6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia

Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of
Nelson (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937) was a New The Right Honourable
The Lord Rutherford of Nelson
Zealand physicist who was a pioneering researcher in
both atomic and nuclear physics. He[7]has been described OM FRS HonFRSE
as "the father of nuclear physics", and[8]"the greatest
experimentalist since Michael Faraday". In 1908, he
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his
investigations into the disintegration of the elements,
and the chemistry of radioactive substances." He was
the first Oceanian Nobel laureate, and the first to
perform the awarded work in Canada.
Rutherford's discoveries include the concept of
radioactive half-life, the radioactive element radon, and
the differentiation and naming of alpha and beta
radiation. Together with Thomas Royds, Rutherford is
credited with proving
[9][10]
that alpha radiation is composed
of helium nuclei. In 1911, he theorized that atoms
have their[11]
charge concentrated in a very small
nucleus. He arrived at this theory through his
discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering Rutherford, c. 1920s
during the gold foil experiment performed by Hans 44th President of the Royal Society
Geiger and Ernest Marsden. In 1912 he invited Niels In office
Bohr to join his lab, leading to the Bohr-Rutherford 1925–1930
model of the atom. In 1917, he performed the first
artificially induced nuclear reaction by conducting Preceded by Charles Scott Sherrington
experiments in which nitrogen nuclei were bombarded Succeeded by Frederick Gowland Hopkins
with alpha particles. These experiments led him to Personal details
discover the emission of a subatomic particle that he Born 30 August 1871
initially called the "hydrogen [12][13]
atom", but later (more Brightwater, Nelson Province,
precisely) renamed the proton. He is also credited Colony of New Zealand
with developing the atomic numbering system Died 19 October 1937 (aged 66)
alongside Henry Moseley. His other achievements Cambridge, England
include advancing the fields of radio communications
and ultrasound technology. Resting place Westminster Abbey, London

Rutherford became Director of the Cavendish

Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1919.
Under his leadership, the neutron was discovered by
James Chadwick in 1932. In the same year, the first
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 1/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
controlled experiment to split the nucleus was Alma mater University of New Zealand
performed by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, (BA, 1892; MA, 1893; BSc,
working under his direction. In honour of his scientific 1894)
advancements, Rutherford was recognised as a baron of Trinity College, Cambridge
the United Kingdom. After his death in 1937, he was (BA, 1897)
buried in Westminster Abbey near Charles Darwin and
Isaac Newton. The chemical element rutherfordium Known for Discovering radon (1899)
(104Rf) was named after him in 1997. Discovering the atomic
nucleus (1911)

Early life and education Rutherford model (1911)

