UNIT - V:

THERMAL SENSORS

Sensors for Engineering applications

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 Content of the Course – Sensors for Engineering applications 23I202
STRAIN AND PRESSURE ELECTRONIC SENSORS MOTION SENSORS LIGHT SENSORS THERMAL SENSORS
MEASUREMENT

Inductive, Color temperature

Bimetallic strip,
Capacitive and ultrasonic
based proximity sensors Capacitor plate sensor Light flux
Semiconductor based
Resistance strain gauge Temperature sensor,
Reed switch Inductive sensors Photo sensors,
Piezoelectric pressure Thermocouples,
Hall-effect switching LVDT Accelerometer Photo resistor and
sensor, characteristics
sensors systems photoconductors,
Resistance thermometers,
Electronic circuits for
Capacitive based humidity Rotation sensors Photodiodes,
strain gauge Thermistors, PTC and
sensor NTC thermistors
Piezoelectric devices for Phototransistors,
load cells
Liquid level detectors, motion sensing Semiconductor-based
Photovoltaic devices,
Interferometer applications.
Flow sensors Hall effect-based speed
sensor. Fiber-optic sensors
Capacitance pressure Infrared sensors:
Smoke sensors (FOS): Fibre-optic
sensor bolometer,
pressure sensor and its
Pyroelectric detector,
applications
semiconductor based IR
sensors.
LIDAR
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CONTENTS
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 Bimetallic strip

 Semiconductor based Temperature sensor

 Thermocouple

 Resistance thermometers

 Thermistors, PTC and NTC thermistors

 Infrared sensors: bolometer

 Pyroelectric detector, semiconductor based IR sensors.

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CONTENTS
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Thermal Sensors

Thermal sensors are devices designed to detect, measure, and convert

thermal energy (heat) into an electrical signal or visual
representation.

SENSOR

Input THERMAL Output

SENSOR (Electrical Signal)
Temperature/heat (or Detector) Visual output

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Thermal Properties of Materials

The following are the various thermal characteristics of Material:

1. Temperature

2. Specific Heat

3. Heat capacity

4. Thermal conductivity

5. Melting point

6. Thermal diffusivity

7. Thermal shock resistance

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Atomic Vibrations
Atomic vibrations are in the form of lattice waves or phonons

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Thermal Expansion

Gases
expand more
Liquids
when heated
expand more
than liquids
when heated
(depending
than solids.
upon P, V
and T)

When heated, solids (and liquids and Material Coefficient of expansion

gases) gain thermal energy. The
Glass 8.5
particles start to move about more –
their vibrations take up more space, Concrete 12
so there is expansion in all directions. Brass 19
The opposite is true when the
Steel 11
temperature falls – the material will
get smaller (contract). Aluminium 23
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Thermal Expansion - examples

• Girders in buildings and bridges are
made with gaps at the ends.
• Glass to be used in cooking has to be a
High-speed planes
low expansion type such as Pyrex are warmed by air
otherwise it would shatter as it got hot. friction and so get
• Rivets are heated before they are put in longer.
place to hold two metal plates together.

Suspended overhead cables are left

slack to allow for contraction that
could happen on a very cold day.
rollers

Cold
day

Bridges have gaps to allow for expansion.

Rollers may be used at one end so that Hot day
movement can take place.
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Thermal Expansion - applications

Thermometer Bimetallic strip

As the temperature
rises, the liquid in the
bulb expands, and so
rises up the narrow
tube which is In a bimetallic strip, a low
calibrated to fixed expansion metal (eg. Invar) is
points (eg. 0oC, 100oC) bonded to a high expansion metal
(eg. Brass). As the strip is heated,
Calibration scale the brass expands more than the
invar, causing the strip to bend.
Expandin Bimetallic strips
g liquid may be used in
thermostats –
devices for
Mercury maintaining a
or alcohol steady temperature,
such as in water
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Measuring temperature
- Examples of thermometers

Clinical thermometer. Digital Clinical thermometer.

