bureaucracies and in the services.
Wheel Pattern—In a wheel pattern the sender assumes the
central position and communicates directly with all the receivers,
none of whom are able to communicate with one another as
depicted in fig. 8. Such a centralized network operates with high
efficiency in entrepreneurships and small establishments, particularly
when a task must be done quickly.
 Star Network— A star network permits all the persons to
communicate mutually as shown in fig. 9. The ‘sender’ does not
occupy a preferential position. Such a decentralised pattern is useful
in dealing with the problems and innovations. Inter communication
helps in reinforcing the messages and minimising distortions.
A manager, teacher, researcher, or an engineer may choose a
network depending upon the purpose and his/her style of
functioning. A general manager may choose a wheel-type network
for the managers; a manager of R&D may adopt a star network to
communicate with his research scientists/ engineers. In general,
there is greater group satisfaction in decentralisation networks and
greater short-term efficiency in centralised networks.
 8.6 Role of Communication in Effective
Management and Administration

Communication plays an important role in the working of an

institution and especially the school system. The importance of
effective communication is as follows:
1. It facilitates planning.
2. It helps in decision-making.
3. It facilitates coordination.
4. It improves relations.
5. It helps in the process of motivation and morale building.
6. It facilitates organising.
7. It helps to cope with the environment.
8. It brings efficiency in the system.
Communication assists the head and the teacher in performing the
following roles in educational administration and management:
1. Administrative Roles
2. Managerial Roles
3. Supervisory Roles
4. Controlling Roles
 8.7 Communication and Teaching

We may quote R. E. Kieffer and Lee W. Cochran, “Effective teaching

and communications are synonymous, for good teachers are clear
communicators and good communicators as effective teachers ......
Our society today has a vast array of modern media of
communication ....... These modern media are among the tools, the
education profession uses to mould and shape human minds.” Good
teaching in fact is intercommunication. There must be reaction and
interaction with constant feedback.
The message conveyed by the teacher and or the educational
media may be verbal or visual and the receiver may listen, see or
examine and react in other ways. The communication channel in the
classroom should ideally carry both messages and counter
messages.
 8.8 Communication in the Teaching-
Learning Process

It is very important in teaching-learning as it is the chief means by

which the teacher and the taught work together. It helps them to hold
together by making it possible for them to influence and to react to
each other. In fact communication is so fundamental that without it
the organisation cannot exist.
A teacher might theoretically develop his plans, procedures, and
the requisite organisational structure, but when it comes to
implementation, he has to communicate this to his students. Unless
the teacher has a communication skill, participation from the
students may become difficult. The following factors may be
considered in developing effective teaching-learning process:
1. One-way versus Two-way Communication: As the name
suggests, it refers to the absence or presence of the facility to
seek reactions, information, classification, etc. One way
communication, i.e., telling or lecturing or demonstrating by the
teacher denies the facility to the learners to seek clarification,
confirmation, etc. the learners remain passive listeners. Two-
way communication has a built-in-system to feedback. It
ensures that further information, clarification, etc. are provided
whenever possible. The receiver or the learners get
opportunities to understand the message or the content.
2. Feedback and Effective Teaching: Feedback ensures that
the message has reached the receiver. This can take the form
of a nod, and acknowledgement or an execution of the
behaviour suggested in the communication. Thus, the
feedback provides a learning opportunity to the sender and the
receiver because it mirrors the consequences of behaviour. In
addition, if the behaviour has been found to be incongruous
with the message it opens avenues to make corrections
wherever necessary. Without feedback it would be difficult to
ascertain whether communication has been received as
intended or not. Positive and negative feedbacks may be
 used. When a learner does something commendable, a useful
acknowledgement is made.
3. Communication and Principle of Clarity: A communication
possesses clarity when it is expressed in language and
transmitted in a way that can be comprehended by the
receiver. Clarity requires a literature approach to language and
familiarity with language patterns of the learners.
4. Principle of Motivation: The learners cannot listen or read
with understanding unless they concentrate. Listening infits
and starts, listening inattentively or ignoring or skimming out
written words show slack in understanding. Adherence to the
need for attention will gradually overcome certain barriers to
communication, inattention, loss of transmission and poor
attention. Motivation on the part of learners will increase the
quality of learning and they will certainly feel encouraged for
their efforts.
5. Use of Audio-Visual Aids: Teaching technology should be
made use of in providing effective communication in classroom
teaching.
 8.9 Barriers of Communication in
Educational Administration

There are certain elements in communication which create barriers

in effective communication. These barriers may be grouped as
under:
To overcome physical barriers
• Make appropriate seating arrangements.
• Ensure audibility and visibility.
• Minimize visual and aural distractions.
• Provide environmental comfort.
To overcome language barriers
• Use simple language and less verbalism.
• Explain and use graphic symbols.
• Prepare handouts and recommend books.
• Employ different methods of communication.
• Use audio-visual resources effectively.
• Take feedback as frequently as possible.
To overcome psychological barriers
• Call attention and motivate the listener.
• Use feedback processes.
• Provide assistance and show sympathy.
• Use interesting audio-visual resources.
To overcome background barriers
• Catch up with the individual‘s background.
• Explain the importance of the message.
• Employ different methods and resources.
 8.10 Measures to Overcome the Barriers of
Communication

Four types of measures for overcoming four types of barriers are:

I. Measures to Overcome the Physical Barriers
1. Making appropriate seating arrangement,
2. Ensuring audibility,
3. Minimising aural distractions,
4. Ensuring visibility,
5. Minimising visual distractions,
6. Providing comfort, and
7. Ensuring sound health.
II. Measures to Overcome the Language Barriers
1. Using simple language and symbols,
2. Using less verbalism,
3. Explaining with symbols and graphics,
4. Recommending specific books,
5. Using different methods of communication,
6. Using audio-visual aids, and
7. Providing frequent feedback.
III. Measures to Overcome the Background Barriers
1. Knowing the individual background,
2. Explaining importance of the message, and
3. Using different resources and methods.
IV. Measures to Overcome the Psychological Barriers
1. Sustaining the attention,
2. Providing motivation,
3. Providing assistance,
4. Providing multimedia resources,
5. Showing sympathy,
6. Providing regular feedbacks, and
7. Creating interesting situations and involving them to solve.
 8.11 Principles of Effective Communication
in Educational Administration: Making
Communication Effective

1. Principle of clarity of language.

2. Principle of organisational facilities i.e. conferences,
meetings, suggestions, etc.
3. Principle of priority.
4. Principle of formality, suitability combined with informality.
5. Principle of consistency.
6. Principle of adequacy.
7. Principle of two-way communication.
8. Principle of simplification.
9. Principle of selecting an effective communication channel.
10. Principle of feedback.
11. Principle of listening ability. This includes:
(a) Stop talking – you cannot listen if you are constantly talking.
(b) Put the listener at ease.
(c) Put the talker-listener at ease.
(d) Show the talker you are listening.
(e) Hold your temper.
(f) Be patient.
(g) Go easy on arguments and criticism.
(h) Ask questions.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) The word communication originates from
(a) Communis
(b) Common
(c) Cominus
(d) Comis
(2) Man’s need for communication is as strong and as basic as
his need to -
(a) Eat
(b) Sleep
(c) Love
(d) All the above
(3) Communication involves interaction with our environment
(a) Physical
(b) Biological
(c) Social
(d) All the above
(4) There are some variations of the wheel pattern called
(a) Radial Pattern
(b) Polygonal Pattern
(c) Both ‘a’ and ‘b’
(d) None of the above
Fill in the blanks
(1) ________ plays an important role in the working of an
institution and especially the school system. [Communication]
(2) Feedback ensures that the message has _______ the
receiver. [reached]
(3) The _________ cannot listen, or read with understanding
unless they concentrate. [Learners]
 Important Questions

1) Define the meaning and concept of Communication.

2) Explain the need for Communication.
3) What are the Barriers to Communication? Explain how do you
overcome these barriers.
4) Explain the Importance of Classroom Communication and the
role of communication in the Teaching-learning process.
 9
Management of School and
Approaches of Management

School management implies systematic arrangement or framework

of the school devoted to ensuring unity of effect, efficiency, goodwill
and proper use of resources for the all round development of all the
learners.
 9.1 Changing Concepts of School
Management

In view of the new challenges; the roles of the present day school
have been radically changed and accordingly the concept of school
management. Change is the order of the day and the school
management must reflect a positive note in this regard. The old
principles and practices of school management are now fading into
insignificance in the dazzling light of the new ones.
 [I] Traditional Concepts of School
Management

A traditional school was considered to be a place where knowledge

was manufactured and this used to be bookish, mechanical, and
stereotyped. Education being uniform; no importance was attached
to the individual needs of the children. Rote memory and
memorisation played the dominant role. Children were regarded just
like dumb driven cattle – Examination dominated the entire system of
education. The rod was the chief weapon to educate the educand.
‘The fear atmosphere’ prevailed in the school. The teacher was
called a policeman and drill sergeant. Co-curricular activities were
almost unknown. No attempts were made to enlist the cooperation of
the parents. The technology of teaching-learning was very simple.
 [II] Modern Concepts of School
Management

The functions of the present-day schools have undergone a great

transformation in India, since the advent of Independence. Ours is a
country wedded to the ideals of democracy. Democracy imposes
many responsibilities on the citizens of a country. It is based upon
love, cooperation, tolerance, open-mindedness, truthfulness, and
fellow-feelings. If democracy is to survive, education must develop
certain qualities needed for its survival. It must enable an individual
to take part effectively and freely in the affairs of the group to which
he belongs. Education is essentially a social affair. According to Dr.
S. Radhakrishnan, all education is social. Education is the
transmission of technical skills and cultural tradition from one
generation to another. Education is literacy plus discipline — kind of
an appreciation of the values of society of which we happen to be its
members. Education is not worth the name, if it does not help an
individual to live harmoniously and cooperatively in the society.
 9.2 Characteristics of Modern School
Management

Modern School Management must be based on the following

characteristics:
1. Education in terms of traditional 3 R’s has been replaced by
the present 7 R’s, i.e., Reading, Writing, Arithmetic,
Recreation, Rights, Responsibility, and Relationship.
2. New activity methods such as Dalton Plan, the Project
method, the Heuristic method, the Montessori method, etc.,
have brought about far-reaching changes in our methods of
instruction.
3. Individual differences of children must be taken into account
and diversified courses provided. The school curriculum is
considered more in terms of activities and not in terms of
subjects. Besides, subjects such as English, Mathematics,
Hindi, etc., it is increasingly being realised that a variety of co-
curricular activities must be considered as important as other
school subjects. A well-organised system of guidance and
counselling is also needed.
4. Let us look out the impact of the new pattern of education,
i.e., 10+2. Farreaching changes have taken place in the entire
philosophy and practices of school management. The school
curriculum and methods of teaching-learning have undergone
important changes with the introduction of the new pattern of
school education in 1975. All this had implications for
principles and practices of school organisation management.
5. A present day school is expected to provide for a number of
co-curricular activities which need an altogether new concept
of school management.
6. The school of today is not only concerned with the intellectual
development of the child but it is also to train him in the ‘art of
living together’ which in itself is a complicated affair.
7. People are becoming increasingly education conscious.
Today, we find a large number of students attending the
school. They differ in tastes, needs, aptitudes and in various
other ways. Family and social background of the students also
vary. This has made the problem of educational management
very complex.
 9.3 Main Aspects of School Management

Management of a school has four main aspects—

1. Management of School Plant: Management of school plant
includes the school building, laboratory, and playground, etc.
2. Management of Human Resources: This implies
mobilisation of all people who are involved and interested in
the educational activities of the school, i.e., pupils and their
parents, school staff, experts, board of management, etc.
3. Management of Material Equipment: This includes material
things, i.e., furniture and equipment, etc.
4. Management of Ideas and Principles: This means
organisation of ideas and principles into the school system,
curriculum, time schedule, norms of achievement, and
cocurricular activities.
 9.4 Features of a Well-Managed School

The Secondary school must be transformed into an “activity school,”

because activity has an irresistible appeal for every normal child and
is his natural path to the goal of knowledge and culture.
The Commission observed, “We do not visualise” that these
schools will have dull routine ridden formal lessons in the class plus
a number of independent unrelated extra curricular activities which
have no intrinsic relationship with them either in contents or
methods. The entire programme of the school will be visualised as a
unity and inspired by a psychologically congenial and stimulating
approach, the so-called ‘work’ being characterised by the feeling of
joy and selfexpression usually associated with play and hobbies, and
these having meaningful purposes which are normally considered a
special feature of academic work. Thus by planning a coherent
programme of these activities rich in stimuli, the school will not be
frittering away either the time or the energy of the pupil but will be
heightening their intellectual powers also side by side while training
them in other fine qualities.”
The good teacher, in the reorganised school, will endeavour to win
the love and confidence of his children and establish his prestige on
sincerity, integrity, hard work, and a sympathetic handling of their
problems.
Another thing which will distinguish this school from most of the
traditional schools is that it will be organised as a community.
We expect this school to devote special attention to craft and other
productive work and thus redress the balance between theoretical
and practical studies which have been upset for many years.
Every well-established and reasonably wellfinanced school will
have workshops and craft rooms – where students will learn to
handle tools and to fashion different kinds of material into form.
 9.5 Approaches of Management

There are a number of approaches that can be used in the

management of an institution. We will in this chapter confine our
attention to the school management and will describe only those
approaches that are relevant to the school management. The
approaches that we are describing are—
[1] Manpower approach.
[2] Cost benefit approach.
[3] Social demand approach.
[4] Social justice approach.
[5] Decision-making approach.
 [1] Manpower approach

