MAHENDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM

Department of Biomedical Engineering

Internal Examination - II
BM3251 – Bioscience for Medical Engineering
ANSWER KEY-SET A
PART A – (2 x 10 = 20 marks)

1. What are the steps involved in apoptosis?

Apoptosis is programmed cell death( activate their own enzymes to degrade their own
cellular components).
Steps :
1) Elevation of cellular calcium and rapid reduction of volume of the cell
2) Activation of calcium-dependent enzyme endonuclease which cleaves DNA
3) Fragmentation of DNA and marked condensation of both nucleus and cytoplasm
4) Formation of apoptotic bodies.
5) Phagocytosis of apoptotic bodies

2. Differentiate acute and chronic inflammation.

Acute inflammation Chronic inflammation
1. occurs fast: minutes or hours 1. occurs slowly-Days
2. Tissue injury usually mild & self 2. Often severe and progressive
limited. 3. Less prominent
3. Prominent signs. 4. Macrophages, Lymphocytes,
4. Cell type: Neutrophils Plasma cells

3. What is carcinogenesis? List the causes of cancer.

Carcinogenesis is the process by which normal cells transform into cancer cells, leading
to the development of tumors.
Causes of cancer
1) Environmental causes.
a) Chemicals include dyes, alcohol, smoking etc
b) Oncogenic virus such as human papilloma virus (HPV), Epstein- Barr virus (EBV)
c) Radiations- Including Ionizing radiation,UV light promotes blood cancer & skin
cancer
2) Hereditary causes- defects in chromosomes
3)Altered DNA- failure in DNA repair mechanism

4. Define autopsy & biopsy.

An autopsy is a thorough examination of a body after death, primarily to determine the
cause of death.
A biopsy is a procedure to remove a sample of tissue or cells from a living body for
laboratory testing, often to diagnose diseases like cancer

5. Mention various stages of bone fracture healing.

Fracture healing occurs through 4 phases
a. Inflammatory stage (Hematoma formation)
b. Soft callus formation stage
c. Hard callus formation stage d. Bone remodeling

6. Differentiate Hodgkin lymphoma and Non-hodgkin lymphoma.

 Hodgkin lymphoma Non-hodgkin lymphoma
1. characterized by the presence 1. lacks Reed-Sternberg cells and
of Reed-Sternberg(RS) cells classified into numerous subtypes

2. cell type involves B 2. cell type involves various types of

lymphocytes lymphocytes, including B cells, T
cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.
3. spread more unpredictably and
3. Spread in a predictable may involve multiple organs.
pattern- from one lymph node 4. Treatment varies greatly
to the next. depending on the subtype and can
4. Treatment involves include chemotherapy, radiation
chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, targeted
therapy, or a combination of therapies, or surgery.
both. 5. Varies significantly depending on
the subtype and aggressiveness.
5. has a higher cure rate

7. Why sudden deaths occur during pulmonary embolism?

Pulmonary embolism is caused by a sudden blockage of a major blood vessel — the
artery. The pulmonary artery is the blood vessel that carries blood from the heart to the
lungs. When the clot travels to the lungs, it blocks the lung artery, stopping blood flow to
the lungs causing death.

8. What are the different types of Shock?

1) Cardiogenic shock (due to heart problems- unable to supply enough blood to
the organs of the body.
2) Hypovolemic shock (caused by too little blood volume)
3) Anaphylactic shock (caused by allergic reaction)
4) Septic shock (due to infections)
5) Neurogenic shock (caused by damage to the nervous system)

9. What is Air embolism?

Embolism caused by entry of air bubbles into circulation is called Air embolism.
Gas bubbles within the circulation can obstruct cardio-vascular flow. This gas
bubbles may form masses with blood in right heart and then act like physical
obstructions to occlude major vessels
Eg : Decompression sickness - Occurs when individuals are exposed to sudden
change in atmospheric pressure.