Discovering the proton (1917)
Spouse Mary Georgina Newton
Ernest Rutherford was born on 30 August 1871 in ​​(m. 1900)​
Brightwater, a town near Nelson, New Zealand. He [14]
was the fourth of twelve children of James Rutherford, Children 1
an immigrant farmer and mechanic from Perth, Relatives Ralph H. Fowler (son-in-law)
Scotland, and his wife Martha Thompson, a Awards See list
schoolteacher from Hornchurch, England. [14][15][16] FRS (1903)
Rutherford's birth certificate was mistakenly[14][16]
written as Bakerian Medal (1904, 1920)
'Earnest'. He was known by his family as Ern. Rumford Medal (1904)
When Rutherford was five he moved to Foxhill, New Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Zealand, and attended Foxhill School. At age 11 in 1883, (1908)
the Rutherford family moved to Havelock, a town in the Elliott Cresson Medal (1910)
Marlborough Sounds. The move was made to[16]be closer Barnard Medal for Meritorious
to the flax mill Rutherford's[17]father developed. Ernest Service to Science (1910)
studied at Havelock School. Matteucci Medal (1913)
In 1887, on his second attempt, he won a scholarship to Hector Memorial Medal (1916)
study at Nelson College.[16] On his first examination Dalton Medal (1919)
attempt,[18]he had the highest mark of anyone from Copley Medal (1922)
Nelson. When he was awarded the scholarship, [19]
he Franklin Medal (1924)
had received 580 out of 600 possible marks. After
being awarded the scholarship, Havelock School Albert Medal (1928)
presented him with a five-volume set of books titled The Faraday Medal (1930)
[20]
Peoples of the World. He studied at Nelson College Faraday Lectureship Prize
between 1887 and 1889, and was head boy[16] in 1889. He (1936)
also played in the school's rugby team. He was Wilhelm Exner Medal (1936)
offered a cadetship in government service, but he Honours Order of Merit (1925)
declined as[21] he still had 15 months of college
remaining. Scientific career
Fields Atomic physics
In 1889, after his second attempt, he won a scholarship Nuclear physics
to study at Canterbury College, University of New
Zealand, between 1890 and 1894. He participated[16]in its Institutions McGill University (1898–1907)
debating society and the Science Society. At
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 2/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
Canterbury, he was awarded a complex BA in Latin, Victoria University of
English, and Maths in 1892, a MA in Mathematics and Manchester (1907–1919)
Physical Science[22][23]
in 1893, and a BSc in Chemistry and Cavendish Laboratory (1919–
Geology in 1894. 1937)
Thereafter, he invented a new form of radio receiver, Academic Alexander Bickerton
and in 1895 Rutherford was awarded an 1851 Research advisors J. J. Thomson[1]
Fellowship from the Royal Commission for the Doctoral See list
Exhibition of 1851, [24][25] to travel to England for students Robert William Boyle (1909)
postgraduate study at [26]the Cavendish Laboratory,
University of Cambridge. In 1897, he was awarded a James Chadwick (1921)
BA Research Degree and the Coutts-Trotter Studentship Henry DeWolf Smyth (1923)
from Trinity College, Cambridge. [22] Nazir Ahmed (1925)[2]
Douglas Hartree (1926)
Scientific career John Cockcroft (1928)
Yulii Borisovich Khariton
When Rutherford began his studies at Cambridge, he (1928)
was among the first 'aliens' (those without a Cambridge C. F. Powell (1929)
degree) allowed to do research at the university, and C. E. Wynn-Williams (1929)
was additionally
[1]
honoured to study under J. J. Norman Feather (1931)
Thomson. Ernest Walton (1931)
With Thomson's encouragement, Rutherford detected Rafi Muhammad Chaudhry
radio waves at 0.5 miles (800 m), and briefly held the (1932)[3][4]
world record for the distance over which Zhang Wenyu (1938)[5][6]
electromagnetic waves could be detected, although Other notable See list
when he presented his results at the British Association students Norman Alexander
meeting in 1896, he discovered he had been outdone by
Guglielmo Marconi, whose radio waves [27]
had sent a Edward Andrade
message across nearly 10 miles (16 km). Edward Appleton
Patrick Blackett
Niels Bohr
Work with radioactivity
Bertram Boltwood
Again under Thomson's leadership, Rutherford worked Harriet Brooks
on the conductive effects of X-rays on gases, which led
to the discovery of the electron, the results first Edward Bullard
presented by Thomson in 1897.[28][29] Hearing of Henri Charles Galton Darwin
Becquerel's experience with uranium, Rutherford Charles Drummond Ellis
started to explore its radioactivity, discovering two Kazimierz Fajans
types that differed from X-rays in their penetrating Thomas Gaskell
power. Continuing his research in Canada, in 1899 he
coined the terms "alpha ray" and "beta ray" to describe Hans Geiger
these two distinct types of radiation. [30] Otto Hahn
Pyotr Kapitsa
Daulat Singh Kothari
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 3/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
In 1898, Rutherford was accepted to the chair of George Laurence
Macdonald Professor of physics position at McGill Iven Mackay
University in Montreal,
[31]
Canada, on Thomson's Ernest Marsden
recommendation. From 1900 to 1903, he was joined
at McGill by the young chemist Frederick Soddy (Nobel Mark Oliphant
Prize in Chemistry, 1921) for whom he set the problem Thomas Royds
of identifying the noble gas emitted by the radioactive Frederick Soddy
element thorium, a substance which was itself Suekichi Kinoshita
radioactive and would coat other substances. Once he
had eliminated all the normal chemical reactions, Soddy 4th Cavendish Professor of Physics
suggested that it must be one of the inert gases, which In office
they220named thoron. This substance was later found to
[32][22]
1919–1937
be Rn, an isotope of radon. They also found Preceded by J. J. Thomson
another substance they called Thorium X, later Succeeded by Lawrence Bragg
identified as Rn, and continued to find traces of
224
helium. They also worked with samples of "Uranium X" Signature
(protactinium), from William Crookes, and radium,
from Marie Curie. Rutherford further investigated
thoron in conjunction with R.B. Owens and found that a
sample of radioactive material of any size invariably took the
same
1
amount of time for half the sample to decay (in this case,
11 ⁄2 minutes),
[32]
a phenomenon for which he coined the term
"half-life". Rutherford and Soddy published their paper
"Law of Radioactive Change" to account for all their
experiments. Until then, atoms were assumed to be the
indestructible basis of all matter; and although Curie had
suggested that radioactivity was an atomic phenomenon, the
idea of the atoms of radioactive substances breaking up was a
radically new idea. Rutherford and Soddy demonstrated that
radioactivity involved the spontaneous[22]disintegration of atoms
into other, as yet, unidentified matter.
In 1903, Rutherford considered a type of radiation, discovered
(but not named) by French chemist Paul Villard in 1900, as an
emission from radium, and realised that this observation must
represent something different from his own alpha and beta Rutherford in 1892, aged 21
rays, due to its very much greater penetrating power.
Rutherford therefore[30]gave this third type of radiation the
name of gamma ray. All three of Rutherford's terms are in standard use today – other types of
radioactive decay have since been discovered, but Rutherford's three types are among the most
common. In 1904, Rutherford suggested that radioactivity provides a source of energy sufficient to
explain the existence of the Sun for the many millions of years required for the slow biological
evolution on Earth proposed by biologists such as Charles Darwin. The physicist Lord Kelvin had
argued earlier for a much younger Earth, based on the insufficiency of known energy sources, but