This approach emphasises that we must plan for the future

development of a country or nation. The development can largely
take place through education. Hence, education for the people must
be so planned that the educated generation will not only be gainfully
employed but is also will be able to contribute its best to the society
or nation.
The concept of management is derived from Economics. It has
been observed that the human resources are much more vital in
developing a nation as compared to the material resources. You may
wastefully destroy your material resources if you have not learnt to
make proper use of them. The manpower approach lays emphasis
on the training and education of the human resources so that people
are well equipped to put to the beneficial use of material resources.
Every society needs people in various fields of its activities. The
education should be managed in such a way that there are available
trained people for all its activities. If the people are well trained, are
gainfully employed, are motivated, and efficient in performing their
tasks the nation will prosper. It is an important obligation of education
and school management to maintain constant supply of manpower
for various activities of the society. The school education should be
so managed that its product provides the required needs of the
society of a trained manpower for various jobs.
Need of Manpower Approach
For linking educational management with manpower needs it is
essential that the future projections for the need of human material in
various occupations be carefully made. In advanced countries of the
world there are efficient machineries to make such projections but in
underdeveloped countries it becomes a very formidable task. It is
essential that such machineries be developed in under-developed
countries as well. The Ministry of Labour at the Centre with the close
cooperation of the Ministry of Education and Industries can develop
such efficient machinery. In India, attempts are being made to have
manpower projections. What is urgently needed is to relate the
manpower projections – with the educational expansion.
The Educational Commission (1964-66) has emphasised the
relationship between educational enrolment and manpower
requirements. It says, “If India is to achieve its targets of economic
growth, it must have an adequate supply of educated specialists for
each category of job to be performed. Conversely, if there is an
excess of trained people in any category, it implies an imprudent use
of scarce resources and also creates difficult problems of
unemployment of the educated.”
The estimation of manpower needs is helpful in planning for
educational expansion in four ways:
(i) It helps in determining the total enrolments needed in
secondary and higher education.
(ii) It helps in determining the enrolments needed in different
types of courses.
(iii) It pinpoints attention towards shortages and surpluses in the
manpower situation.
(iv) It focuses attention on priorities involved.
Machinery for Manpower Planning
The Kothari Commission feels that the following measures will have
to be taken to relate the output of the educational system to
manpower needs:
(a) National Level: Planning at the national level should be
done by the Centre in consultation with the states and should
cover all sectors crucial for national development. These
should include engineering, agricultural, and medical
education, and the preparation of teachers for higher
education.
(b) State Level: The planning of remaining sectors should be
done at the state level by state governments. The planning of
facilities in secondary and higher education (excluding the
sectors for which planning would be done at the central level)
should be done at the state level.
Vocational education, both of school and college standard, will
have to be expanded in all areas on a priority-basis in keeping with
the manpower needs.
For enrolment in general education, however, which is under-
developed in some areas and over-developed in others, a policy of
equalisation will have to be adopted.
Manpower Planning, Employment and
Education
All these three should be closely related. The education and
employment should have direct link and there should be an indirect
link between the output of the educational system and manpower
needs of job or opportunities. Let us examine these relationships in
some more detail:
(i) Manpower planning should be able to predict the number of
jobs, the nature of jobs and the qualifications needed for
various jobs. The educational system should be recognised in
the light of the qualifications needed for the jobs available so
far as its quality is concerned. From the quantitative point of
view the output from the educational system should be related
with the requirements in various areas of work.
(ii) Manpower estimates should be able to point out the need for
the creation of more jobs. It should help in locating the areas
where job opportunities are to be extended. The educational
system must be so planned that there are people who can
help in creating more jobs. For example, the projections for
manpower planning may point out that in 2006 A.D. about
60,000, engineers will be needed. Comparison with advanced
countries also points out that the industrial expansion is slow
and its rapid expansion depends on individual
entrepreneurship, particularly in manufacturing small parts of
machines or as subsidiary to big industries. It may thus point
out that engineering courses be so organised that a large
number of engineers can set up their own manufacturing
plants. In other words, the manpower planning should show
the avenues of self-employment and give a direction to the
educational planners in planning the content of courses.
(iii) Manpower planning should locate the areas of under-
employment and the areas where a person with lower
qualifications may work as efficiently as a person with higher
 qualifications. The enrolments in high education should then
be made dependent on this aspect.
It may be clearly asserted that such a system of education is
needed for this country that may have multiple terminal points and at
each terminal point all those must get an offer of job who decide to
enter the world of work. Such terminal points may be after the middle
school education, the high school education, the higher secondary
education, the graduation or the postgraduation courses. For this
vocationalisation of education is very much needed. It is interesting
to note that today at secondary stage 91% of students go for courses
whose main objective is to prepare for the university. Our enrolment
in vocational courses at the secondary stage are among the lowest
in the world. This situation needs a change because otherwise
educated unemployed will prove to be great threats to the stability of
the nation, progress in the society and the economy of the country.
Limitations of Manpower Approach
1) The employment classification and manpower ratios used in
most manpower studies in developing countries, as well as the
assumed educational qualification corresponding to each
category of jobs, are usually borrowed from industrialised
economics and do not fit in the realities of less developed
ones.
2) Manpower approach needs an interdisciplinary approach to
educational planning. This needs an elaborate process and
pooling of resources of various disciplines.
3) It is extremely difficult to make reliable forecasts of manpower
requirements to be of significant value to educational planning.
4) It gives the educational planners only limited guidance. There
is no doubt that there are uncertainties inherent in the tasks.
Long term forecast of the growth of the economy has to be
made and in order to provide guidance for educational
planning it must be not only sufficiently detailed but also fairly
authoritative. As new facts emerge and better methods of
analysis are involved, fresh estimates will need to be made.
 [II] Cost Benefit Approach

Maureen Woodhall explains this approach in these words, “A

systematic comparison of the magnitude of the costs and benefits of
some form of investment (in case of education it is investment in
human capital) has to be made. All forms of investment involves a
sacrifice of present consumption in order to secure future benefits in
the form of higher level of output or income. Cost benefit analysis
provides a means of appraising these future benefits in the light of
the costs that must be incurred in the present.”
This approach emphasises that the expenditure on any item or
activity must give returns in tangible or intangible terms. The
economists emphasise that if you spend Rs. 100 in any enterprise it
must give a return of Rs. 101 at least; if not more. If this does not
happen you lose your money and you are not able to recover your
cost. Education was considered as an expenditure from which no
returns in monetary terms were expected. But now this concept has
changed. Education is also considered as an item of investment that
gives returns not only in monetary terms but also in developing the
quality of human resources. We will now expand this concept by
emphasising how education is an item of investment rather than
consumption and in providing education and managing the
educational enterprise the benefit of the expenditure on it must
accrue to the individual, society and nation.
In management, productivity is a very important requisite. That
management is considered efficient which can enhance its
productivity. In the management of an industry or business or in any
other type of enterprise it is expected that the money spent leads to
productivity not only in tangible terms but also in intangible terms. To
assess to what extent the productivity is achieved the total profit or
loss are calculated. Besides this it is also calculated as to what
extent the cost has benefitted the organisation. The cost benefit may
be calculated as a whole for the organisation or on an individual
basis. When cost benefits to the organisation are determined it is
called benefit analysis. For example, if we spend on education of our
children twenty thousand rupees and they after education remain
unemployed or underemployed the money on their education is
wasted but if they are able to learn much more than that they would
have earned in the management of education, we may also take into
consideration the benefit of personal growth. But this cannot be
numerically measured but only assumed.
Alfred Marshall refers to ‘education as a national investment’ in his
‘Principles of Economics.’ Marshall writes, “There are few practical
problems in which the economist has a more direct interest than
those relating to the principles on which the expenses of the
education of the children should be divided between the state and
the parents. But we must now consider the conditions that determine
the power and the will of the parents to bear their share of the
expense, whatever it may be.”
John Vaizey has observed, “Education has become a major
source of skills and trained talent. Higher the level of education an
individual has, the higher his earning powers will be.”
The rate of returns could be higher only when right types of skills
are developed. This means appropriate educational reforms.
Education as Linked with the
Development of a Country
In the table below taken from an UNESCO publication, the countries
of the world divided in four categories show the relationship between
Gross National Product per capita and the educational
advancement.
TABLE 1

Stage of Development Measured by Selected

Human Resource Indicators

It is clear from the above table that the per capita GNP in
advanced countries is nearly 14 times that for underdeveloped
countries and while first level enrolment is only four times in
advanced countries the divergence is great at the second and third
levels of enrolment.
It is being 22 times at the second level and nearly 73 times more
while physicians and dentists are 30 times more. Thus, it is clear that
for a higher rate of prosperity, education at all levels is a necessity.
Here is another table which gives per capita expenditure education
and public expenditure on education as percentage of National
Income.
 From this table it is clear that the countries which are developed
have a higher per capita expenditure on education than the
underdeveloped countries. India, however, is making great efforts to
increase its public expenditure on education. It was spending 3.7%
(2.9% according to Education Commission Report) of its national
income on education. However, it is a poor country and its resources
are limited. So, per capita expenditure was only 1.3%. These figures
are, however, rapidly changing and India’s per capita expenditure is
increasing. From the above tables it can be clearly realised that
expenditure on education brings tangible returns. It is an investment
which gives returns in the form of the development of the country. A
country may have resources but it will fail to exploit them if it has
people who are ignorant. Clark considers that, “The development of
a widespread school system has been a major factor in pushing the
income of the U.S. to a far higher level than it would have otherwise
been.”
Therefore, it is necessary that particularly in the early stages of a
country’s economic development education rather than consumer
goods is instrumental in increasing output in all sectors of production
and in creating a basis for continuing progress. It is the human
element that is always the originator of everything that is created and
is responsible for every development of himself, his family, and his
country.
TABLE 2

National Income and Public Expenditure on

Education (1957-60)
Limitations of Cost Benefit Approach
This approach when implied to education suffers from two handicaps
—
(a) Availability and estimation of adequate cost data, and
(b) The calculation of future benefits.
This approach at its present experimental stage of development
tells us more about the past than it does about the future.
In the end it may be said that none of these approaches provides
an adequate basis by itself for educational planning. A synthesis of
all these is needed.
Mark Blaugh and J.A. Lawvery point out in the Year Book of
Education: “Each is only an index, a guide – certainly not an
exclusive guide – to the formulation of educational policy. In one
sense, they are not even indices of the same thing, but rather
different views of the nature of education.”
 [III] Social Demand Approach