- Measures human - Contains a thermistor inside
temperatures very accurately. the probe. As the temperature
Scale is restricted to a few rises the thermistor becomes a
degrees either side of the much better conductor,
normal body temperature causing a higher current to
(37oC). A restriction in the flow, and so a higher reading
neck stops the mercury from on the meter.
dropping until the reading is
taken.

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Heat Capacity
The ability of a material to absorb heat
• Quantitatively: The energy required to produce a unit rise in
temperature for one mole of a material.
energy input (J/mol)
heat capacity dQ
(J/mol-K) C
dT temperature change (K)

• Two ways to measure heat capacity:

Cp : Heat capacity at constant pressure.
Cv : Heat capacity at constant volume.
Cp usually > Cv
J  Btu 
• Heat capacity has units of  
mol  K  lb  mol  F 
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Specific Heat: Comparison

Material cp (J/kg-K)
• Polymers at room T
Polypropylene 1925 cp (specific heat): (J/kg-K)
Polyethylene 1850 Cp (heat capacity): (J/mol-K)
Polystyrene 1170
Teflon 1050
• Why is cp significantly
increasing cp

• Ceramics larger for polymers?

Magnesia (MgO) 940
Alumina (Al2O3) 775
Glass 840
• Metals
Aluminum 900
Steel 486
Tungsten 138
Gold 128

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Thermal Expansion
Materials change size when temperature
is changed
Tinitial
 initial
Tfinal > Tinitial
Tfinal
 final

l  l initial
final
  l (Tfinal Tinitial)
l initial
linear coefficient of
thermal expansion (1/K or 1/ºC)


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Thermal Expansion: Example

Ex: A copper wire 15 m long is cooled from

40 to -9ºC. How much change in length will it experience?

• Answer: For Cu   16.5 x 106 ( C)1

rearranging Equation 19.3b

     0 T  [
16.5 x 10 6 (1/ C)](15 m)[ 40C  ( 9C)]

  0.012 m  12 mm

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Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a material to transport heat.
Fourier’s Law
temperature
dT
q  k gradient
heat flux dx
(J/m2-s) thermal conductivity (J/m-K-s)

T1 T2
T2 > T1
x1 heat flux x2

• Atomic perspective: Atomic vibrations and free electrons in

hotter regions transport energy to cooler regions.
Chapter 19 -
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Thermal Conductivity: Comparison

Energy Transfer
Material k (W/m-K) Mechanism
• Metals
Aluminum 247 atomic vibrations
Steel 52 and motion of free
Tungsten 178
electrons
Gold 315
• Ceramics
increasing k

Magnesia (MgO) 38
Alumina (Al2O3) 39 atomic vibrations
Soda-lime glass 1.7
Silica (cryst. SiO2) 1.4
• Polymers
Polypropylene 0.12
Polyethylene 0.46-0.50 vibration/rotation of
Polystyrene 0.13 chain molecules
Teflon 0.25
Chapter 19 -
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Thermal Shock Resistance

• Occurs due to: nonuniform heating/cooling
• Ex: Assume top thin layer is rapidly cooled from T1 to T2
rapid quench

tries to contract during cooling T2 Tension develops at surface
resists contraction T1   E (T1 T2 )
Temperature difference that Critical temperature difference
can be produced by cooling: for fracture (set  = f)
quench rate
 f
(T1  T2 )  (T1 T2 )fracture 
k E
set equal
f k
• (quench rate) for  Thermal Shock Resistance ( TSR) 
fracture
 E
f k
• Large TSR when is large
E
Chapter 19 -
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Thermal Protection System

Re-entry T
• Application: Distribution
Space Shuttle Orbiter

reinf C-C silica tiles nylon felt, silicon rubber

(1650ºC) (400-1260ºC) coating (400ºC)

, "The Shuttle Orbiter Thermal Protection System", Ceramic

• Silica tiles (400-1260ºC): Bulletin, No. 11, Nov. 1981, p. 1189.)