10. Write about Haemorrhage.

Hemorrhage, also known as bleeding, is the loss of blood from a damaged blood
vessel. It can be internal or external, and often involves significant blood loss in a
short period.
Types of Hemorrhage:
 Internal Hemorrhage: Blood loss inside the body cavities like the abdominal, thoracic,
or intracranial spaces.
 External Hemorrhage: Blood loss outside the body, usually through a break in the
skin.
 Arterial Hemorrhage: Bleeding from arteries, characterized by spurting blood.
 Venous Hemorrhage: Bleeding from veins, characterized by steady blood flow.
 Capillary Hemorrhage: Bleeding from capillaries, characterized by trickling blood.

PART B – ( 10 x 3 = 30 marks)
11. a. Discuss about the mechanism of pathogenesis of Thrombosis.
Thrombosis --------------2 marks

Types with Explanation ---------8 marks

b. Define hemostasis. Explain the mechanism of normal hemostasis with

neat diagram.
Hemostasis definition------- 2 marks
Mechanism of normal hemostasis------ 6 marks
Diagram ------- 2 marks

12. a. Draw the structure of a bacterial cell and explain the functions of
their components.

Structure of bacterial cell------- 3 marks

Components and functions ------ 7 marks
b. List some of common bacterial & viral diseases of human beings and
explain any two of them.
Bacterial diseases------- 5 marks
Viral diseases------- 5 marks

13. a. Write note on i) Monoclonal antibodies (5) ii) RIA (5)

Monoclonal antibodies – Procedure with diagram ------- 5 marks

RIA -Procedure with diagram------- 5 marks

b. With neat sketch, explain the principle, methodology and application

of immune diffusion & immuno electrophoresis.

Immune diffusion ------- 5 marks

Immuno electrophoresis------- 5 marks

Subject In-charge HOD/BME

 MAHENDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Internal Examination - II
BM3251 – Bioscience for Medical Engineering
ANSWER KEY-SET B
PART A – (2 x 10 = 20 marks)

1. Difference between necrosis and apoptosis.

NECROSIS APOPTOSIS
Stimuli hypoxia, toxins physiologic and pathologic
Histology cellular swelling, coagulation necrosis, single cells,chromatin
disruption of organelles condensation, apoptotic bodies
DNA random, diffuse (Pyknosis → Fragmentation into nucleosome
breakdown karyorrhexis → karyolysis ) size fragments
Mechanis ATP depletion, membrane injury, free gene activation, endonuclease
ms radical damage
Tissue inflammation no inflammation, phagocytosis of
reaction apoptotic bodies

2. What is calcification? Give its types.

 Abnormal tissue deposition of calcium salts called calcification.
 Two forms of pathologic calcification.
Dystrophic calcification
When the deposition occurs locally in dying tissues, it is known as dystrophic
calcification;
It occurs in normal serum levels of calcium and in the absence of derangements in
calcium metabolism.
Metastatic Calcification
The deposition of calcium salts in otherwise normal tissues is known as
metastatic calcification. Results from hypercalcemia, parathyroidism.

3. Outline the Classifications of tumor.

Based on behavioural, two types
1) Benign tumour
2) 2. Malignant tumour
Based on tissue of origin, tumor is classified into
1) Tumour of epithelial cell, eq-squamous cell carcinoma
2) Tumour of mesenchymal tissue, eq-Bone-osteosarcoma
3) Other cell/tissue of origin, eq-leukemia, lymphoma
Based on Tumor Grade, two types
1) Low-grade tumors resemble normal cells more closely,
2) High-grade tumors are more abnormal and aggressive.
Based on Tumor Stage (TNM) (extent of the cancer's spread. ), three types
1) Primary tumor (T)
2) The spread to lymph nodes (N)
3) The presence of metastasis (M).
4. List out the different types of cells with example.
1. Labile cell - continuously dividing cells-Eg_lining epithelial cell of the gland
such as salivary glands
2. Stable cell – quiescent- may undergo rapid proliferation after appropriate
stimuli- Eg.fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells
3. Permanent cell- non-dividing cells-Eg: nerve cells, skeletal and heart muscle
cells