The prosperity of the Indian nation is greatly linked with the

prosperity of her rural population. It is to the upliftment of the rural
society that national efforts should be much more intensified. Till now
the higher education has totally an urban bias. The villages have
constantly been neglected with the result that the village community
has remained at a very low level of subsistence. The fruits of modern
technology, sciences, as well as the growth of knowledge in other
field have not at all touched the village community. It is even today
living in mud houses in the surroundings of dust, dirt, and filth.
Hardly any village has any sanitary arrangements. The people are
ignorant of personal hygiene and have no knowledge regarding the
care of their children. A large number of villages have very meager
means of communications. Hardly a few are connected by metalled
road. The bullock-cart forms the only mode of travelling and the cow-
dung as the only fuel. The backwardness of village community can
better be described in the words of late Jawahar Lal Nehru who
asserted that India is still living in the ‘Cow-dung-Age.’ It can easily
be imagined that how gigantic is the task of raising the status of
Indian Society from ‘Cow-dung-Age’ to the ‘Moon and Mars Age’ of
seventies and to the space travel of eighties, electronic revolution of
nineties and in telecommunication age of the first decade of the
twenty-first century. But this is true that this task can be performed
by an educational system which keeps village construction at the
core of its programme. In this system not only the universal literacy,
compulsory attendance but a higher education for the leader,
reformer, and teacher and for creating general consciousness about
modern advancement in sciences is necessary.
The village economy is in a very bad state of affairs. Till a few
years after independence the zamindars were snatching the fruits of
the toils of a farmer. They were growing rich while the farmer was left
a destitute and a constant borrower of the money from the village
moneylender. This was creating in him apathy towards more work
and a loss of desire to produce more than what could serve his
immediate needs. After abolition of the zamindari, this trend is still
persisting since the village farmer is still exploited by the city
businessman. He has no means of communication of his own to
bring his produce to the open market in the city and has to remain
content in whatever the city merchant offers him. Being mostly in
debt he hurries up with the sale of his produce and is thus open to
exploitation. This all is affecting the village economy very adversely.
Another factor responsible for low village economy is the
fragmentation of the holding of the cultivated land by an average
villager. The Indian peasant has less than five acres of land whereas
his British counterpart owns 21 acres. This small holding of land by
an Indian farmer limits greatly the possibilities of mechanized
farming and of bringing other reforms in farming. This affects
production to a great extent.
According to Planning Commission’s estimates during the period
1987-88, 29.9 percent of the population of the country was living
below the poverty line. Out of which 33.4 percent lived in rural areas
and 20.1 percent in the urban areas. The average per capita income
in 1991-92 was Rs. 5529 per annum. Agriculture is still the main
source of livelihood for over 70 percent of the population in the
country. A majority of the poor people live in rural areas without any
property and land. These landless persons are earning their living by
working on the farms of others or are taking up petty jobs for which
they are paid very low wages.
In the fifth plan the concept of the Minimum Needs Programme
(MNP) was introduced. It was realised that the benefits of planned
development were not reaching to the weaker sections, of the
society and the backward areas. Through the MNP this lacuna was
sought to be overcome. The main features of the MNP were:
(i) To provide universal elementary education to the age group
6-14 years.
(ii) To make all the persons in the age group of 15-35 literate.
(iii) To provide one community health worker in each village to
cover and make available services for sanitation,
immunization, simple remedies, and referral services.
(iv) To assure supply of potable water to all villages.
(v) To connect villages with a population of 1000 or more with
link roads.
 (vi) To provide house sites and financial assistance for housing
to all needy households.
(vii) To provide mid-day meals for children in the age group of
11-16 years and supplementary feeding programmes for
undernourished children up to 6 years of age, pregnant
women, and nursing mothers, and
(viii) To provide electrification of villages.
The MNP was primarily intended to provide infrastructure and
social services to the weaker sections. Unfortunately its success was
on a very limited scale. The Sixth Plan recognised this fact. It
realised that the progress towards the development of the weaker
sections had been both halting and slow.
In the Sixth Plan a new strategy for the upliftmeant of the weaker
sections was introduced. It is known as Integrated Rural
Development Programme (IRDP). Its main objective was to raise the
weakest families in the rural areas above the poverty line on a
lasting basis. It sought to do so by giving to these families income
generating assets and access to credit facilities. The difficulties
which this programme felt in its implementation were around a
corrupt network which reduced the quantum of assistance to the
needy and the failure of weaker sections to continue with the
income-generating activities and relapsing back to poverty.
In the Seventh Plan it was sought to further strengthen IRDP. The
defects in the implementation were removed through better planning,
closer monitoring, and purging out of the corrupt elements. The
policy in eighth and ninth plans was also directed towards raising the
socio-economic conditions of ruralities.
In the later plans also rural upliftment was greatly emphasised.
The lot of landless labourers is very pitiable indeed. He gets work
in the fields of the rich farmer and is paid very low wages. In a
country where the cultivator himself is not fully engaged throughout
the year, the work for landless labourer is still more difficult to find. It
is the proverbial poverty of the landless that has motivated Acharya
Vinoba Bhave’s ‘Bhoodan’ movement.
The problem of unemployment in India is becoming grave due to
the population growth at a rapid pace. In the western world there
never was such a rapid growth so there the industrialisation led to
full employment. In India, even industrialisation on the western
pattern will perhaps not solve the problem. For example, in Great
Britain in the middle of the nineteenth century the average growth of
population was below 1.5 percent and there industrialisation plus
migration of the population in large numbers to the New World that is
USA, etc. resulted in better employment of its people. For India,
today there is no such outlet for its surplus population. Added to this
the modern technology is much more labour saving than was the
advanced technology of the nineteenth century when western
countries adopted it. Therefore, as Amlan Datta observes, “But
however first the modern sector may be made to grow, it cannot
under the condition mentioned above, absorb all or most of our large
surplus labour force.” According to him target of full employment in
India cannot be achieved through industrialisation along
conventional lines. For reducing unemployment, liberalisation of
economy is necessary. But liberalisation may be misused by
capitalists. Hence, liberalisation with social responsibility may be
needed. Amlan Datta feels that the modern organised sector is going
to stay with us and will expand. But it will be unrealistic to depend on
that sector for removing poverty and unemployment. He considers
that special attention should be paid to the other sector, comprising
agriculture, handicrafts, and other ‘informal’ activities in our strategy
of development. He emphasises the importance of traditional sector
for solving our basic problems of poverty and unemployment. In the
management of education and on establishing the modern set up of
schools this fact may be kept in mind.
It may be pointed out that since 1968 India’s production in food
grains is speedily increasing. We have achieved Green Revolution.
Let us see how a breakthrough in agriculture could be made
possible.
There may be cited three-fold reasons for the breakthrough in
agriculture. These are:
(i) The farmers took to mechanised farming. Through the
community development programmes they learnt the value of
using the chemical manures, good variety of seeds, and the
use of tractors, etc.
(ii) The Agricultural Universities by conducting experiments on
high yielding varieties of seeds, on modes of irrigation, and the
chemical nature of soil were able, to supply much scientific
data to the nation. Through their extension services they were
able to inform the farmers in the simple language the use of
farm technology in their farming.
(iii) The entry of educated personnel in the agricultural field
helped in the use of scientific methods of cultivation. Many
educated people in the last decade went back to their farms
and started cultivation on scientific lines. For example, in
Punjab the retired military personnel took to agriculture in a big
way, thereby bringing a revolution in the pattern of raising
crops. There may be many other reasons but from the
educational point of view the above three are outstanding. It
may thus be seen that the proper arrangement of education
greatly helps in building a better economic structure and since
economy is the sub-system of social system, its impact on the
over-all social system is clearly marked. Hence, there is a
greater need for providing education, not only primary, but also
higher to the rural population through crash programmes and
the management of schools should take care of the social
demands of the people.
Education through Space Satellite
The year of 1975 may be considered an important year for spreading
literacy and social education in many states of India. In the beginning
of the second half of this year education through space satellite was
provided to a large number of village residents in five states of the
country. The programmes of education fed to the satellite were
relayed back to earth and were received by the television sets
provided by the government to the village panchayats. Within a
fortnight of the inauguration of the programme the T.V. programmes
became very popular. The rural population rapidly learnt not only the
three R’s but also new methods of crop cultivation, sanitary habits,
precaution from infectious diseases, etc. The programmes were
providing education as well as entertainment to many such villages
which had been completely neglected for centuries being in remote
and inaccessible areas. This programme was for a limited period and
had to be discontinued. But now the INSAT system is telecasting
educational programmes.
By 1987, 70 percent of the population in India was covered by
television. A large number of low power and high power transmitters
had been installed all over the country to relay the television
programmes from the satellite. The programmes from 90’s are
reaching to the urban areas as well as to the rural areas. Thus the
satellite transmissions are being used for educating our people.
Through INSAT system and micro-wave relay systems education is
being taken to the doorsteps of the people.
The T.V. network is telecasting programmes through 36 high
power transmitters of 10 Kilowatts (K.W.), 8 medium power
transmitters (1 K.W.), and 37 low power transmitters (100 W). This
number has increased in the seventh plan period. From 4
Doordarshan Kendras curriculum-based school T.V. programmes are
being telecasted. Education television (ETV) programmes which are
for general enrichment of knowledge for children in the age group 5-
11 years are being telecasted in the regional languages through
satellite six days a week, in the 6 INSAT states and relayed by all the
transmitters in the 4 other Hindi speaking states. At the university
stage the University Grants Commission (UGC) is telecasting
programmes, one hour from 13.00 hours to 14.00 hours on all week
days excepting holidays with repeat telecast from 16.00 hours to
17.00 hours under its scheme titled “Countrywide classroom.” UGC
has established Media Centres at different universities and
institutions. It has established Education Media Research Centres
(EMRC) and Audio-Visual Research Centres (AVRC). These centres
are producing programmes for graduate students and are getting
them telecasted at the hours mentioned above under the UGC
scheme of countrywide classroom.
The development mentioned above show that steps are being
taken rapidly for using the satellite technology for educational
growth.
We may again assert in the end that in the present state of the
world a nation needs skilled manpower, a populace which is
educated in higher sciences, humanities, technology, and
agriculture. A well-developed system of higher education brings
these direct benefits to the people of nations. But education is
equally needed for the indirect benefit which it brings. In the words of
Alfred Marshall, “A good education confers great indirect benefit
even on the ordinary workmen. It stimulates his mental activity, it
fosters in him a habit of wise inquisitiveness, it makes him more
intelligent, more ready, and more trustworthy in his ordinary work, it
raises the tone of his life in working hours, it is thus an important
means towards the production of material wealth, at the same time it
is regarded as an end in itself, it is inferior to none of those which the
production of material wealth can be made to subserve. Thus,
education for prosperity to be organised both in terms of direct and
indirect benefits.”
Limitations of Social Demand
Approach
This approach has been criticised on the undermentioned three
grounds:
(a) It does not take into consideration the larger national
problem of resource allocation.
(b) It ignores the character and pattern of manpower needed by
a country.
(c) It tends to overestimate popular demand and underestimates
costs. This may result in their spreading of resources over too
many students thereby reducing quality and effectiveness.
 [IV] Social Justice Approach

A democratic, secular, and socialist state without social justice has

no meaning. A welfare state without education is a contradiction in
terms. The right to education is a fundamental right. It is needed for
the optimum development of all individuals or citizens of a
democratic state.
Appropriate type of education is considered a ‘potent leveler’ of all
disparities.
Social justice approach demands that all should provide equality of
opportunity in education.
The Preamble to the Constitution of India, ‘Interalia’ emphasises –
Justice, Social, Economic, and Political.
Keeping in view the role of education in national development and
social justice, the constitution makers made specific provisions for
education in the Constitution.
Realising the importance of elementary education Article 45
provided for free and compulsory education to all children of age six
to fourteen years. In 2002, this Article was amended and Article 21
A, Right to Education was added.
With a view to meet the demands and requirements of social
justice, the Indian Constitution has provided special safeguard and
special reservations in services, educational institutions and in
Panchayati Raj Institutions for upliftment of the weaker sections like
the SCs, STs, the OBCs, etc. Several concessions like fee
concessions, free uniform, and stipends, etc., are given to the
children belonging to these classes.
Direction in which efforts must be
made to reorganise Educational
System for providing Social Justice:
For achieving the target of social justice in India our efforts must be
directed in many directions for reorganising the educational system.
Some of these directions may be described below:
1) We must try to eradicate adult illiteracy as soon as possible
so that everyone may be prepared to reap the fruits of
education and also to remove the prejudices and biases
concerning the social upliftment in general and exposure to
education in particular.
2) We must make all efforts to increase the opportunities for
education to all the weaker sections of the society like
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, backward communities,
and women.
3) We must provide compulsory elementary education to all
children at least 14 years of age so that no one may suffer
because he has not got a chance for learning.
4) The higher education should be properly organised so that it
may remain open for the talented irrespective of caste, creed,
colour, or sex.
5) The Education Committee (1964-66) suggested that for
equalisation of education opportunity, these measures may be
adopted:
(i) The country should work towards a stage when all education
would be tuition free. From this point of view:
(a) Tuition fees at the primary stage should be abolished in all
the schools as early as possible and preferably before the end
of the Fourth Plan.
(b) Lower secondary education should be made tuition free in all
schools preferably before the end of the Fifth Plan.
(c) For the next ten years, the main efforts with regard to fees in
higher secondary and university education should be to extend
 provisions of tuition-free education to all needy and deserving
students.
(ii) Free textbooks and writing materials should be provided at
the primary stage.
(iii) Transport facilities should be provided imaginatively to
reduce the cost of hostels and scholarships.
(iv) Facilities for students to earn and pay a part of their
educational expenses should be developed.
(v) There should be liberal schemes for scholarships. At the
level of higher education the Government of India should
assume the bulk of such responsibility. At the school stage this
responsibility should vest in the State Government.
(vi) There are wide differences in the educational development
of different states. These become wider still at the district level.
A reduction of the differences to the minimum is desirable.
The Commission has given many other suggestions regarding the
education of Women, Backward classes and Tribal people. As we
look towards the present situation we find that even after forty-five
years the recommendations of the Commission have not been
faithfully implemented.
 [V] Decision-Making Approach

Modern writers on educational administration have greatly

emphasised decision-making as a component of administrative
process. It is considered as the core of administration. McCamy has
gone to the extent to describe, “All other attributes of the
administrative process being dependent or interwoven with and
existent for making decision.”
Culbertson, Jacobson, and Reller consider the decision-making
process as lying close to the nerve centre of administration. They
feel that, “It is administration what is switch-throwing mechanism is
to an express train; it controls direction by selecting between and
among alternative tracks or courses of action.” In any administrative
activity a choice has to be made or a course of action has to be
chosen. The choosing of this course of action on the application of
the rational thinking is the core of the decision-making. It does not
mean that the decisions are not based on hunches or personal
biases. But it does not mean that those decisions which are based
on available adequate data and logical argument are superior to
those made otherwise.
For making decisions the law, code, adopted policy, or prevailing
practice are often valuable guides. In most of the educational
decisions an appeal is made to them and an action is defined in
accordance with them. There are, however, many circumstances,
situations, and happenings in which a decision has to be taken
without drawing upon the guidelines available from code, practice,
etc. In such decisions the ingenuity, understanding, rationality, and
capability of the administrator are taxed to the maximum extent.
The authors on educational administration point out that a rational
decision is a conclusion reached from certain premises. Simon
considers that these premises are of two kinds: value premises and
factual premises which are roughly equivalent to purposes and
means respectively. In the words of Simon, “Behaviour is purposive
in so far as it is guided by general goals and objectives, it is rational
in so far as it selects alternatives which are conducive to the
achievement of the previously selected goals.” The rational decisions
thus depend on values and purposes. They also depend on the
factual data available, the conditions existing and the stimulations
provided.
Levels and Types of Decisions to be
made
The decision-making can be done in a group, in an organisation or
individually. In a group decision is taken through the interaction of
the people in it who collectively arrive at a choice. Organisational
decisions are taken through a process of the interaction with one
another to arrive at a conclusion. The difference in organisational
decision and group decision is that in organisational decisions direct
and continuous involvement of a large proportion of membership is
not necessarily needed. The individual decision making is done by
the person and the process usually takes place in physical isolation
of the other members of the organisation.
According to Culbertson, Jacobson and Reller there are three
types of individual choices of administrators. They consider that “first
there are those decisions that are relatively lacking in self-
awareness, in the sense that they are repetitive and habitual.” In this
category they place the answering to a telephone call, coming to the
office daily etc. In the second type they put the “executive choices
that are made within the framework of clearly established policy.” In
this category they put decision regarding the preparation of a budget,
employment of a new teacher, etc. Finally, they put in the third
category “those decisions that are deliberate and are made in the
absence of neatly prescribed policy.” The examples of this type they
cite are the decisions which occur during changes or re-orientation in
policies or in the face of serious morale problems.
In India, the administrators at the school level are specifically
concerned with only first type of choice-making. Many of them are
concerned with the second type also but rarely they are required to
make choice of the third type. If some such problems arise before
them they simply refer them to the higher authorities who are
concerned competent to deal with them. There is a clear cut
hierarchy of officialdom in education and decision-making is also in
the hierarchical order. A school principal is given limited power and it
is usually expected that routine choices would simply be made by
him. For budget, for selection of teachers, for re-orientation of
policies, etc. he has to depend on the choices made by his
superiors. Thus, in India more importance is attached to the
decisions at the organisation level than those taken at the group
level or individual level.
The decisions at the organisational level refer to the decisions at
the directorate level. The group decisions refer to the decisions at
the level of inspectorial staff where the policy decisions are put in the
form of specific objectives to be achieved through the coordination of
the efforts of the teachers, heads, and other personnel. The
decisions at the level of the head of the institutions or teacher are of
the third category.
How the decisions are made?
For making a decision certain steps are required to be taken. These
steps are similar to that of problem solving since both are rational
processes. In problem solving the first step is the comprehension of
the problem. In decision-making the first step is to understand the
purpose clearly. We may describe the various steps in the decision-
making process as follows:
1. First Step: A clear comprehension of the goal to be served by
the decision;
2. Second Step: Collection of data which means the obtaining of
all the facts, opinions and ideas which are relevant for the
purpose;
3. Third Step: Analysis and interpretation of the data collected in
the light of sound judgement;
4. Fourth Step: Formulation of the alternatives which are
available;
5. Fifth Step: Evaluation of each alternative in the light of its
possible effectiveness in the achievement of the purpose or
goal;
6. Sixth Step: Selecting the particular alternative which offers
the most promise when all possible consequences are
considered.
In educational administration a large number of decisions have to
be taken. The decisions regarding curriculum, textbooks, work
experiences, vocational guidance, etc. are normally taken at the
level of the directorate and also at the school level. At the directorate
level they are more in the form of policy decisions and at the school
level they are the decisions for execution of the policy decisions
already taken. However, at both the levels the above six steps
should be followed.
On what decisions depend: According to Culbertson, Jacobson,
and Reller—“decision premises may be classified into three types:
facts, values, and unsubstantiated information. They consider that as
these premises impinge upon the administrator, they activate
cognitive equipment, arouse emotions, and put violation to work.”
The administrator understands, feels, and wills and the decisions are
taken. Thus, it can be said that the decisions depend on the values,
facts as well as many a times upon information which is not
substantiated.
The values which underlie decisions may be educational,
economic, social, personal, or moral or a mixture of these. There
may be many interrelated values involved in arriving at a decision
regarding permitting girls to study side by side with boys.
An administrator finds many of the values involved in the school
laws or educational policies. In cases where a decision is taken in
the light of them the administrator’s task is easy. But often he will find
himself in difficulty when the decision has the implication of the
involvement of less explicit values which are not embodied in the
school laws or educational policies.
The decisions are also made on the basis of facts. According to
Culbertson “a fact may be defined as a condition, object, or event
that would be accepted as accurate by two or more observers.” On
the basis of funds available the decisions regarding the school
budget are taken.
Decision-making may be based on simple guesses or complex
mathematical analysis; we may divide decision-making bases
between quantitative and non-quantitative. The prominent non-
quantitative bases are:
(a) Institution;
(b) Facts;
(c) Experience; and
(d) Considered opinions.
The common quantitative means employed are:
(a) Operation research;
(b) Linear programming;
(c) Simulation;
(d) Monte Carlo;
(e) Queuing; and
(f) Gaming.
It is not advisable to put faith in any one approach. For effective
planning a balanced and harmonious approach is needed.
 Objective Type Questions

Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the right

option)
(1) A traditional school was considered to be a place where
knowledge was manufactured and this used to be
(a) Bookish
(b) Mechanical
(c) Stereotyped
(d) All of the above
2) “All education is social”. This definition is given by
(a) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
(b) Plato
(c) Dewey
(d) Ross
(3) Management of school plant includes the
(a) School building
(b) Laboratory
(c) Playground
(d) All of the above
(4) The concept of management is driven from
(a) English
(b) Economics
(c) Latin
(d) Greek
Fill in the blanks
(1) The Educational Commission has emphasized the
relationship between educational ___________ and
 __________ requirements. [Enrolment, Manpower]
(2) In management _________ is a very important requisite.
[Productivity]
(3) The _________ can be done in a group. [Decision-making]
 Important Questions

1. Write a short note on the traditional concept of School

Management.
2. Write a short note on the modern concept of School
Management.
3. Write the characteristics of modern School Management.
4. What are the various approaches to Management?
5. Explain the manpower needs approach in the management of
a secondary school.
6. What are the steps that must be taken in making decisions?
7. Why should we adopt manpower planning in our country?
 10
Central and State Agencies of
Education
 10.1 Educational Administration at the
National Level

The agencies at the national level concerned with the development

of education are the Ministry of Education, the University Grants
Commission and the National Council of Educational Research and
Training.
 10.2 National Level or Central Agencies

1. University Grants Commission (UGC).

2. National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT).
3. National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
(NIEPA).
4. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR).
5. Centre of Advanced Studies of Education (CASE).
6. National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE).
The Hon’ble Minister for Education controls the educational policy,
directs it, executes, and ensures uniformity in the pattern of
education in different states. He is assisted by one or two Deputy
Ministers according to need.
The Educational Advisor is the administrative head of the Ministry.
He is the Secretary to the Government of India and is the principle
advisor to the Ministers on all matters of policy and administration.
The Union Ministry at present functions mainly through five bureaus
dealing with the heads:
1) School education;
2) Higher education;
3) Language, Literature and Fine Arts;
4) Scholarships; and
5) Planning and Ancillary Educational Services.
The Bureau of School Education deals with elementary, basic, and
secondary education and the Central School Unit. The Bureau of
Higher Education covers both university and technical education
programmes.
The Bureau of Scholarships deals with all matters relating to
scholarships, internal or external as well as general and cultural.
The Bureau of Planning and Ancillary Educational services
includes the National Council for Educational Research and Training
Unit, social education, planning, publications, statistics, and
information.
The Bureau of Language, Literature, and Fine Arts looks after
cultural matters and development of Indian languages and the three
Academics.
The Scientific Research Division is allied to the Bureau of
Scholarships.
Each bureau has been put in charge of a Joint Secretary or a Joint
Educational Advisor to whom are attached divisional heads for the
major subjects.
The Physical Education and Recreation Division and the External
Relation Division are separated under the charge of a Joint
Educational Advisor.
Advisory Bodies
The Ministry has set up a number of advisory bodies which function
in different sectors of education. The oldest and the most important
of these is the Central Advisory Board of Education. The Board is
presided over by the Union Minister of Education and includes all
State Education Ministers as members. Until 1949, it was the only
body which considered the national problems in education and
tendered advice to the central and state governments.
 The volume of educational activities increased to such an extent
that it was felt desirable to constitute a number of other advisory
bodies to deal with special sectors of education. At present, there
are 15 such bodies viz.:
1. Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO
(1949);
2. Advisory Board for Social Welfare (constituted in 1951 and
reconstituted in 1954);
3. Board of Scientific Terminology;
4. Central Board of Physical Education and Recreation
(constituted in 1950 and reconstituted in 1956);
5. Hindi Shiksha Samiti (1951);
6. National Board of Audio-Visual Education (1953);
7. All India Council for the Sports (constituted in 1954 and
reconstituted in 1959);
8. National Advisory Council for Education of the Handicapped
(1952);
9. National Council for Rural Higher Education (1956);
10. All India Council for Secondary Education (1955);
11. Central Committee for Educational Research (1957);
12. All India Council for Elementary Education (1957);
13. Children’s Literature Committee (1958);
14. National Council for Women’s Education (1959);
15. Central Sanskrit Board (1959).
The institution for these advisory bodies has been found to be very
helpful. They bring official and non-official workers together in the
consideration of educational problems and tender advice to the
Central and State Governments on issues, which are of importance
in formulating educational policies and programmes. They also bring
to bear an all India approach on the discussion of problems
entrusted to them.
A practice of holding periodical conferences of State Education
Ministers to discuss important educational matters is also growing.
 10.3 Modifications Suggested by the Indian
Education Commission

The Indian Education Commission has suggested some

modifications in the recommendations of Secondary Education
Commission and added new plans. It suggests the following advisory
and executive bodies:-
1. National Board of School Education besides the Central
Advisory Board of Education to coordinate the standards of
education at the national level and help the States.
2. Central Board of Secondary Education to deal with all aspects
of Secondary Education at the State level.
3. National Staff College of Educational Administration for
training in educational administration and supervision.
4. State Board of School Education to deal with all the aspects
of secondary education at the State level.
5. State Institutes of Education for providing in-service or regular
training for supervisors and administrators and other
programmes.
6. State Board of Vocational Education to look after vocational
education in the State.
7. State Higher Secondary Committee to look after the Higher
Secondary Education.
8. State Evaluation Organisation for prescribing standards,
improving education techniques, prescribing textbooks, etc.
9. District School Board in each district, to administer
elementary education in the district.
10. Block School Committee to look after the management of
Government and local body schools in the area.
 10.4 Functions of the Central Government

The Central Government has the following functions as far as

education is concerned:-
1) Planning: It lays down the general policy regarding education
to be followed by the states; determines targets and priorities
and prepares a tentative plan-frame for the country as a
whole. It appoints commissions, committees, and boards to
study the various phases of education and suggests steps to
improve the same.
2) Organisation: It appoints commissions and committees to
organise special fields of educations like the mass education,
professional education, employment of the educated, provision
for backward classes, indiscipline among students, grants
commissions for universities, research institutes and
laboratories and the central universities. For these purposes, it
has set up the All India Council for Technical Education, All
India Council for Secondary Education, the All India Council
for Elementary Education, the National Council of Educational
Research and Training, etc.
3) Direction: It directs and guides the state governments, local
bodies, and individual enterprises so as to encourage
education on right lines. Through the Central Advisory Board
of Education; it tries to solve the baffling educational problems
as medium of instruction, assessment, and evaluation,
textbook nationalisation, teaching personnel, libraries, and
laboratories.
4) Control: As the financial resources of most states are
inadequate for supporting their educational programmes, they
look to the Central Government for grants and subsidies for
short as well as long-term projects. The Centre allocates
suitable grants for the state, local bodies, private agencies,
and individual scholars out of the Central Budget. It arranges
student exchange programmes with foreign countries. It
makes available certain fellowships and scholarships for
outstanding scholars to go into advanced study of subjects. It
 arranges students training abroad and in-service training of
teachers through the extension service departments.
5) Equalising Educational Opportunities: It provides financial
assistance in such a way that the weaker or lesser states will
be able to catch up with the forward states or at least reduce
the large discrepancies that exists at present between them
and the advanced states. It levels out the differences in
respect of different types of education and tries to provide
equality of educational opportunity to every child. The targets
are fixed and weaker states are assisted to achieve the
targets.
6) Pilot Projects: For showing new light for the people in the
country, it undertakes certain pilot projects like Rural
Universities, Education Extension Services, Regional
Institutes, preparation of textbooks for different school subjects
through the department of curriculum, methods, and
textbooks. It can provide leadership for developing a
programme of significant and fundamental research in
education to assist state governments in improving the quality
of education.
7) Clearing House Function: It serves as a repository and
clearing house of information and ideas on education,
research, training, and expansion for all the states.
Educational statistics for the whole country are collected. The
Government of India brings out three publications every year:-
(i) Education in India (in two volumes);
(ii) Education in the States; and
(iii) Education in Indian Universities.
Besides, it also publishes a Directory of Institutions of Higher
Education. It also publishes studies and surveys, reports of
commissions and committees and such other educational
documents and ideas. There is a special publications section
and it has brought out about 530 publications. A number of
magazines – Education Quarterly, Secondary Education, Youth,
Indian Journal of Educational Administration and Research are
published to disseminate improved techniques, practices, and
latest ideas.
8) Administration of Education in the Union Territories and
Centrally Administered Area: The Centre is directly
responsible for education in the Union Territories of Delhi,
Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, Laccadive, and the centrally
administrated areas of Pondicherry, N.E.F.A., and N.H.T.A.
It may be pointed out here that the educational activities are
not centralised in the Ministry of Education. Practically, every
Ministry of the Government of India conducts some educational
programmes.
 10.5 Centre’s Responsibilities in Education

1. Indian Education Commission (1964-66)

The Indian Education Commission made the following

recommendations as the centre’s responsibilities in education.
(i) The improvement of teacher status and teacher education;
(ii) Manpower planning in crucial sectors like agriculture,
engineering, medicine, etc.
(iii) The development of a programme of scholarships;
(iv) The equalisation of educational opportunities with special
reference to the reduction of inter-state differences and the
advancement of weaker sections of the community;
(v) The provision of free and compulsory education directed by
the Constitution;
(vi) The vocationalisation of secondary education and the
improvement of standards at the school stage;
(i) The development of higher education and research with
special reference to the post-graduate stage;
(ii) The development of professional education in agriculture
and industry;
(iii) The promotion of scientific research; and
(iv) The promotion of educational research.
The University Grants Commission
On the recommendations of the University Education Commission,
the University Grants Commission was established under an Act of
Parliament in 1956 to look after the higher education.
The U.G.C. deals with about ninety universities and pays them
development grants out of funds placed at its disposal by the
Government of India. The U.G.C. arranges a visitation of the
Universities every five years through visiting committees and grants-
in-aid are sanctioned on the basis of their recommendations.
The Indian Education Commission (1964-66) is of the opinion that
U.G.C. has a creditable record of work during the first ten years of its
existence. The Commission has given the following suggestions to
further strengthen the U.G.C.:
(i) The U.G.C. should represent the entire spectrum of higher
education. It should be professionally concerned and
adequately equipped to deal with all its problems. Agriculture,
technology, medical sciences, and teaching will all be the
richer for being part of this broad stream and by being
concerned with the problems and needs of one another. All
higher education including agriculture, engineering, and
medicine should be regarded as an integrated whole and be
brought within the purview of the U.G.C. This is the ultimate
direction in which we should move.
(ii) For the time being, it would be more feasible to set up a
separate U.G.C. - type organisations for agricultural,
engineering, and medical education and to create machinery
that would effectively coordinate with them. For immediate
action the Commission has given the following proposals:
(1) It is not desirable that the Government should deal directly
with the Universities. There should be a body-committee of
persons between the Government and the universities
selected for their knowledge and standing rather than for their
political affiliation or official status.
(2) The U.G.C. type organisations, based on the above
principles, should be set up for dealing with technical,
 agricultural, and medical education. They should be composed
of teachers and scientists of eminence in their fields and
should be small and compact bodies so that they can meet
frequently and work expeditiously. They should function more
or less like the U.G.C., i.e., lumpsum grants should be placed
at their disposal by the ministries concerned and they should
have the freedom to distribute them to the universities in
relation to their needs, and programmes of development.
(3) For the purpose of coordination, there should be a certain
overlapping membership between the U.G.C. and the U.G.C.
type organisations.
(iii) The U.G.C. should consist of 12-15 members. Of these not
more than one third should be officials of the Government. At
least one-third should be from the universities. The remaining
should be eminent educationists. To provide greater degree of
rotation, the term of office of members may be reduced from
the present six years to three with not more than one
extension.
(iv) The U.G.C. should work through a number of standing
committees set up to deal with important responsibilities.
There may be standing committees on affiliated colleges,
teacher education, preparation of university, textbooks, and
development of literature in modern Indian languages, and
students welfare.
(v) The inspections taken up by U.G.C. should be done in
greater details and depth.
Activities of U.G.C.
During its short period of existence, the U.G.C. has been able to float
a number of projects and schemes. Some of them are mentioned
here:
1. Autonomous colleges.
2. Redesigning the undergraduate courses by making them
more relevant and to link education with work/field/practical
experience and productivity.
3. Consolidation of and expansion of facilities of the existing
university departments and colleges.
4. Providing computer facilities to 93 universities and mini-
computers to 200 colleges during the seventh plan period.
5. Setting up Academic Staff Colleges for the orientation of
newly appointed university and college lecturers.
6. Special assistance for the promotion of research to individual
teachers and colleges.
7. Setting up documentation centers like Nuclear Science
Centers at JNU, Radio Astronomy Centre at Poona University,
National Centre of Astronomy at Osmania University,
Hyderabad.
8. Providing media and educational technology facilities. The
UGC has provided coloured TV sets to 2000 selected colleges
during the seventh plan period. The Commission is at present
supporting four Educational Media Research Centres
(EMRCs) at the University of Poona; Gujarat University,
Ahmdabad; Central Institute of English and Foreign
Languages, Hyderabad; and Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.
Seven Audio-Visual Research Centres (AVRCs) at the
University of Roorkee; Osmania University; University of
Jodhpur; Anna University, Madras; St. Xavier’s College,
Kolkata; Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai; and Kashmir
University, Srinagar, are being supported for the training of
personnel of production of software. A proposal for
establishment of a TV programme production centre at
Bharatidasan University, Tiruchirapalli for production of model
 tele courses in fifteen chosen subjects for under-graduate
students is under the Commission’s consideration.
9. Adult, continuing, and extension programmes in 92
universities and 2,121 colleges;
10. Provides facilities to Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes;
11. Bilateral Exchange Programmes of college teachers;
12. Special assistance to universities to undertake well defined
projects for research in women’s studies; and
13. Selected university departments are recognised as Centres
for Advanced Studies (CAS) and certain departments for
financial assistance.
 2. National Council of Educational Research
and Training (NCERT)