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 4/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
Rutherford pointed out, at a lecture attended by Kelvin, that radioactivity could solve[34]this problem.[33]
Later that year, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society, [35] and in 1907 he
returned to Britain to take the chair of physics at the Victoria University of Manchester.
In Manchester, Rutherford continued his work with alpha radiation. In conjunction with Hans Geiger,
he developed zinc sulfide scintillation screens and ionisation chambers to count alpha particles. By
dividing the total charge accumulated on the screen by61 the number counted, Rutherford determined
that the charge on the alpha particle was two. [36][37]: In late 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas
Royds allowed alphas to penetrate a very thin window into an evacuated tube. As they sparked the
tube into discharge, the spectrum obtained from it changed, as the alphas accumulated in the tube.
Eventually, the clear spectrum of helium gas [38]
appeared, proving that alphas were at least ionised
helium atoms, and probably [39]
helium nuclei. [40]:
In 1910
94
Rutherford, with Geiger and mathematician
Harry Bateman published their classic paper describing the first analysis of the distribution
in time of radioactive emission, a distribution now called the Poisson distribution.
Ernest Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances".[41][22]
Model of the atom
Rutherford
[37]: 63
continued to make ground-breaking discoveries long after receiving the Nobel prize in
1908. Under his direction in 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed the Geiger–
Marsden experiment, which demonstrated the nuclear [42]
nature of atoms by measuring the deflection of
alpha particles passing through a thin gold foil. Rutherford was inspired to ask Geiger and
Marsden in this experiment to look for alpha particles with very high deflection angles, which was not
[43][44]
expected according to any theory of matter at that time. Such deflection angles, although rare,
were found. Reflecting on these results in one of his last lectures, Rutherford was quoted as saying: "It
was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost [45]
as
incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you." It
was Rutherford's interpretation of this data[46]
that led him to propose the nucleus, a very small, charged
region containing much of the atom's mass.
In 1912, Rutherford was joined by Niels Bohr (who postulated that electrons moved in specific orbits
about the compact nucleus). Bohr adapted Rutherford's nuclear structure to be consistent with Max
Planck's quantum hypothesis. The resulting Rutherford–Bohr model was the basis for quantum
mechanical atomic physics of Heisenberg which remains valid today. [22]

Piezoelectricity
During World War I, Rutherford worked on a top-secret project to solve the practical problems of
submarine detection. Both Rutherford and Paul Langevin suggested the use of piezoelectricity, and
Rutherford successfully developed a device which measured its output. The use of piezoelectricity
then became essential to the development of ultrasound as it is known today. The claim that
Rutherford developed sonar, however, is a misconception, as subaquatic detection technologies utilise
Langevin's transducer. [47][48]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 5/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
Discovery of the proton
Together with H.G. Moseley, Rutherford developed the atomic
numbering system in 1913. Rutherford and Moseley's
experiments used cathode rays to bombard various elements
with streams of electrons and observed that each element
responded in a consistent and distinct manner. Their research
was the first to assert that each element could be defined by
the properties of its inner structures – an observation that
later led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. This [22]
research led Rutherford to theorize that the hydrogen atom
(at the time the least massive entity known to bear a positive
charge) was a sort of "positive electron" – a component of
every atomic element.[49][50]
It was not until 1919 that Rutherford expanded upon his
theory of the "positive electron" with a series of experiments
beginning shortly before the end of his time at Manchester.
He found that nitrogen, and other light elements, ejected a
proton, which he[22]
called a "hydrogen atom", when hit with α
(alpha) particles. In particular, he showed that particles
ejected by alpha particles colliding with hydrogen[51]
have unit
charge and 1/4 the momentum of alpha particles. Top: Expected results: alpha particles
passing through the plum pudding model
Rutherford returned to the Cavendish Laboratory in 1919, of the atom undisturbed.
succeeding J. J. Thomson as the Cavendish professor and the Bottom: Observed results: a small portion
laboratory's director, posts that he held until his death in of the particles were deflected, indicating
1937.[52] During his tenure, Nobel prizes were awarded to anotsmall, concentrated charge. Diagram is
James Chadwick for discovering the neutron (in 1932), John vastly smallerinthan
to scale; reality the nucleus is
Cockcroft and Ernest Walton for an experiment that was to be the electron shell.
known as splitting the atom using a particle accelerator, and
Edward Appleton for demonstrating the existence of the ionosphere.
Development of proton and neutron theory
In 1919–1920, Rutherford continued his research on the "hydrogen atom" to confirm that alpha
particles break down nitrogen nuclei and to affirm the nature of the products. This result showed
Rutherford that hydrogen nuclei were a part of nitrogen nuclei (and by inference, probably other
nuclei as well). Such a construction had been suspected for many years, on the basis of atomic weights
that were integral multiples of that of hydrogen; see Prout's hypothesis. Hydrogen was known to be
the lightest element, and its nuclei presumably the lightest nuclei. Now, because of all these
considerations, Rutherford decided that a hydrogen nucleus was possibly a fundamental building
block of all nuclei, and also possibly a new fundamental particle as well, since nothing was known to
be lighter than that nucleus. Thus, confirming and [53]
extending the work of Wilhelm Wien, who in 1898
discovered the proton in streams of ionized gas, in[54] 1920 Rutherford postulated the hydrogen
nucleus to be a new particle, which he dubbed the proton.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 6/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
In 1921, while working with Niels Bohr, Rutherford theorized about the existence of neutrons, (which
he had christened in his 1920 Bakerian Lecture), which could somehow compensate for the repelling
effect of the positive charges of protons by causing an attractive nuclear force and thus keep the nuclei
from flying apart, due to the repulsion between protons. The only alternative to neutrons was the
existence of "nuclear electrons", which would counteract some of the proton charges in the nucleus,
since by then it was known that nuclei had about twice the mass that could be accounted for if they
were simply assembled from hydrogen nuclei (protons). But how these nuclear electrons could be
trapped in the nucleus, was a mystery.
In 1932, Rutherford's theory of neutrons was proved by his associate James Chadwick, who
recognised neutrons immediately when they were produced by other scientists and later himself, in
bombarding beryllium with alpha particles. In 1935, Chadwick was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physics for this discovery.[55]
Induced nuclear reaction and probing the nucleus
In Rutherford's four-part article on the "Collision of[37]:
α-particles
237
with light atoms" he reported two
additional fundamental and far reaching discoveries. First, he showed that at high angles the
scattering of alpha particles from hydrogen differed from the theoretical results he himself published
in 1911. These were the first results to probe the interactions that hold a nucleus together. Second, he
showed that α-particles colliding with nitrogen nuclei would react rather than simply bounce off. One
product of the reaction was the proton; the other product was shown by Patrick Blackett, Rutherford's
colleague and former student, to be oxygen:
14N + α → 17O + p.