5. Define Hypertrophy & Atrophy with example.

Atrophy is reduced size of an organ or tissue resulting from a decrease in cell size
and number. Atrophy can be physiologic (uterus decreases in size shortly after
parturition) or pathologic (Decreased workload).
Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of cells, resulting in an increase in
the size of the organ due to the synthesis of more structural components of the
cells. Hypertrophy is caused by increased functional demand or by stimulation by
hormones and growth factors. (eg.Bulging muscles of bodybuilders)

6. What is DIC?
DIC is a rare, life threatening condition that prevents a person’s blood from clotting
normally.
Cause excessive clotting (thrombosis) or bleeding (hemorrhage) and lead to shock,
organ failure and death.
In DIC, blood clotting does not function properly causing blood clotting cell
(platelets) to clump together and clots small blood vessels throughout.

7. Distinguish Hyperemia and Ischemia.

Feature Hyperemia Ischemia

Definition Increased blood flow to an Decreased blood flow to an area

area

Cause Can be physiological (e.g., Typically pathological, often due

exercise, inflammation) or to a blockage or obstruction in
pathological (e.g., blood vessels.
congestion).
 Effect on May cause redness, warmth, Can cause tissue damage, pain,
Tissue and swelling. and potentially tissue death if
severe and prolonged.

Examples Active hyperemia during Myocardial ischemia (reduced

exercise, reactive hyperemia blood flow to the heart), limb
following ischemia. ischemia (reduced blood flow to
the legs).

8. Outline the Classification of infarcts.

Morphological Classification of infarcts
1) White Infarct
 arterial occlusion- Ischemia following obstruction of nutrient artery or
hypoperfusion of tissue
 Seen in Solid organs with end-arterial circulation such as kidney, heart, spleen
 Wedge shaped. occluded vessel at the apex,base at the serosal surface
2) Red (hemorrhagic) Infarct
 venous occlusion of organ with single venous outflow e.g. testicular torsion
 Seen in Loose tissues- e.g. lung
 Tissues with dual circulations: lung and gut
3) Septic infarct
 Following fragmentation of bacterial vegetation from a heart valve or following
microbes seeding a necrotic area converted into an abscess

9. What is Chronic venous congestion?

Chronic venous congestion, also known as chronic venous insufficiency, is a condition
where the veins in the legs have difficulty returning blood to the heart. This leads to a
buildup of blood in the legs, causing a variety of symptoms like swelling, pain, and skin
changes.
Chronic venous insufficiency occurs when the valves in the veins, which normally
ensure blood flows in the right direction, become damaged or weakened. This allows
blood to flow backward and pool in the legs .

10. Define edema.

Edema, or swelling, occurs due to an accumulation of fluid in the body's tissues,
primarily within the interstitial spaces. The accumulation of fluid may be under the skin
(peripheral edema), or it may accumulate in the lungs (pulmonary edema).
Increased hydrostatic pressure; reduced colloidal or oncotic pressure within blood
vessels cause edema. Edema can be a sign of various medical conditions, including heart
failure, kidney disease, liver failure, and certain medications.

PART B – ( 10 x 3 = 30 marks)

11. a. What are hematological disorders? Discuss about bleeding

disorder and Leukemia.
Hematological disorders---------- 2 marks
Bleeding disorder -------------- 4 marks
 Leukemia. -------------- 4 marks

b. Define embolism. Describe about various types of embolism and its

pathological features.
Embolism ---------------- 2 marks
Types of embolism and its pathological features---------- 8 marks

12. a. Explain the morphological and structural organisation of virus

with neat diagram.
Morphological of virus---------------- 3 marks
Structural organisation of virus------5 marks
Diagram---------------- 2 marks

b. Explain the working principle of Electron microscopy and its applications in

pathology.

Electron microscopy (SEM & TEM )principle & working --------- 8 marks
Applications --------- 2 marks

13. a. Elaborate on different types of Hypersensitivity with example.

Hypersensitivity---------- 2 marks
4 types of Hypersensitivity and their mechanism ---------- 8 marks

b. What is ELISA? Write its principle types, methodology and its application.

ELISA introductrion -------------1 mark

Types of ELISA ,methodology & application-------9 marks

Subject In-charge HOD/BME