In the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) it was proposed to establish a

training and research centre at the national level which should be an
autonomous body and work for the promotion of research and
training facilities in varied fields of educational activity. This led to the
establishment of a National Council of Educational Research and
Training in 1961 under the society Registration Act of XXI Statute of
1860.
The major objectives of the Council are to assist the Ministry of
Human Resource Development in formulating and implementing
policies and programmes in the field of school education.
It took over the Central Institute of Education (1947) (later on it
was taken over by the Delhi University), the Central Bureau of
Textbooks Research (1954), the Central Bureau of Educational and
Vocational Guidance (1954), the All India Council for Secondary
Education (1955), the Directorate of Extension Programme for
Secondary Education, generally known as DEPSE (1955), the
National Institute of Basic Education (1956), the National
Fundamental Centre Education (1956), and the National Institute of
Audio-Visual Education (1959). These organisations were set up in
the year given in the brackets against each.
Structure and Administration
The Governing body is the policy-making body of the Council. It is
headed by the Union Minister of Human Resource Development
(formerly known as the Union Education Minister) and includes as its
President (Exofficio), Minister of State in the Ministry of Human
Resource Development (as Ex-officio Vice-President), the Deputy
Ministers, Education Minister of all the States and Union Territories
as its members. In addition, it includes the Chairman of the
University Grants Commission, the Secretary to the Ministry of
Human Resource Development, four Vice-Chancellors of
Universities (one from each region), Director of the Council, four
educationists with known interests in school education (two of whom
shall be school teachers), the Joint Director of the Council and three
others.
Activities
For the realisation of the above objectives, NCERT undertakes the
following programmes and activities:
• Conducts, aids, promotes and coordinates research in all
branches of school education;
• Organises pre-service and in-service training of teachers
mainly at an advanced level;
• Organises extension services for institutions, organisations,
and agencies engaged in educational reconstruction;
• Develops and experiments with improved educational
techniques, practices, and innovations
• Collects, compiles and disseminates educational information;
• Assists the States and the State-level institutions,
organisations and agencies in developing and implementing
programmes for qualitative improvement of school education;
• Collaborates with international organisations like UNESCO,
UNICEF, etc. and with national-level educational institutions of
other countries;
• Extends facilities for training and study of educational
personnel from other countries;
• Serves as the academic secretariat of the National Council for
Teacher Education (NCTE).
The National Council of Educational Research and Training runs the
following:
1. The National Institute of Education (NIE).
2. Central Institute of Educational Technology.
3. Four Regional Institutions of Education formerly known as
Regional Colleges of Education.
4. Seventeen Field Units.
Organisation of NCERT
At present the National Institute of Education consists of the
following departments:
1) Psychological Foundation Department
2) Science Education
3) Teacher Education Department
4) Philosophical Foundation
5) Department of Field Services
6) Journal Cell and ERIC (Educational Research & Innovation
Cell)
7) Department of Curriculum and Textbooks
8) Basic Education and Primary Education
9) Department of Audio-visual Education
10) Adult Education and Literacy
11) Central Science Workshop
12) Educational Survey Unit
13) Work-experience and Vocationalisation
14) Central Institute of Education Technology
15) Examination and Evaluation Unit
16) Education of the Handicapped, and
17) Guidance and Counselling.
Apart from the above, the Council has also established State
Institutes of Educational Research and Training in each state and
four regional colleges of education at Ajmer, Bhopal, Mysore, and
Bhubaneswar catering to the need of the training of secondary
school teachers and research works in this direction.
Objectives of NCERT
The Council works for achieving the following objectives:
1) To establish a National Institute of Education (NIE) and
manage for the development of research and higher training
for educational administrators and teachers.
2) To arrange for the establishment of training institutes for the
professional and scientific enhancement of teaching.
3) To provide guidance and counselling services on a large
scale.
4) To publish necessary textbooks, journals and other literature
for achieving the objectives.
5) To organise extension centres in training institutions with the
cooperation of the state governments and extend facilities
pertaining to new methods and technologies among them.
6) To launch, organise and strengthen research works in various
aspects of education.
7) To arrange pre-service and in-service training at the higher
level.
Various Programmes of NCERT
The National Institute of Education, through its various departments
deals with the following developmental works:
a) To investigate problems pertaining to inservice training,
educational planning, and administration at different centres
located in states.
b) To prepare charts, models, film-strips and audio-visual
material for science and other subjects.
c) To investigate the problems of basic education and implement
the programme of adult education.
d) To suggest suitable reforms in the curriculum and methods of
teaching of science and mathematics and develop proper
educational material, equipment and textbooks in this
connection.
e) To expand the scheme of social studies and prepare its
terminology.
f) To arrange for educational surveys in the field of group
dynamics, direction and exchange of views on psychological
basis.
g) To conduct research for bringing about economy in the
construction of school building.
h) To launch areawise researches pertaining to the problems of
teachers, curriculum methods of teaching and technology.
i) To arrange for providing fellowship for the encouragement of
research works in different fields.
j) To conduct research works in collaboration with the health and
welfare departments of USA.
k) To organise summer institutes in the field of social science
and humanities for developing a suitable school curriculum.
l) To arrange summer institutes for science and mathematics
teachers in collaboration with the University Grants
Commission and International Technical Development Agency
(USAID).
m) To provide summer school-cumcorrespondence programmes
for in-service teachers in the regional colleges of education
located in different areas.
 3. National Institute of Educational Planning
and Administration (NIEPA)

Formerly known as the National Staff College for Educational

Planners and Administrators, it began to function on 1st January,
1971 after it was registered under the Indian Societies Registration
Act, 1860 on 31st December, 1970. With the expiry of agreement
with UNESCO under which, the Asian Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration was functioning, the Staff College from
31st March, 1973 moved to the new premises at the NCERT.
Thereafter it was renamed as National Institute of Educational
Planning and Administration.
The institute has an important place in the national educational
system of the country. It is the highest organisation of educational
planning and administration. It has a important role in the area of
educational planning, administration and training. It has the following
functions in education:
1. It provides the training of educational planning and
administration to develop the abilities and competencies in the
educational administration as the inservice programme.
2. It integrates the educational studies and researches under the
area of educationalplanning and administration, and makes
the coordination in these activities.
3. It also provides the training facilities in educational planning
and administration at State level and regional level to develop
efficiency at their level.
4. It has the extension programmes for new developments and
innovations in the area of planning and administration.
5. It also encourages to the workers to solve the problems of
educational planning and administration by organising
seminars and workshops.
6. It provides the guidance at National and State levels in the
area of planning and administration.
7. It establishes contact with other countries to understand the
developments and innovations of the developed countries.
 It has multi-dimensional activities in educational planning and
administration. The educational planning and administration journal
is published under extension programmes. The books and other
booklets are published by the Institute of Education.
The educational research reports are published. The publication
unit establishes the coordination between theory and practice. The
review of studies of educational planning and administration of
developed countries is also done by the institute. It is used to
develop our education system and solve the educational problems.
There are twelve books on different aspects of educational planning
and administration which have been published by NIEPA. The
seminars and workshops are organised and their discussions and
results are published. It also evaluates the effectiveness or
workability of new innovations. The orientation courses are
organised for the educational administrators to provide the
awareness of new developments in the area of planning and
administration.
 4. Indian Council of Social Science
Research (ICSSR)

The Planning Commission realised the importance of social science

research works. A committee was appointed by the Commission and
it recommended establishing the Council at national level. This
Council was established in August (1969) as an autonomous
organisation. The main focus of the Council is to develop the social
science researches and also establish coordination in them. The
financial assistance and grants are provided by the Council. The
Council has the following functions.
(i) To review the social science research studies and provide
guidance for their applicability.
(ii) To provide grants and financial assistance to universities,
colleges, and other institutes for social science research.
(iii) It also provides the financial assistance for individual
research workers.
(iv) To provide the awareness about new emerging trends of
society for conducting research studies in these areas.
(v) It encourages the interdisciplinary research studies and
coordinates such studies.
(vi) To organise orientation courses, seminars, workshops for
new methodology and new areas of studies.
(vii) To provide the financial assistance for conducting research
studies and projects in social science subjects.
(viii) It provides the scholarships and fellowships for the full time
research workers.
(ix) It provides the guidance for the social science research to
the institute and research workers.
(x) It encourages the research workers to review the studies of
developed countries to understand our own problems.
 5. Centre of Advanced Studies of Education
(CASE)

The teacher-education has been given great importance by the

developed nations of the world. The teacher-education has to face
new challenges. There are new changes in the education of India.
The Centre of Advanced Studies of Education has been established
in the university. The first CASE was established at M. S. University,
Baroda (Gujarat). The U.G.C. has granted two centers of CASE in
our state at University of Lucknow and Rohilkhand University,
Bareilly. The CASE has been granted for the Kurukshetra University,
Haryana. The centres function under the guidance of University
Grants Commission. The CASE has the following main functions:
(i) To encourage the cooperative research work in the discipline
of education and teacher-education.
(ii) To provide the valuable information to teacher-educators,
planners, and administrators by publishing booklets and
journals.
(iii) To provide the scholarships and financial assistance to
scholars and teachers.
(iv) To encourage different types of programmes for the social
development.
(v) To encourage the teacher-education for the research work by
providing teacher-fellowship and grants.
(vi) To organise extension programmes with collaboration of
NCERT, NCTE, and UGC.
The CASE Baroda had collected research studies conducted in
Indian universities and other organisations. The Educational
Research Survey was published by M.B. Buch for the first time in the
country, for the use for research workers.
 6. National Council of Teacher-Education
(NCTE)

The Ministry of Education of the Government of India established the

National Council of Teacher-Education (NCTE) in May 1973. It was
formed with this view that it would provide guidance to the centre
and states for solving problems and suggestions for the
development. It had been given statutory statues and an Act was
passed in 1993. Now it is an autonomous body for the development
of teacher-education like NCERT. The head office of NCTE is at New
Delhi in the campus of NCERT.
The NCTE has the following functions according to the Act of
1993:
1) Undertake survey and studies relating to various aspects of
teacher-education and publish the results.
2) Make recommendations to the centre and state governments,
universities, the UGC, and other institutions in the preparation
of plans and programmes in the field of teacher-education.
3) Coordinating and monitoring teacher-education and its
development in the country.
4) Prepare a guideline with regard to minimum qualifications for
the candidates to be employed as teacher-education at
different levels.
5) Develop norms for any specified category of courses or
training in teacher-education, including minimum eligibility
criteria for admission.
6) Prepare a guideline and specified requirements for starting
new courses and programmes under teacher-education.
7) Develop guidelines for general teacher-education
programme.
8) Promote innovations and research studies and organise them
periodically or annually.
9) Supervise the teacher-education programmes and provide
financial assistance.
10) Enforcing accountability of teacher-development
programmes in the country.
11) Preventing commercialisation in teacher-education and
maintain quality and standard of teacher-education to produce
better teachers.
12) Entrust responsibility to other organisations, universities,
and other institutes.
13) Prepare a programme for in-service teacher-education for
orienting teachers for the latest development.
14) Establish international relations in the area of teacher-
education.
Academic Programmes of NCTE
The following are the main academic programmes for NCTE:
1) Preventing B.Ed correspondence courses which are lowering
the standard and quality of teacher-education. It has
commercialised the teacher-education. K.L. Mali as Education
Minister has also opposed this programme.
2) Code of Professional Ethics is to be maintained by orienting
teachers in this context.
3) Development of curriculum of teacher-education pedagogical
theory, working with community and teaching practice. The
stagewise curriculum has been given in a separate chapter of
NCTE.
4) Methodology of teaching and techniques evaluation
procedures, continuing and non-formal education and
administration structure has been given in the chapter of
NCTE.
5) Role of teacher in social and vocational areas. The workshop
was organised in Madras in 1987.
Future Programmes of NCTE
The following are the main future plans and programmes of NCTE:
1) Formulation of objectives of teacher-education general and
stagewise.
2) Development of curriculum for different stages of teacher-
education.
3) Development of four year programme content cure
methodology teaching.
4) Organise National Seminars and Workshops.
5) Develop the criterion of admission.
6) Publish Teacher-Education bulletin.
The main Central Agencies are the four – NCERT, NCTE, UGC,
and the Department of Education of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development (MHRD). The proposed university will be the liaison
between the NCERT and the State Government. As such it will be
superfluous for the NCERT to maintain its field offices at State levels.
It can also serve as the academic agent of the NCTE for the State,
whenever the proposed university is established. It will not only carry
on the accreditation work but will also take the NCTE’s permission if
a new institution is to be established. It is hoped that the UGC will
extend to the proposed university all the benefits and facilities which
it generally grants to a statutory university.
In the academic field, it will no doubt run the conventional Ph. D.,
M. Phil., M.Ed., B. Ed. courses, but will also introduce M.A./M.Sc.
courses and the four-year degree course in Education as well. It can
also organise postgraduate diploma courses in a number of fields. It
will further fix a policy of recruiting the staff for training the teachers
of higher secondary classes.
 10.6 State-Level Agencies