-- large scale application -- microstructure:

~90% porosity!
Si fibers
bonded to one
another during
heat treatment.
100 mm
Fig. 19.3W, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.3W courtesy the
UNIT – V - SENSORS National Aeronautics and Space Administration.) 19
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Summary
The thermal properties of materials include:
• Heat capacity:
-- energy required to increase a mole of material by a unit T
-- energy is stored as atomic vibrations
• Coefficient of thermal expansion:
-- the size of a material changes with a change in temperature
-- polymers have the largest values
• Thermal conductivity:
-- the ability of a material to transport heat
-- metals have the largest values
• Thermal shock resistance:
-- the ability of a material to be rapidly cooled and not fracture
f k
-- is proportional to
E

Chapter 19 -
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Bi Metallic Strip

A bimetallic strip is composed of two dissimilar metals joined together,

usually in the form of two strips or two ribbons.

The two metals are specifically dissimilar in terms of their electrical

conductivity, thermal conductivity, and mechanical properties.

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Bi Metallic Strip
 When the strip is
exposed to heat, the
two dissimilar metals
expand at different
rates,

 the resulting bending

is utilized to determine
the value of the
temperature change.

 This simplicity makes

the bimetallic strip an
ideal component for a
wide variety of
applications.

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Bi Metallic Strip

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Bi Metallic Strip

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Bi Metallic Strip

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Bi Metallic Strip

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Bi Metallic Strip

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THERMISTORS

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Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS
 A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature
changes,
 It changes its resistance (R) with changing temperature T.

 Thermistor is a combination of the words thermal and resistor.

 The Thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930, and has
U.S. Patent #2,021,491.

Leads, coated Glass encased Surface mount

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Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS

Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials

(metallic compounds including oxides such as manganese, copper,
cobalt, and nickel, as well as single-crystal semiconductors silicon and
germanium).

Leads, coated Glass encased Surface mount

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Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS
Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance
and temperature for the following discussion:

ΔR = k ΔT

ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance

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THERMISTOR

PTC NTC

There are two basic types of thermistors —

negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
&
positive temperature coefficient (PTC).

NTC thermistors are much more commonly used than PTC thermistors.

NTC thermistors give a relatively large output

(change of resistance) for a small temperature change

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Thermistors can be classified into two types

depending on the sign of k.
ΔR = k ΔT
If k is positive, the resistance increases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called
a positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
thermistor, Posistor.

If k is negative, the resistance decreases with

increasing temperature, and the device is called
a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor.
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THERMISTOR

PTC NTC

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THERMISTOR

PTC NTC

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Thermistors are fabricated in wafer, disk, bead and

other shapes

Beads :
The smallest thermistor
Diameter of the beads - 0.15 mm to 125 mm
Beads sealed in the tips of solid glass rods form Probe
Resistance ranges from 300 Ω to 100 Ω
Probes measure temperature of the liquids
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Disc shaped thermistors : lead

These are formed by pressing thermistor material

Under high pressure pressed into flat cylindrical shape Disc

Disc diameter - 1.25 mm to 25 mm
thickness - 0.25 mm to 0.75mm

Resistance of the disc varies from 1 Ω to 0.75 Ω

These are mainly used for temperature control

Washer shaped Thermistors :

These are Disc thermistors with a hole at the center

These are suitable for mounting on a bolt

washer
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The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases with

increasing temperature:

Under normal temperatures there is an energy

barrier to moving electrons from site to site.

As thermal energy rises with temperature the ability

of electrons to surmount this barrier increases, so
that resistivity goes down 10k

1k
—hence the NTCR behavior.
100
Resistance in Ω 10

Log scale 0
100 200 300
Temperature °C
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Applications of Thermistors

PTC type Thermistors :

Current limiting devices in circuit protection as replacement for fuse
Heating elements in small temperature controlled ovens

NTC type Thermistors :

Resistance Thermometer in low temperature measurements of the order
of 10 K

Inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits

(They present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents )

Commonly used in modern digital thermostat to monitor the temperature

of battery packs while charging.