Rutherford therefore recognised "that the nucleus may [56]

increase rather than diminish in mass as the
result of collisions in which the proton is expelled". Blackett was awarded the Nobel prize in 1948
for his work [57]
in perfecting the high-speed cloud chamber apparatus used to make that discovery and
many others.
Later years and honours
Rutherford received significant recognition[26]in his home country of New Zealand. In 1901, he earned[58]a
DSc from the University of New Zealand. In 1916, he was awarded the Hector Memorial Medal.
In 1925, Rutherford called for the New Zealand Government to support education and research, which
led to[59]the formation of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) in the following
year. In 1933, Rutherford was one of the two inaugural recipients of the T. K. Sidey Medal, which
was established
[60][61]
by the Royal Society of New Zealand as an award for outstanding scientific
research.
Additionally, Rutherford received a number of awards from the British Crown. He[63]was knighted in
1914. He was appointed to the Order of Merit in the 1925 New Year Honours. Between 1925
[62]
and 1930, he served as President of the Royal Society, and later as president of[8]the Academic
Assistance Council which helped almost 1,000 university refugees from Germany. In 1931 was
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 7/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
raised to Baron of the United Kingdom under the title Baron Rutherford of Nelson, [64] decorating
his coat of arms with a kiwi and a Māori warrior.[65] The title became extinct upon his unexpected
death in 1937.
Since 1992 his portrait appears on the New Zealand one hundred-dollar note.

Personal life and death

Around 1888 Rutherford made his grandmother a wooden potato masher which is now in the
[66][67]
collection of the Royal Society.
In 1900, at St Paul's Anglican
[68]
Church, Papanui in Christchurch, Rutherford married[69][70]
Mary Georgina
Newton (1876–1954), to whom he had been engaged before leaving New Zealand. They had
one daughter, Eileen Mary (1901–1930); she married the physicist Ralph Fowler,
[22]
and died during the
birth of her fourth child. Rutherford's hobbies included golf and motoring.
For some time before his death, Rutherford had a small hernia, which he neglected to have repaired,
and it eventually became strangulated, rendering him violently ill. He had an emergency operation in
London, but died in Cambridge four days later, on 19 October 1937, at age 66,[71]of what physicians
termed "intestinal paralysis". After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, he was given the
[71]
high honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, near Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, and other illustrious
British scientists.[22][72]
Legacy
At the opening session of the 1938 Indian Science Congress, which Rutherford had been expected to
preside over before his death, astrophysicist James Jeans spoke in his place and deemed him "one of
the greatest scientists of all time", saying:
In his flair for the right line of approach to a problem, as well as in the simple directness of
his methods of attack, [Rutherford] often reminds us of Faraday, but he had two great
advantages which Faraday did not possess, first, exuberant bodily health and energy, and
second, the opportunity and capacity to direct a band of enthusiastic co-workers. Great
though Faraday's output of work was, it seems to me that to match Rutherford's work in
quantity as well as in quality, we must go back to Newton. In some respects he was more
fortunate than Newton. Rutherford was ever the happy warrior – happy in his work, happy
in its outcome, and happy in its human contacts.[73]