1. State Board of Teacher Education (SBTE)

2. Universities Department Education (UDE)
3. Continuing Teacher Education Centre (CTEC)
4. Distance of Correspondence Teacher Education (DTE or
DCTE)
5. Summer Institute of Education (SIE)
6. College of Teacher Education (CTE)
7. State Institutes of Education (SIE)
At the state level, there is a Directorate of Education, working
under the direct control of the Ministry of Education. The Minister
controls the educational policy and directs its execution. He is also
responsible to the state legislative of which he is a member.
The Ministry of Education is not responsible for the entire
education of the state. General education is his responsibility but
other ministers and departments have under their control schools
and colleges pertaining to their specialised branches like, medical
education, technical education, agricultural education, industrial
education, and the like.
The Minister administers his duties through the State Department
of Education. The State Department of Education is organised at two
focal points: policy making and coordination function in the
Secretariat and the direction, regulation and inspection function at
the directorate.
The Secretary is the administrative head of the Secretariat. He is
directly responsible to the Ministry of Education. He is often a
member of the Indian Administrative Service. He is assisted by a
deputy and a few assistants or undersecretaries. The Secretary
keeps liaison between Directorate of Education and the Government.
The Directorate is an executive body. It executes the policy of the
Government framed in the Secretariat. The Director is the executive
head of the Education Department and is responsible for offering
technical advice to the Minister and for carrying out the policy of the
Department. He keeps the Government informed regarding the
educational needs and actual progress of education in the state,
people’s reaction to a government policy of education, awards
grants, conducts research, etc.
The Director contacts the Department through his staff at the
Headquarter and Circle Education Officers. He is assisted by a
number of Deputy Directors. Some states have the post of a Joint
Director also to help the Director. In some states the Director is an
I.A.S. officer.
A state is divided into circles. Each circle is in-charge of a Circle
Education Officer. This officer looks after all the schools in the circle.
The Circle Education Officers discharge their functions through a
large number of District Education Officers. District Education
Officers are assisted by Block Education Officers.
All states do not have identical administrative set-up but most of
them practice a three-tier arrangement, namely the State
Department of Education, the Regional or the Divisional or the Circle
Officer and the District Officer. Though they differ somewhat from
one another in the organisation of their departments of education,
there is little variation in their organisation at the regional and district
level. Some States, however, have only a two-tier arrangement – the
State Department of Education and the District Office.
A decade ago, a single Directorate of Education used to control
both general and technical education. Both these branches are now
under two separate Directors of Education. Even general education
is further sub-divided in some states into two parts – school and
college education. Such a practice exists in Jammu and Kashmir,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
In short, Directorate of Education is tending to be concerned, in the
main, with education at the school level. Administration of technical
and higher education is moving towards independent forms.
 Administrative Set-up

(As proposed by Indian Education Commission)

Administrative Set-up of the State Department of
Education

(Proposed Pattern)

The Indian Education Commission (1964-66) recommended a

different type of administrative machinery. The administrative set-up
proposed by the Secondary Education Commission (1953-55) and
the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) has been given in
figures for the sake of comparison.
 10.7 Indian Education Commission’s
Recommendations for the Reorganisation
of State Department of Education

The Indian Education Commission makes the following

recommendations for the reorganisation of the State Department of
Education.
1. The State Education Department will be the principal agency
to deal with educational matters and will, therefore, be
responsible for
i) Development and implementation of programme of school
improvement;
ii) The prescription and enforcement of standard;
iii) The training and supply of teachers;
iv) Inspection and supervision;
v) Establishment and maintenance of a State Evaluation
Organisation;
vi) Maintenance of quality institutions and provision of extension
services;
vii) Establishment and maintenance of a State Institute of
Education, and
viii) Coordination and eventual assumption of responsibility for
vocational and technical education at the school stage.
2. In view of the importance of strengthening the departmental
organisation at the district level—
(a) The District Education Officer should be given adequate
status by including the post in the proposed Indian Educational
Service;
(b) Adequate authority should be delegated to the district level;
(c) Scales of pay and qualifications of inspectorial staff at the
district level should be upgraded;
(d) The strength of the district staff should be increased with the
addition of specialists and a statistical cell, and,
(e) A fair proportion of the district staff should consist of women
officers in order to encourage girls’ education.
3. Headmasters should be selected carefully and should be
specially trained. They should be vested with necessary
authority and freedom.
 10.8 Functions of the State Government

The State Governments have the following functions as far as

education is concerned:
1. Finance: The most important function of the State
Government is to find out all the resources needed for
elementary and secondary education. This responsibility is
subject only to two limitations-(1) Central grants that may be
received from time to time, and (2) the contributions raised by
local bodies and private agencies, if any.
2. Legislation: To pass laws for different types of education is
the second major function of the state. To pass laws for
compulsory attendance for elementary education, education
for women, handicapped, etc. is the state’s responsibility.
3. Supervision and Inspection: Since the state provides the
vast bulk of the funds required for education and is responsible
to account for it to the state legislature, it has to maintain an
agency to supervise schools in all cases. Even when the
authority over elementary and secondary education is
transferred to local bodies, the state has to maintain a
supervisory machinery of its own to watch over the manner the
schools are being run by them. Where they fail to run the
schools properly, the state takes over these schools.
4. Recruitment of Teachers: The states are responsible for
recruitment for teachers, for prescribing the remuneration and
other service conditions of teachers. The recruitment of
teachers is sometimes done by the Public Service
Commission and sometimes by authorities appointed by the
state, for example, Subordinate Service Selection Boards.
Even when it is transferred to local bodies, the state retains
the right to frame recruitment rules and to lay down the
procedures for recruitment.
5. Prescription of Curricula: The State prescribes the
textbooks for the entire state or for different zones or regions in
line with the curricula framed. The production and easy supply
of textbooks is one of the major responsibilities of the state.
 When the responsibility for education is transferred to local bodies,
the state government has to take over to itself, in relation to the local
bodies under its control, all those functions which the Centre has to
perform in respect of the states viz.,
(a) It has to act as a clearing house and coordinating agency so
as to bring about unity and coherence;
(b) It has to provide leadership through training of staff,
supervision, research, and pilot projects;
(c) It has to equalise educational opportunities by providing
special assistance to the poorer and more backward local
bodies.
It is obvious that the state governments have supreme
responsibility for education and that, even when local bodies are
made to share the burden at times, the residual responsibilities of
the state are still large and are of very great significance.
 10.9 State and Secondary Education

Secondary Education is under direct and full control of the states.

The state governments prepare their education plans in the light of
their local conditions and needs and within the plan-frame prepared
at the centre. State governments have been setting up Boards of
Secondary Education especially after the recommendation of the
Secondary Education Commission and now, Punjab, Haryana,
Tripura, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, and Manipur almost all states
have such boards. The boards are mainly advisory in character; they
include secondary school teachers and headmasters, and
representatives of universities. Through their syllabus committees,
they frame and recommend curricula for approval by the
Government and they also conduct the final school leaving
examination. In the states which have yet to set up Secondary
Education Boards, the university prescribes the courses of studies
for the high school classes and conducts the external examination.
The state governments exercise control, partly direct and partly
indirect, over all secondary schools irrespective of the type of
management, through their power to accord aid and, or recognition.
They give subsidies and grants-in-aid to other managements to meet
a proportion of the total expenditure. This financial aid is subject to
conditions of the recognition laid down by the Government. In this
way, through the rules and regulations, supported by a system of
supervision and inspection, the State Government exercises
considerable sway over the whole field of secondary education in the
state.
There are a few schools in each state not coming under state
control: (a) Schools administered by other public authorities like, the
Railway Ministry or the Defence Ministry which generally fall in line
with the state system, and send up their pupils for final examination
conducted by the State Board or the University; (b) The public
schools, which do not fit into any state pattern but are residential
institutions, catering to a select category of pupils, who generally
take the Senior Cambridge Examination.
Finance – Sources of revenue at the state level are: (a)
Government’s funds (grants); (b) district board and municipal board
funds; (c) private endowments; and (d) fees. Government grants and
fees, accounts for more than four-fifths of the total income.
Grants-in-aid are made by the state to privately managed
institutions for the following purposes:
(a) towards the salaries and allowances of the teachers;
(b) towards the rent and repair of the school building;
(c) towards the expenditure on furniture, equipment and
teaching materials;
(d) for purchase, acquisition and extension of the school building
or playgrounds;
(e) for meeting loss of income due to fee-concessions. For
payments of these grants, the states lay down conditions from
time to time.
 10.10 State and Higher Education

States also control the activities of the university. They appoint

commissions and committees to give suitable recommendations to
improve universities. The state universities are dependent upon the
state government. State disburses finances to help in the successful
functioning of the university. State Government gets the things done
through its education department.
A Recent Reaction
Eminent educationist and public men are having a strong feeling at
the moment that education should be transferred from the state list
to that of the centre and that if this radical change is not immediately
acceptable to the states, the subject should be put on the concurrent
list so that the Union Government is given more responsibility and
authority for shaping national policies. They feel that the
individualistic policies and plans followed in the different states have
put the national system of education in a condition of virtual chaos. A
uniform pattern of education and uniform pay scales and other
conditions of service would be possible only when there is
Parliament’s control on the entire field of education. Mr. Chagla, the
Ex-Union Education Minister said, “Education should become a
concurrent subject if we want to make real progress.” He very
much emphasised the creation of an All India Educational Service as
it felt that it would mean an “important beginning” to make education
a “really national subject.”
Though the states in general have not viewed with favour the idea
of making education a concurrent subject, the recent conference in
effect agreed that the Central Government should assume more
responsibility and provide necessary funds. Block grants should be
earmarked for the central projects. It has also recommended the
creation of I.E.S. for streamlining the educational administration in
the country.
The conference also agreed to the creation of the All India
Educational Service. “All those steps” in the words of Mr. M.C.
Chagla, “would take us a long way towards establishing a system of
education which will be uniform and national.”
 10.11 Local Bodies

There is no uniformity regarding the role of local bodies in education

in India. Even in the same State, there is lack of uniformity. In urban
areas, the municipalities have been associated with education in
Andhra Pradesh (Andhra area), Bihar, Gujarat (Mumbai area), Tamil
Nadu (Tamil Nadu area), Maharashtra (Mumbai and Vidharbha
areas), and Mysore (Mumbai and Chennai areas). In rural areas, the
Panchayat Raj institutions have been introduced and placed in
charge of education in all States, except Jammu and Kashmir,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Mysore, Nagaland, and Punjab. The
method of association is also not uniform. The Municipalities are
generally incharge of primary education but they can also undertake
other educational activities at their discretion. The Panchayat Raj
institutions have been entrusted with lower primary education in
some States (e.g. West Bengal); with the whole of primary education
in some states (Tamil Nadu) and with both primary and secondary
education in some states (Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra).
Authority of education has been delegated to the block level (in
some states e.g. Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu); and to the district level
in some others (Maharashtra). The system of administration and
grants-in-aid also show similar variations.
The village Panchayat should elect a school committee consisting
of some of its own members and some non-members interested in
education. The committee should have its own Chairman and its
Headmaster of the local school should work as its secretary. Where
village Panchayats do not exist, their committee may be nominated
by the Education Department. The following should be the duties
and powers of these committees:
(1) To provide adequate accommodation and equipment to
primary schools;
(2) To carry out current repairs of school buildings and if
authorised, also to carry out special repairs and to construct
new buildings;
(3) To exercise such supervision over the school as may be
prescribed;
 (4) To be responsible for the enforcement of compulsory
attendance within its area;
(5) To provide and maintain playgrounds and school gardens;
(6) To make provisions for drinking water and necessary
amenities required by school children;
(7) To provide wherever possible, mid-day meals;
(8) To provide school functions; and
(9) To celebrate school functions and to organise school
excursions and other social and cultural programmes.
For meeting expenditure on account of these responsibilities, the
school committee should receive:
1) a certain proportion of the income of the local village
panchayat; and
2) a grant-in-aid fixed on the basis of equalisation, i.e., a larger
grant being given to poorer areas and a smaller grant to richer
areas.
The committee should supplement these receipts through
voluntary contributions to the local community.
This proposal has great potentialities; and proper working of the
proposal may show significant results.
The Balwant Rai Committee recommended devaluation of powers
to a body which “will have the entire charge of development work
within its jurisdiction.” It is suggested that the jurisdiction of the
proposed local body should be “neither so large as to defeat the very
purpose for which it is created, nor so small as to initiate against
efficiency and economy.” Identified the community development
block as such and recommended a local body at this, the Panchayat
Samiti, which was indirectly elected by the village panchayat with
some representation to municipalities and cooperation organisations
located within its jurisdiction. The real operational authority is to vest
in the Panchayat Samiti. Below it is the Panchayat, and at the district
level is the Zila Parishad, mainly charged with the functions of
coordination. Primary education was one of the subjects to be
entrusted to these new local bodies.
 10.12 Arguments against the Control of
Primary Education by Local Bodies

Practical experience in various states has revealed certain

drawbacks of local control in primary education.
1. Local bodies generally have limited financial resources. With
the result, the conditions in the schools deteriorate to the
disadvantages of both the pupils and the teacher.
2. The leadership available at the local levels is not sufficiently
competent and experienced to deal satisfactorily with the
varied and difficult problems of primary education.
3. Teachers are the worst sufferers because (a) appointments
are not judicious, (b) transfers are too frequent, (c) the
provisions for remuneration in old age is inadequate, and (d)
local politics interferes with the internal functioning of the
schools.
The thinkers on education do not want to take primary education
out of the hands of local bodies on these arguments alone. They say
if proper leadership is not available at the local level through such
experiments the leadership at the local level can be trained and built
up. Also there are no short-cuts to the development of democracy
and if we want to prepare the country as a democracy, we must be
prepared to trust the local bodies and to give them the right to share
in this social enterprise.
Some educationists are of the view that local bodies cannot
function properly unless the people, as a whole are sufficiently
educated. They, therefore, suggest that elementary education should
be kept under government control and developed quickly through a
phased programme till illiteracy is liquidated, and that elementary
education may be handed over to local bodies only after fulfilling this
task. They opine that the transfer of elementary education to the
local control without this preparation will not be wise.
In opposition to this, there are educationists who point out that the
bureaucratic administration of elementary education can never
enthuse the people and achieve the desired results. Moreover, to
argue that decentralisation of authority should follow the
development of mass education is to beg the question and to put the
cart before the horse. The best solution perhaps will be that the
development of mass education and training in democratic
citizenship should proceed side by side and the transfer of
elementary education to local control will expedite this process.
The local bodies may be entrusted with certain duties as far as the
elementary education is concerned, e.g., to provide adequate
accommodation and equipment for primary schools, to carry out
current repairs to school buildings and also to attend to emergency
repairs, to construct new buildings; to be responsible for the
enforcement of compulsory attendance within its area; to make
provisions for ancillary facilities as mid-day meals, school uniforms
and, to exercise supervision on the school.
 10.13 How to make Success of
Decentralisation Policy?