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Advantages:
[Link] size
[Link] change in resistance for a given temperature
[Link] response over a narrow temperature range
[Link] and lead resistance problems not encountered

Limitations:
[Link] suitable over a wide range of temperature
2. Need of shielded cables, filters, etc
(to minimize the interference) due to high resistance
[Link] low excitation current to avoid self-heating

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Resistance Temperature Detector

 Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature

detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature.

 Many RTD elements consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around

a heat-resistant ceramic or glass core but other constructions are
also used.

 The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum (Pt), nickel (Ni),
or copper (Cu).

 The material has an accurate resistance/temperature relationship

which is used to provide an indication of temperature.

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A platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) is constructed from a high

purity platinum element (wire-wound coil or thin film) placed in a tube of
metal or glass and sealed with an inert atmosphere and/or mineral
insulator.

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Working Principle of Resistance Temperature Detector

The RTD device works on the principle that the resistance of a conductor
changes due to a change in temperature.

As we know the resistance of a given conductor having length “l” & area
“a” is given by;

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Working Principle of Resistance Temperature Detector

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Applications of RTD’s

RTD is generally used for continuous monitoring of temperature in various

applications..

•It is used in applications where temperature control is important.

•It is used to measure the temperature of the engine & the air intake in automotive.

•In different industrial processes such as food handling and manufacturing, it is used
to monitor the temperature.

•In different power electronics, medical & military electronics use RTD.

•It is also used in multiple communication and instrumentation for temperature

measurement.

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Advantages

•It can operate at a wide range of temperatures.

•Its readings are consistent and highly repeatable at high temperature.
•They are resistant to corrosion & best for extreme environments.
•It has more linear characteristics.
•It has excellent accuracy over a wide range of temperatures.
•It is stable & has a longer life span at high temperature measurement.

Disadvantages

•It requires a current source.

•Its accuracy depends on the battery’s health.
•Heat is generated due to I2R losses in the element also known as self-heating
which inflicts error in the measurement thus affecting the accuracy.
•It has a large size, therefore, unable to sense temperature at small points.
•It is affected by physical shock and vibration.
•It has a limited temperature operating range as compared to thermocouple.

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Resistance Temperature Detector

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Resistance Temperature Detector

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Resistance Temperature Detector

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THERMOCOUPLE

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Thermocouple

also called as thermal junction,

thermoelectric thermometer ,
thermal temperature-measuring device

Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor

and can also be used as a means to convert thermal potential
difference into electric potential difference.

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Working Principle
In 1821,the German-Estonian Physicist Thomas Johann
Seebeck discovered it

Two wires of different metals joined at two junctions

One junction is placed where the temperature is to be measured
The other is kept at a constant lower temperature.

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Working Principle
A measuring instrument is connected in the circuit
The temperature difference causes the development of an
electromotive force (known as the Seebeck effect)
That is approximately proportional to the difference between
the temperatures of the two junctions.

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Basic Thermocouple circuit

Extension wires are used when measuring device is placed far away
Extension wires are made with same material of thermocouple element

Extension wire

Voltage
Reference
measuring
temperature
device
junction

Extension wire

Thermocouple junctions are made by soldering or welding without lux

Thermocouple junctions are protected by enclosing them in Protective sheath
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Basic Thermocouple circuit

For achieving high sensitivity several Thermocouples
may be connected in series

A series of thermocouples connected together is called a

Thermopile

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THERMOCOUPLE

Base Metal Noble Metal

Type K , J, T, E Type N , S, R, B

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Thermocouples consists of combination of different dissimilar

metals for measurement of unknown temperatures

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Applications of thermocouples

Measures temperature range up to 1800 °C.

In the steel and iron industries and Electric arc furnace to

monitor temperatures

Heating appliances safety

Scientific research

Medical instrumentation

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Applications of thermocouples

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Advantages :
[Link] in cost
[Link] speed of response
[Link] in construction
[Link] reproducibility

Disadvantage :
[Link] accuracy
[Link] complex in construction
[Link] of protection from environment

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