Nuclear physics
Rutherford is known as "the father of nuclear physics" because his research, and work done under him
as laboratory director, established the [7][74][28]
nuclear structure of the atom and the essential nature of
radioactive decay as a nuclear process. Patrick Blackett, a research fellow working under
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 8/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
Rutherford, using natural alpha particles, demonstrated
induced nuclear transmutation. Later, Rutherford's team,
using protons from an accelerator, demonstrated [75]
artificially-
induced nuclear reactions and transmutation.
Rutherford died too early to see Leó Szilárd's idea of
controlled nuclear chain reactions come into being. However,
a speech of Rutherford's about his artificially-induced
transmutation in lithium, printed in the 12 September 1933
issue of The Times, was reported by Szilárd to have been his
inspiration for thinking of the possibility of a controlled
energy-producing nuclear chain reaction. [76]
Rutherford's speech touched on the 1932 work of his students
John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in "splitting" lithium into
alpha particles by bombardment with protons from a particle
accelerator they had constructed. Rutherford realised that the A statue of a young Ernest Rutherford at
energy released from the split lithium atoms was enormous, his memorial in Brightwater, New
but he also realised that the energy needed for the accelerator, Zealand.
and its essential inefficiency in splitting atoms in this fashion,
made the project an impossibility as a practical source of
energy (accelerator-induced fission of light elements remains too inefficient to be used in this way,
even today). Rutherford's speech in part, read:
We might in these processes obtain very much more energy than the proton supplied, but on
the average we could not expect to obtain energy in this way. It was a very poor and
inefficient way of producing energy, and anyone who looked for a source of power in the
transformation of the atoms was talking moonshine. [77][78]
But the subject was scientifically
interesting because it gave insight into the atoms.
The element rutherfordium, Rf, Z=104, was named in honour of Rutherford in 1997.[79]
In popular culture
Andrew Hodwitz portrays Rutherford in episode 11 of season 13 "Staring Blindly into the Future"
(January 13, 2020) of the Canadian television period detective series Murdoch Mysteries.

Publications
Books
Radio-activity (https://archive.org/details/radioactivity00ruthgoog) (1904),[80] 2nd ed. (1905),
ISBN 978-1-60355-058-1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 9/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
Radioactive Transformations (1906) (https://archive.org/details/radioactivetran02ruthgoog),
ISBN 978-1-60355-054-3
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManage
r?pid=11020002). Cambridge: University press. 1933.
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen (https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManage
r?pid=6739518) (in German). Leipzig: Akademische Verlaggesellschaft. 1913.
Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (1913) (https://archive.org/details/radioactivesubst00
ruthuoft)[81]
The Electrical Structure of Matter (1926)
The Artificial Transmutation of the Elements (1933)
The Newer Alchemy (1937)

Articles
Ernest Rutherford (1899). "Uranium Radiation and the Electrical conduction Produced by it" (http
s://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh5471899lon/page/108/mode/2up). Philosophical Magazine.
47 (284): 109–163.
Ernest Rutherford (1903). "XV. The Magnetic and Electric Deviation of the easily absorbed Rays
from Radium" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburgh651903lond/page/176/mode/2up).
Philosophical Magazine. 6. 5: 177-187.
Ernest Rutherford (1906). "The Mass and Velocity of the α particles expelled from Radium and
Actinium" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430814). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 12 (70): 348–
371. doi:10.1080/14786440609463549 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440609463549).
Ernest Rutherford; Thomas Royds (1909). "XXI. The nature of the α particle from radioactive
substances" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburg6171909lond/page/280/mode/2up). The
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 17 (98): 281–
286. doi:10.1080/14786440208636599 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440208636599).
ISSN 1941-5982 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-5982).
Ernest Rutherford (1911). "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the
Atom" (https://web.mit.edu/8.13/8.13c/references-fall/rutherford/rutherford-scattering-of-alpha-and-
beta-particles.pdf) (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 21 (125): 669–688.
doi:10.1080/14786440508637080 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080).
Ernest Rutherford (1912). "The origin of β and γ rays from radioactive substances" (https://zenod
o.org/record/1430890). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 24 (142): 453–462.
doi:10.1080/14786441008637351 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441008637351).
Ernest Rutherford; John Mitchell Nuttal (1913). "Scattering of α-Particles by Gases" (https://archiv
e.org/details/ClassicalScientificPapersPhysics). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 26 (154): 702–
712. doi:10.1080/14786441308635014 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441308635014).
Ernest Rutherford (1914). "The Structure of the Atom" (http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/R
utherford-1914.html). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 27 (159): 488–498.
doi:10.1080/14786440308635117 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440308635117).
Ernest Rutherford (1938). "Forty Years of Physics" (https://archive.org/details/backgroundtomode0
32734mbp/page/n85/mode/2up). In Needham, Joseph; Pagel, Walter (eds.). Background to
Modern Science: Ten Lectures at Cambridge arranged by the History of Science Committee 1936.
Cambridge University Press.
Ernest Rutherford (1913). Radioactive Substances and their Radiations (https://archive.org/detail
s/radioactivesubst00ruthuoft). Cambridge University Press.
Ernest Rutherford (1936). "Radioactivity and Atomic Structure". Journal of the Chemical Society.
1936: 508–516. doi:10.1039/JR9360000508 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJR9360000508).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 10/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
"Disintegration of the Radioactive Elements" Harper's Monthly Magazine, January 1904, pages
279 to 284.