Certain safeguards are extremely necessary so that the policy of

decentralisation of authority in respect of elementary education to
district, block, or village level is successful.
(1) Inspections: - To supervise the working of local bodies and
elementary schools, the state must maintain an inspectorate.
(2) Recruitment of teachers: - Definite rules should be framed
by the state government for recruitment of teachers to see that
local influences interfere the least with proper selection. The
local bodies should have very few powers over the teachers.
Whatever the powers are, these should be exercised through
the executive staff and they should be subject to an appeal to
a higher authority.
(3) Administrative check-up by the staff officials: - Officers
of government – District Education Officers and Deputy District
Education Officers should have the authority to supervise the
work of local bodies, to call for their records and to inspect
them if necessary, to suspend their resolutions or suspend or
dissolve a local body and to take over its functions. Where the
local bodies fail to discharge their duties efficiently, schools
may be taken over by the state.
 10.14 Arguments in favour of the control of
Primary Education by Local Bodies

The main arguments which can be advanced in favour of the control

of primary education by local bodies are:-
1) Association with the administration of primary education
stimulates local interest in this enterprise and also assists in
securing support for its maintenance.
2) Quicker and sufficient service in administrative functions like
constructions or maintenance of school buildings, purchase,
and upkeep of equipment, provision of mid-day meals, and
supply of free books to poor and needy children can be
possible through local bodies.
3) Enlightened local supervision can go a long way in improving
standards in education.
Role of Voluntary Agencies
Voluntary agencies have made a very significant contribution in the
development of Indian education. Approximately one-third of the
educational institutions are conducted by them today.
Why should privately-managed
primary schools be closed?
Various arguments are being given in support of the abolition of
privately-managed schools: -
1) The elementary education is to be free. No fees are to be
charged in any elementary school whether it is public or
private, i.e., the entire cost of private elementary schools will
ultimately have to be born by public funds through grants-in-
aid. So they say why not spend money directly on public
elementary schools alone which provide free education.
2) As the privately managed schools provide a higher standard
of education the rich will send their children to these schools
as they can pay for education but the children of the poor will
be compelled to
attend the government schools. In this way, class distinctions will
be unnecessarily perpetuated.
3) Abolition of private schools may improve standards in public
elementary schools. When there are no alternative facilities,
the rich, it is agreed, might take greater interest in public
schools and thus, the standards might improve.
But there are very sound arguments in favour of continuing private
enterprise in education:-
i) The provision of free and compulsory education means that
the state shall maintain an adequate number of free public
elementary schools and take effective steps to provide free
education for the child of every parent who demands it. It does
not mean abolition of all fees.
ii) In a democracy, the parent has the basic right to choose
school for his child and if he chooses a private school which
charges fees, the state has hardly any justification to interfere
in the matter.
So long as economic inequalities continue to exist in the society,
social inequalities are inevitable. So, the solution does not lie in the
abolition of private schools, but the improvement of public schools.
Private enterprise is a valuable force in education in view of the
increasing number of children to be taught in schools and the limited
resources. It needs to be properly capitalised.
 10.15 Indian Education Commission’s
Recommendations to improve the
working of Private Schools

For the successful functioning of democracy, education is a basic

necessity. For education to spread in the nook and corner of the
country, an all out effort on all fronts – Centre, State, Local, and
Private level is required. The task is quite big – every source must be
tapped.
The Indian Education Commission (1964-66) has given the
following suggestions to improve the working of the private schools-
1) The government should see that private aided institutions are
satisfactorily managed through adequate support; those that
are not so managed should be taken over or eliminated.
2) A discriminating policy needs to be adopted in respect of
assistance to and control of private aided institutions. The
better schools should be given more freedom and assistance
so as to enable them to develop into the nucleus of the
common school system.
3) Each private school should be assisted to strengthen its
management in the following ways: -
i) Each private school should have a Managing Committee
consisting of representatives of the management, the
Education Department and Teachers.
ii) The staff of these schools should be broadly on the pattern of
Government or local authority schools.
iii) Grants-in-aid should be improved.
iv) It should be an invariable rule that educational institutions
must be conducted by non-profit making bodies in order to be
eligible for assistance.
Grants-in-aid codes should be amended to authorise the State
Education Departments to take over the management of private
schools which do not satisfy requirements and which have failed
persistently to come up to the prescribed standards.
 10.16 Educational Administration at
Various Levels

The Indian Educational Commission has recommended the following

measures forstrengthening educational administration atvarious
levels:
i) Common School System: The Commission has advocated
that only one system of public education, without any
disparityshould remain. It must include all Government, local
body, and private schools. There should be no disparity from
the point of view of fees charged, working conditions of
teachers, status, or privileges.
ii) Bifurcation of Administration and Supervision: The
Commission has recommended that supervision should be
dealt with by D.E.O. while the administration should be
handled by District Schools Board. But the two should work in
close collaboration.
iii) Double Inspection : Primary schools should be inspected
by-
(a) District School Board annually, and
(b) D.E.O. bi-annually.
The secondary schools should be inspected by-
(a) Officer of the State Education Department annually, and
(b) State Board School Education bi-annually.
iv) The Neighbourhood School System: All children in the
neighbourhood should be required to attend the school in the
neighbourhood. Ten percent elementary schools may be
upgraded during the first 10 years so that the pupils get the
opportunity of Secondary Education.
v) The School Complex: A number of elementary schools
should work under a Central School in the area, preferably a
Secondary School, so as to break the isolation of schools and
help them to function, in small face to face cooperative groups
and to make a delegation of authority from the Department
possible.
 vi) District School Board: The Indian Education Commission
has recommended the following composition of the District
School Board - a competent local education authority; an
autonomous body in charge of all education in the district
below the university level. The Zila Parishads, Municipalities,
educationists, and concerned departments should be
represented on it.
The Commission has recommended the following functions of the
Board:
(a) Administration of all Government and local body schools
within the districts.
(b) Giving grants-in-aid to all the private schools.
(c) Preparing plans for the development of school education
within the districts.
(d) Providing guidance to all the schools.
(e) Maintaining an education fund for the upkeep of the schools,
realised through various local sources, Zila Parishads or
Municipalities.
(f) Recruiting and transferring teachers within the district,
through a special committee consisting of the Chairman of the
Board, the Secretary, and the D.E.O.
(g) The District School Board will create conditions of maximum
cooperation and help from the local community so that the
school and the local communities are intimately associated
with the venture of educational process. Through this
association of village Panchayats, Municipalities, and Zila
Parishads, non-teacher costs of the school can be met.
Some remedies are:
1. Efficient and enlightened educational administrators.
2. Local leadership should be educated and associated.
3. Greater freedom to the teacher and the institutional
administrator needs to be given.
4. Greater freedom to the individual institutions.
5. The decision-making power needs to be decentralised.
6. Men of inter-communication of experiences among the states
needed.
7. More money for education in general and administration of
education in particular needed.
8. Creation of D.E.S.
9. National Staff College for educational administrators.
10. Introducing elasticity and dynamism.
11. Education to be given statutory basis.
12. A system of priorities may be adopted at different levels.
13. Redefinition of the role of different agencies.
 10.17 Some State Level Agencies (For
Higher Education)

The main state agencies are seven – SBTE, UDTE, CTED, DTE,
SIE, SIE, and CTE. The brief description of few agencies has been
given in the following paragraphs:
 1). State Board of Teacher-Education
(SBTE)

The Kothari Commission (1966) recommended for the first time for
establishing the State Board of Teacher-Education. The main
function of the board is to develop teacher-education in the state and
it should be administered by the board. The teacher-education of
state was reviewed and state boards were established in M.P.
(1967), Maharashtra, Jammu-Kashmir, and Tamil Nadu (1973).
The Ministry of Education had forced states to establishing state in
the light of suggestions of NCERT. Almost in all the states such
boards were established. The state board of teacher-education has
the following functions:
i) Determine the standard of teacher-education institutions.
ii) Modify and improve the curriculum, textbooks, and the
system of teacher-education of the state.
iii) Develop the criterion for the recognition of teacher-education
institutions.
iv) Organise the guidance facility of teacher-education
institutions.
v) Develop the criteria for admission in teacher-education and
evaluate the teacher-efficiency of pupil teachers.
vi) Prepare the plan for qualitative and quantitative development
of teacher-education.
vii) Provide guidance to the universities and state institutes for
improving and modifying curriculum, textbooks, and
examination system of teacher-education.
viii) Determine the educational and physical conditions for the
teacher-education institutions for affiliations.
ix) Teacher-education facility should be organised for each level
of teachers. The grants and financial assistance should be
provided for these levels of teacher-education.
x) To develop the feeling of cooperations among university
departments and other training institutions.
The main task of these state boards is to develop educational
organisation and administration for all levels of teacher-education
institutions. The state teacher-education should be given facilities
and suggestions for their development.
 2). University Departments of Teacher-
Education (UDTE)

Education is now considered an independent field of study or

discipline. Therefore, the UGC provides the grants to the university
department of teacher-education. The higher level training is
essential for teachers to their development and extension. The
departments of education provide the training for educational
administrators, curriculum specialists and improving evaluation
procedures as well as the examination system. The university
departments organise the M.Ed., B.Ed., and M.Phil classes as well
as research work for Ph.D. and D.Litt. degree in Education. The first
education department was started in (1917) at Calcutta University.
There are departments of teacher-education in all Indian Universities
for B.Ed., M.Ed., and Ph.D. degrees in Education.
The university departments of teacher-education have the
following main functions:
(1) Develop the post-graduate studies and research work.
(2) Organise training for school teachers.
(3) Provide solid programmes for teacher-education and
development research work.
(4) To start and organise some programmes for post-graduate
teachers which are not organised in other centres.
(5) Develop language laboratory, prepare instructional material,
and use new innovations and practices in teacher training.
(6) Organise and develop comprehensive college of education
for training teachers for four years for duration-content-cum-
methodology courses.
(7) Encourage the interdisciplinary courses and interdisciplinary
research studies so that the requirements of other
departments can be fulfilled.
(8) Organise extension lectures and programmes to encourage
the teachers and research workers to contribute in the
discipline of education.
(9) Provide the awareness of new methodology and technology
to upgrade the standard of teacher-education.
 (10) Develop the effective procedure of evaluation of theory and
practicals in education.
We need a very strong academic and administrative machinery at
the state level which should work in cooperation with central
agencies. It should further aim at economy and integration of
divergent elements, avoid duplication of efforts, consider and
examine the needs of different types of institutions, give a proper
turn to rising ideologies and tendencies and end corruption and
exploitation.
Every state should have a university of Teacher Education of its
own. It is to be unitary as well as entrusted with the power of
affiliating all the teachers’ colleges at graduate and postgraduate
levels within the state.
 3). Centre of Continuing Education for
Teachers (CCTE)

There is isolation between teachers and teacher-education. There is

rapid development in Education. The use of these developments is
only possible when school teachers are continuously informed. The
classroom can make proper use of these developments and
innovations. There is need to have centres of continuing education
for in-service teachers. The NCERT has established an extension
service department for this purpose and it has set up centers in
states. The summer institutes of education are organised to provide
the knowledge of science subjects and new teaching methodology.
There is a great need for such centres for primary and secondary
in-service teachers to make them up-to-date for the latest knowledge
of the content and teaching techniques. There should be co-
ordination between pre-service and in-service teacher-education
programmes. The following points are to be taken into consideration:
1) The awareness of in-service programmes should be given for
pre-service teachers along with the objectives.
2) There should be provision for encouraging in-service
teachers to participate in such programmes.
3) Such programmes should be organised during summer and
winter vacations and holidays so that school work does not
suffer.
4) The programmes should be organised at regional level in
view of local needs of the schools and the students.
5) These centres should provide the knowledge and practice by
organising seminars and workshops of new methods and
techniques of teaching.
6) The in-service teachers should be encouraged and they
should not be forced for attending such programmes.
The follow-up programme should be organised by these centres
for evaluating the workability of these programmes.
 4). Correspondence Courses or Distance
Education for Teachers Education

The correspondence courses for teachers were initially started for in-
service teachers for clearing the backlog of untrained teachers. But
they are now being used as big rackets for earning money. This has
commercialised the teacher-education programme. Several
universities have started B.Ed. and M.Ed. Correspondence courses
or Distance Education – Himachal, Rohtak, Kota, Annamalai, Kashi
Vidya Peeth and Lucknow in the form of modular course. The in-
service B.Ed. correspondence has the following features:
1) Provide the awareness of pedagogy or theory of education
and methodology of teaching.
2) Encourage the student for self-learning.
3) Orientation is given by the experts and specialists of the
areas.
4) Contact programmes are organised to remove the difficulties
and provide the guidance for the study.
5) Theory lessons are sent by post along with the assignments
which are to be completed and sent to the study centres.
6) Study centres are established for the candidates.
A large number of teachers are admitted in such programmes and
a heavy amount of fee is realised from them. The universities have
the source of income to meet their financial requirements. It has
adversely effected the standard teacher-education. The NCTE is
taking some strong steps to close down such programmes.
Objective Type Questions
Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the
right option)
(1) The agencies at the National level concerned with the
development of education are the
(a) Ministry of Education.
(b) The University Grants Commission.
(c) The National Council of Educational Research and Training.
(d) All of the above.
(2) The Government of India brings out three publications every
year
(a) Education in India
(b) Education in the states
(c) Education in Indian universities
(d) All of the above
3) The U.G.C. consist of _____________
(a) 12-15 members.
(b) 14-16 members.
(c) 15-17 members.
(d) 16-18 members.
 Fill in the blanks

(1) The Governing body is the ________ body of the Council.