See also
Bateman equation
Hydrophone
Magnetic detector
Neutron generator
Royal Society of New Zealand
Rutherford (unit)
Rutherfordine
The Rutherford Journal
List of presidents of the Royal Society

Footnotes
References
1. "Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041955/https://w
ww.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/rutherfordsoddy.cfm). Archived from the
original (https://www.aps.org/programs/outreach/history/historicsites/rutherfordsoddy.cfm) on 1
December 2017.
2. "University of the Punjab - Science" (http://pu.edu.pk/home/department/55/Department-of-Physic
s). pu.edu.pk. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231002053440/http://pu.edu.pk/home/dep
artment/55/Department-of-Physics) from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved 15 September
2023. "The expedition included Professor James Martin Benade (Professor of Physics at Forman
Christian College Lahore) and Dr. Nazir Ahmad (a PhD student of Ernest Rutherford at Cambridge
who later on became the First Chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1956). "
3. Hameed, A. Khan; Qurashi, M. M.; Hussain, E. T.; Hayee, M. I., eds. (2006). "Physics in
Developing Countries – Past, Present & Future" (https://comsats.org/Publications/Books_SnT_Ser
ies/08.%20Physics%20in%20Developing%20Countries%20-%20Past,%20Present%20and%20Fu
ture%20(April%202006).pdf) (PDF). Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable
Development in the South. COMSATS Series of Publications on Science and Technology.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230922031259/http://www.comsats.org/Publications/Boo
ks_SnT_Series/08.%20Physics%20in%20Developing%20Countries%20-%20Past,%20Present%
20and%20Future%20(April%202006).pdf) (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2023.
Retrieved 2 October 2023.
4. Government College University, Lahore (GCU) (4 September 2009). "Dr. Rafi Muhammad
Chaudhri Chair in Physics – About the Chair" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160316200831/htt
p://www.gcu.edu.pk/RafiCh_Chair.htm). Chief Librarian GC University Library, Lahore. GC
University. Archived from the original (http://www.gcu.edu.pk/RafiCh_Chair.htm) on 16 March
2016. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
5. Grodzins, Lee (February 1994). "Obituaries: Zhang Wen-Yu" (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.28084
17). Physics Today. 47 (2): 116. doi:10.1063/1.2808417 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2808417).
"Zhang studied under Ernest Rutherford in the mid-1930s, receiving his degree from Cambridge
University in 1938."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 11/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
6. Zhang Wenyu (张文裕) (28 March 2018). 高能实验物理学家张文裕：回忆导师卢瑟福生命中的最后
两年 (https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_2047688). thepaper.com (in Chinese).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210812083603/https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forw
ard_2047688) from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
7. "Ernest Rutherford" (https://ehs.msu.edu/lab-clinic/rad/hist-figures/rutherford.html). Environmental
Health and Safety Office of Research Regulatory Support. Michigan State University. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20230622163634/https://ehs.msu.edu/lab-clinic/rad/hist-figures/rutherfor
d.html) from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
8. Badash, Lawrence. "Ernest Rutherford | Accomplishments, Atomic Theory, & Facts | Britannica" (h
ttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Ernest-Rutherford). Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20220926002932/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ernest-Rutherfor
d) from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
9. Campbell, John. "Rutherford – A Brief Biography" (http://www.rutherford.org.nz/biography.htm).
Rutherford.org.nz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200512125601/https://www.rutherford.
org.nz/biography.htm) from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
10. Rutherford, E.; Royds, T. (1908). "Spectrum of the radium emanation" (https://zenodo.org/record/1
430840). Philosophical Magazine. Series 6. 16 (92): 313. doi:10.1080/14786440808636511 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440808636511). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019122301
0722/https://zenodo.org/record/1430840) from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved
28 June 2019.
11. Longair, M. S. (2003). Theoretical concepts in physics: an alternative view of theoretical reasoning
in physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=bA9Lp2GH6OEC&pg=PA377). Cambridge
University Press. pp. 377–378. ISBN 978-0-521-52878-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0231030224745/https://books.google.com/books?id=bA9Lp2GH6OEC&pg=PA377#v=onepage&q
&f=false) from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
12. Rutherford, E. (1919). "Collision of α particles with light atoms. IV. An anomalous effect in
nitrogen" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430800). The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science. Series 6. 37 (222): 581–587. doi:10.1080/14786440608635919
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440608635919). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2019110
2172157/https://zenodo.org/record/1430800) from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved
2 November 2019.
13. Rutherford, E. (1920). "Bakerian Lecture. Nuclear Constitution of Atoms" (https://doi.org/10.1098%
2Frspa.1920.0040). Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences. 97 (686): 374–400. Bibcode:1920RSPSA..97..374R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1920RSPSA..97..374R). doi:10.1098/rspa.1920.0040 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1920.004
0).
14. A.H. McLintock (18 September 2007). "Rutherford, Sir Ernest (Baron Rutherford of Nelson, O.M.,
F.R.S.)" (https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/rutherford-sir-ernest/1). An Encyclopaedia of New
Zealand (1966 ed.). Te Ara – The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. ISBN 978-0-478-18451-8.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111203225115/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/rutherfor
d-sir-ernest/1) from the original on 3 December 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
15. J.L. Heilbron (12 June 2003). Ernest Rutherford And the Explosion of Atoms (https://books.google.
com/books?id=_vNW1wg9npgC&pg=PA12). Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0-19-512378-6.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230829161018/https://books.google.com/books?id=_vN
W1wg9npgC&pg=PA12) from the original on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
16. Campbell, John. "Rutherford, Ernest 1871–1937" (https://teara.govt.nz/en/biographies/3R37).
Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
17. "Local and General News" (https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18861007.2.8?).
Marlborough Express. Vol. 22, no. 186. 7 October 1886. p. 2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20230808010845/https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18861007.2.8) from the
original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2023 – via Papers Past.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 12/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
18. "The Marlborough Express. Published Every Evening. Monday, December 28, 1885. Local and
General News" (https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18851228.2.5).
paperspast.natlib.govt.nz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230808010547/https://papersp
ast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18851228.2.5) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved
8 August 2023.
19. "The Marlborough Express. Published Every Evening Wednesday, January 5, 1887. Local and
General News" (https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18870105.2.6).
paperspast.natlib.govt.nz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230808011211/https://papersp
ast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18870105.2.6) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved
8 August 2023.
20. "Papers Past | Newspapers | Marlborough Express | 25 January 1887 | Local and General News"
(https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18870125.2.6). paperspast.natlib.govt.nz.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230808011630/https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspap
ers/MEX18870125.2.6) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
21. "Papers Past | Newspapers | Marlborough Express | 4 October 1887 | Marlborough Express.
Published Every Evening..." (https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18871004.2.7)
paperspast.natlib.govt.nz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230808011952/https://papersp
ast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/MEX18871004.2.7) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved
8 August 2023.
22. "Ernest Rutherford Biographical" (https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1908/rutherford/bio
graphical/). The Nobel Prize. Nobel Prize Outreach AB. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
30603075847/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1908/rutherford/biographical/) from the
original on 3 June 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
23. "Famous Canterbury graduate Ernest Rutherford turns 150" (https://www.canterbury.ac.nz/news/2
021/famous-canterbury-graduate-ernest-rutherford-turns-150.html). The University of Canterbury.
27 August 2021. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230703222040/https://www.canterbury.a
c.nz/news/2021/famous-canterbury-graduate-ernest-rutherford-turns-150.html) from the original
on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
24. 1851 Royal Commission Archives
25. "Papers Past | Newspapers | Ashburton Guardian | 13 July 1895 | European and Other Foreign
Items" (https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/AG18950713.2.9). paperspast.natlib.govt.nz.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230808013431/https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspap
ers/AG18950713.2.9) from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
26. "Rutherford, Ernest (RTRT895E)" (http://venn.lib.cam.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search-2018.pl?sur=&suro=w&
fir=&firo=c&cit=&cito=c&c=all&z=all&tex=RTRT895E&sye=&eye=&col=all&maxcount=50). A
Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
27. Holmes, Jonathan (13 May 2022). "Marconi's first radio broadcast made 125 years ago" (https://w
ww.bbc.com/news/uk-england-somerset-61327062). BBC News. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20230605224315/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-somerset-61327062) from the
original on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
28. "Know the scientist: Ernest Rutherford" (https://www.thehindu.com/children/know-the-scientist-ern
est-rutherford/article34837002.ece). The Hindu. 17 June 2021. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20230623183847/https://www.thehindu.com/children/know-the-scientist-ernest-rutherford/arti
cle34837002.ece) from the original on 23 June 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
29. Buchwald, Jed Z.; Warwick, Andrew (30 January 2004). Histories of the electron: the birth of
microphysics (https://books.google.com/books?id=1yqqhlIdCOoC&pg=PA21). Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press. pp. 21–30. ISBN 0262524244. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023082916325
1/https://books.google.com/books?id=1yqqhlIdCOoC&pg=PA21) from the original on 29 August
2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 13/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
30. Trenn, Thaddeus J. (1976). "Rutherford on the Alpha-Beta-Gamma Classification of Radioactive
Rays". Isis. 67 (1): 61–75. doi:10.1086/351545 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F351545).
JSTOR 231134 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/231134). S2CID 145281124 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:145281124).
31. McKown, Robin (1962). Giant of the Atom, Ernest Rutherford (https://archive.org/details/giantofato
mernes00mcko). Julian Messner Inc, New York. p. 57 (https://archive.org/details/giantofatomernes
00mcko/page/57).