[Policy-making]
(2) The workshop of NCTE was organized in Madras in
_____________. [1987]
(3) The Ministry of Education is not responsible for the entire
________ of the state. [Education]
(4) ____________ education is under direct and full control of
the states. [Secondary]
 Important Questions

1. Discuss the present organisation of the Ministry of Education.

2. Describe the Administrative Machinery of the Education
Department of your state. Discuss its relationship with the local
bodies and privately managed institutions.
3. For good planning, there should be choices available at all
levels. Discuss what type of choices should be there.
4. Discuss the recommendations of the Indian Education
Commission for improving the educational administration and
planning in our country.
5. Write short notes on: -
(a) University Grants Commission.
(b) National Council of Educational Research and Training.
 11
The Present Pattern of
Education:10+2+3

Attempts have been made from time to time to redesign and reset
the educational structure to meet the country’s needs and to bring it
as per with those of the other countries of the world.
More than sixty years ago the Calcutta University Commission
(1917-19) recommended replacement of the then prevailing 10+2+2
pattern by a 10+2+3 one. It had come to the conclusion that the two
years intermediate course really belonged to schools. It also desired
the increase in the duration of the undergraduate course to make it
comparable to that in advanced countries. It did not suggest
vocationalisation of education.
The Radhakrishan Commission (1948-49) accepted these
premises but added to them vocational plans. Barring a few
academic exercise on the subject, nothing concrete happened.
The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) recommended
school duration of 11 years followed by three years of the first
degree course. Perhaps the decision was dictated by the compulsion
of economy.
The Government of India’s resolution on the National Policy on
Education issued in 1968 stated that it would be advantageous to
have a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of the
country; the ultimate objective should be to adopt the 10+2+3
pattern, the higher secondary stage of two years being followed in
schools or college or both, according to the existing condition.
 11.1 Structure of Educational System as
Proposed by the Secondary Education
Commission

After independence, it was considered imperative to bring about

radical changes in the then prevalent educational system so as to
make it an effective instrument for the achievement of new ideals
and values in the changed circumstances. Keeping this in view, the
Government of India appointed the Secondary Education
Commission in 1952. Dr. A. L. Mudaliar was the Chairman of the
Secondary Education Commission. So this commission is known as
the “Mudaliar Commission.” The Secondary Education Commission
was appointed only with a view to examining and surveying the
various aspects of the then prevailing systems of secondary
education in the country, but as this level of education is naturally
linked with the primary and university education, the Commission
had to formulate its views on the pattern of education, in these areas
of national life also. The new structure of education outlined by the
Commission is as under:

By this structure, it seems that the Commission suggested in the

following manner for different stages—
1. Secondary education should cover a time span of 7 years.
2. This stage of education should commence after 4 or 5 years
of primary and junior basic education.
 3. The duration of secondary education should be divided in two
parts:
(a) 3 years of middle or senior basic stage or junior secondary,
and
(b) 4 years of higher secondary education.
4. Afterwards, there should be a provision for 3 years first
degree course and thereafter post-graduate.
The Secondary Education Commission recommended a sound
and uniform system of secondary education of 7 years for the entire
country. But it was left to the discretion of the state government to
accept or reject this recommendation of the Commission. The
consequence of this policy was that the pattern of education got
further differentiated. Some states had High School, others Higher
Secondary Schools, and still others Intermediate Colleges. Also, the
duration of the first degree course varied in different universities from
2 to 3 years. Because of this anomalous position, the children of
those parents who left one state for another had to face great
difficulty.
 11.2 Educational Structure as proposed by
the Indian Education Commission

1. Pre-primary education for 1-3 years should be provided prior

to the commencement of general or school level education.
2. Duration of general education should be of 10 years and it
should only consist of primary and lower secondary education.
Age for admission to class I generally, should not be less than
6 years. First public external examination should be held after
ten years of general education. Specialisation in subjects
should not be allowed up to the tenth class.
 TABLE 1

This Ladder of Education was Proposed by the

Education Commission

3. Lower Secondary Level: Two types of education –

(i) General education for 3 years.
(ii) Vocational education for 1-3 years.
4. Higher Secondary Level: The provision of two types of
education at this level:
(i) 2 years of general education.
(ii) 1-3 years of vocational education.
5. Secondary School:
(i) High Schools in which education
should cover a time span of ten years, and
(ii) Higher Secondary Schools in which duration of education
should be of 12 years.
6. In classes XI and XII specialised education in different
subjects can be imparted.
7. After Higher Secondary education, the first degree course
should be of 3 years of duration.
8. The second degree course can be of 2 or 3 years’ period, in
universities, graduate schools may be established in which
second degree or post-graduate course of 3 years’ duration in
some subject should be provided (see Table 1).
 11.3 National Committee on 10+2+3
Education Structure

The Central Advisory Board of Education realised this in its 36th

meeting that there should be a uniform structure of education in the
entire country. With this view it (CABE) made the Education Ministry
responsible for it. The Ministry of Education appointed a committee
which is known as the National Committee on 10+2+3.
The Education and Social Welfare Ministry of the Government of
India appointed the above mentioned committee in September, 1972
under the Chairmanship of Dr. P.D. Shukla. In this committee, the
education-secretaries of U.P., Delhi, Tamilnadu, Gujarat, and Assam
were its members. In addition to this, the Director of Education
Planning Commission, Delhi was also its member. The Secretary,
Central Board of Secondary Education of Delhi was Member-
Secretary of this committee.
 11.4 National Educational Conference
(1977)

The National Review Committee was still considering the matter. In

the meantime the Janata Government arranged for the National
Educational Conference. This conference was held on 18, 19 and
20th December, 1977 in Delhi. The conference was headed by Dr.
Shrimannarain, Chairperson of “Nai Talim Samiti” and “Kendriya
Gandhi Smarak Nidhi.” The Governor of Rajasthan, Shri Rashukul
Tilak, Education Ministers of states, 30 Vice Chancellors of different
universities of India, some members of Parliament and the
educationists of various voluntary organisations participated in the
conference. It was the speciality of this conference that in addition to
high officials of the Education Ministry and the National Council of
Educational Research and Training more than 100 workers of Basic
Education also participated in it. The then Prime Minister of India, Mr.
Morarji Desai inaugurated this conference and the closing of the
conference was done by Dr. P.C. Chunder, Central Education
Minister.
 11.5 National Policy of Education (1986)

Whenever awakening is felt to be required, the education has always

played an important role. We are going to step into the 21st century
and the challenges of education are enforcing on searching out the
knowledge so that, some light may be thrown on possible ways for
making education arrangements according to modern requirements.
Since independence there have been many changes in education. In
bringing these changes, the National Education Policy of 1968 has
marked a significant step. But the 1968 policy did not get translated
into a detailed strategy of implementations. With the result,
education could not reach the different classes of society. Along with
expansion of education and improvement in level could not be done
according to requirement. To find out the solutions of these problems
is the first need of the hour.
 11.6 National System of Education

The main points of this education system are the following:-

1. The concept of a National System of Education implies that
up to a given level, all students irrespective of caste, creed,
location or sex, have access to education of a comparable
quality. To achieve this, the government will initiate
appropriately funded programmes. Effective measures will be
taken in the direction of the common school system
recommended in the 1968 policy.
2. The National System envisages a common educational
structure. The 10+2+3 structure has now been accepted in all
parts of the country. Regarding the further break-up of the first
ten years; efforts will be made to move towards an elementary
system comprising 5 years of primary education and 3 years of
upper primary, followed by 2 years of high school.
3. The National System of Education will be based on a national
curriculum for the entire country in which there will be a
common core and for other elements there will be flexibility
which can be cast according to local environment and
surrounding.
Plan of Action
In the Budget Session of 1986, the Parliament had deliberations and
discussions on the “National Policy of Education (1986)” and gave its
sanction to that. Then, Human Resource Development Minister gave
an assurance that he would put up a plan of action in the Monsoon
Session of the Parliament regarding implementation of the New
Education Policy.

Education Structure in India1

1. Development of Education in India : 1990-92, NIEPA and

Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
(MHRD), New Delhi,p.4.
Just after the Budget Session, the Ministry started work on the
preparation of the Plan of Action abruptly. A conference was
arranged on July 20, 1986, in which the Education Secretaries of the
States and Union Territories participated. The suggestions received
in this meeting were discussed vigilantly and carefully and keeping in
mind the main topics (subjects) of the “National Policy of Education,”
the Plan of Action was prepared. In August, 1986 in the meeting of
the Central Advisory Board of Education, this Plan of Action drafts
was discussed and with some suggestions it was accepted. The
Government of India got this document published in August, 1986.
 As soon as the then Government of India enforced their Plan of
Action, 1986 for implementation, a change took place in the Central
Government , with the result of this change, a Review Committee
was appointed under the Chairpersonship of Shriyut Acharya Ram
Murthy for reviewing the “National Policy of Education (1986).” This
committee submitted its report to the Government of India in
December, 1990. This report was named as “Towards an
Enlightened and Humane Society.” Before the implementation of this
report another change occured in the Central Government. The then
Government of India prepared a new Plan of Action, 1992, keeping
in mind this report and the National Policy on Education, 1986.
According to that plan the Government of India is taking steps for
implementation of the “National Policy of Education (1986).”
 11.7 Problems of Elementary or Primary
Education

The large expansion of elementary education has posed many

serious problems. Some of them are discussed as under:-
1. Enrolment Problem: The demand for education has
increased so much that, it is getting almost impossible to
secure admission to schools. The result is that many un-
recognised schools have cropped up which are charging very
high fees.
2. Element of Wastage: Another problem arising out of rapid
expansion is the resultant wastage. In India, about 40% of the
total enrolment in classes is one to five (1 to 5) alone. The
wastage in class I is more than half the wastage at the primary
stage.
3. Shortage of Trained Teachers: In the third five year plan it
was decided that the percentage of trained teachers will be
raised by 75%. But unfortunately this target has not been
touched.
4. Elementary Education most Un-psychological:
Elementary Education is not based on the psychology of the
child and method adopted are un-psychological.
5. Absence of Model Primary Schools: The working of the
primary schools is rigid and formal. A few model schools in
every important place needs to be opened so as to serve as
role models.
6. Single Teacher Schools: These present great difficulties. A
single teacher cannot efficiently handle all the four classes
especially when the strength of pupils is too high and
individual attention, which is essential at this stage, cannot be
given.
7. Primary School-Weakest Link: It is the very basis for higher
education. If the foundation is not well built-up, the
superstructure would remain weak.
8. Lack of Proper Supervision: The education department has
failed miserably to exercise proper control over these
institutions. The primary schools need better supervision as
these serve as the first door through which the children reach
the threshold of knowledge.
 11.8 Defects or Problems of Secondary
Education

The Secondary Education has listed the following defects in the

present system of secondary education:-
1. The education given in our schools is isolated from life.
2. It is narrow and one sided and fails to train the whole
personality of the students.
3. Until recently, English was both the medium of instruction and
compulsory subject of study.
4. The method of teaching generally failed to develop in the
students any independent thought or initiative in action.
5. Increase in size of classes has considerably reduced
personal contact between teachers and pupils.
6. The dead weight of curriculum has tended to curb the
teacher’s initiative , to stereotype the curriculum, to promote
mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, to discharge all
spirits of experimentation and to place stress on wrong or
important things in education.
The greatest point of criticism has been the high school
curriculum. The commission has again pointed out the following
defects in the secondary school curriculum:
1. The present curriculum is narrowly conceived.
2. It is bookish and theoretical.
3. It is over-crowded, without providing rich and significant
contents.
4. It makes inadequate provision for practical and other kinds of
activities.
5. It does not cater to the various needs and capacities of the
adolescents.
6. It is dominated too much by the examinations.
7. It does not include technical and vocational subjects.
 11.9 Major Defects in Higher Education

Some of these major defects are given below, as enumerated in the

Education Commission’s report:—
1. There is a general feeling in India that the average standard
of higher education has been falling and that rapid expansion
has resulted in lowering quality.
2. The content and quality are inadequate for our present needs
and future requirements and these compare unfavourably with
the average standards in other educationally advanced
countries.
3. Only the stereo-type lecture method is followed by most of the
teachers in universities and colleges and there is hardly any
experimentation in the methodology of teaching.
4. There is little enthusiasm in teachers for teaching or finding
out new truths because research is not considered as an
integral part of traditions.
5. The majority of teachers suffer from financial worries
especially in colleges where grades are low and thus are
unable to buy books and journals of their own.
6. The physical working conditions of university and college
teachers are far from being satisfactory.
7. The majority of the students come from comparatively
uneducated homes and are, thus, ill equipped for higher
education.
8. There are little discussions of intellectual matters between the
students and the teachers. The main duty of the students is to
attend interesting lectures, as usually given in a language
which they do not understand adequately.
9. There is a dearth of standard textbooks and supplementary
literature in Indian languages.
10. A large majority of students find full attention on academic
work, very difficult.
Objective Type Questions
 Multiple Choice Questions (Tick the right
option)

(1) In which year the Janata Government arranged the National

Educational Conference?
(a) 1977
(b) 1976
(c) 1972
(d) 1974
(2) The major defects of the secondary school curriculum were -
(a) It is bookish
(b) It is theoretical
(c) It is over crowded
(d) All the above
(3) Who was the Chairman of the secondary Education
commission -
(a) Dr. A.L. Mudaliar
(b) Dr. S. Radhakrishnan
(c) Shri Rabhukul Tilak
(d) Dr. P.D. Shukla
 Fill in the blanks

(1) The Government of India appointed the Secondary

Education Commission in __________ . [1952]
2) The Secondary Education Commission recommended a
sound and uniform system of secondary education of
_____________ for the entire country. [7 years]
 Important Questions

1. Describe the structure of the educational system which is

proposed by the Secondary Education Commission.
2. Write a short note on the National Committee on 10+2+3
educational structure.
3. Describe the structure of the National Committee on 10+2+3.
4. Describe the functions of the National Policy of Education-
1986.
 12
Educational Administration and
Management: New Challenges of the
Twenty-first Century

In former times social life was very simple, the family provided the
child with all the activities and experiences he needed for his inter-
personal and inter-social relationships. Through the daily
experiences of his life, the child became fully aware of the
relationship that existed between him and his environment. Later,
religious ceremonies connected with the temple or church began to
serve the purpose. Then so long as occupations were centred
around home or village, the family, the church and local community
served as a school for life. The children learnt by imitating the work
and life-pattern of their parents and neighbours. But with lapse of
time, as society became large and complex, with the growth of
civilisation and as human knowledge and experiences became
accumulated in written form, home or family and other agencies of
education were found inadequate for the efficient transmission of
cultural heritage to the future generation. Thus, education of children
became a specialised occupation of those persons who were highly
learned and qualified for discharging this function efficiently. These
persons began to be known as teachers or gurus.
 12.1 Development of the School System

Thus, schools were established in all the ancient countries of the

world, namely India, China, Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, and Rome.
But schooling in those days was confined to the field of highest
cultural knowledge only. It included the teaching of language,
religion, philosophy, and mathematics and given only to the children
of priestly class and noble families. The children of common people
had no formal education. They continued to be educated through
informal agencies, as before, “In fact, the idea that all children of all
people should go to school, is a modern one.”
There has, however, been a remarkable change in the role of the
school, in recent times. As a result of discoveries and advances in
the field of science and technology as well as the developed means
of communication and changes in sociological conditions, modern
civilisation has grown to such an extent that informal agencies of
education have practically ceased to discharge their educational
functions. So, the functions of the family and the community have
also fallen on the school. Now, the school has to discharge not only
its own educational function, but also to provide what home and
community provided in the past. “It has to provide total education for
background, for standards and values, for skills, for understanding,
for culture, for making a contribution, for a sense of belonging, for
attitudes, and for a proper orientation of the modern world.”
Moreover, with the coming in of democracy, universal education has
not only become a necessity in the modern world but also an
accepted social ideal. So, the school is required to discharge very
important functions in modern society. Even then it should be clearly
understood that the school must never be taken as the sole agency
of education. Education is and will always remain the joint
responsibility of parents, teachers, and society. A school is only an
active formal agency of education which stands in between the home
and other informal active and passive agencies.
 12.2 Challenging Tasks of Educational
Administrators and Managers

The tasks facing educational managers and planners have become

more challenging and complex over recent decades and their