32. Kragh, Helge (5 February 2012). "Rutherford, Radioactivity, and the Atomic Nucleus".
arXiv:1202.0954 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1202.0954) [physics.hist-ph (https://arxiv.org/archive/physic
s.hist-ph)].
33. England, P.; Molnar, P.; Righter, F. (January 2007). "John Perry's neglected critique of Kelvin's age
for the Earth: A missed opportunity in geodynamics" (https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT01701A.1).
GSA Today. 17 (1): 4–9. Bibcode:2007GSAT...17R...4E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007G
SAT...17R...4E). doi:10.1130/GSAT01701A.1 (https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT01701A.1).
34. "APS Member History" (https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&s
ubdiv=&mem=&year=1904&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced).
search.amphilsoc.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210628190035/https://search.amp
hilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=1904&year-max=&de
ad=&keyword=&smode=advanced) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
35. "Ernest Rutherford: Heritage Heroes at The University of Manchester" (https://www.manchester.a
c.uk/discover/history-heritage/history/heroes/ernest-rutherford/). The University of Manchester.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230627004723/https://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/hi
story-heritage/history/heroes/ernest-rutherford/) from the original on 27 June 2023. Retrieved
27 June 2023.
36. Rutherford, E.; Geiger, Hans (27 August 1908). "The charge and nature of the α-particle" (https://d
oi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1908.0066). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A,
Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 81 (546): 162–173.
Bibcode:1908RSPSA..81..162R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908RSPSA..81..162R).
doi:10.1098/rspa.1908.0066 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1908.0066). ISSN 0950-1207 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/0950-1207).
37. Pais, Abraham (2002). Inward bound: of matter and forces in the physical world (Reprint ed.).
Oxford: Clarendon Press [u.a.] ISBN 978-0-19-851997-3.
38. Rutherford, E.; Royds, T. (February 1909). "XXI. The nature of the α particle from radioactive
substances" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430648). The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 17 (98): 281–286.
doi:10.1080/14786440208636599 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440208636599). Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20210507040356/https://zenodo.org/record/1430648) from the original
on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
39. Rutherford, E.; Geiger, H.; Bateman, H. (October 1910). "LXXVI. The probability variations in the
distribution of α particles" (https://zenodo.org/record/1430880). The London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 20 (118): 698–707.
doi:10.1080/14786441008636955 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786441008636955). Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20230829170123/https://zenodo.org/record/1430880) from the original
on 29 August 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
40. Bulmer, M. G. (1979). Principles of Statistics. United Kingdom: Dover Publications.
41. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908" (https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1908/summar
y/). The Nobel Prize. The Nobel Foundation. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201807080452
09/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/index.html) from the original
on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2020.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 14/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
42. Pestka, Jessica (25 April 2017). "About Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment" (https://sciencing.com/
rutherfords-gold-foil-experiment-4569065.html). Sciencing. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20230627004502/https://sciencing.com/rutherfords-gold-foil-experiment-4569065.html) from the
original on 27 June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
43. Dragovich, Branko. Ernest Rutherford and the Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus (http://bsw2011.se
enet-mtp.info/pub/bss2011-DragovichB-abs.pdf) (PDF). Belgrade: Institute of Physics. Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20230627004502/http://bsw2011.seenet-mtp.info/pub/bss2011-Dragovi
chB-abs.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 27 June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.
44. Davidson, Michael W. (March 2014). "Pioneers in Optics: Johann Wilhelm Ritter and Ernest
Rutherford" (https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/E8B7456
A024C6ED07D4E891F540C8EE2/S1551929514000029a.pdf/pioneers-in-optics-johann-wilhelm-ri
tter-and-ernest-rutherford.pdf) (PDF). Microscopy Today. 22 (2). Cambridge University Press: 48–
51. doi:10.1017/S1551929514000029 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1551929514000029).
S2CID 135584871 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:135584871). Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20230103220843/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/co
ntent/view/E8B7456A024C6ED07D4E891F540C8EE2/S1551929514000029a.pdf/pioneers-in-opti
cs-johann-wilhelm-ritter-and-ernest-rutherford.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2023.
Retrieved 27 June 2023.
45. The Development of the Theory of Atomic Structure (Rutherford 1936). Reprinted in Background
to Modern Science: Ten Lectures at Cambridge arranged by the History of Science Committee
1936 (https://archive.org/details/backgroundtomode032734mbp/page/n85/mode/2up)
46. Rutherford, E. (1911). "The scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom"
(http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/rutherford/rutherford688.html). The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. Series 6. 21 (125): 669–688.
doi:10.1080/14786440508637080 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080). Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20120607013629/http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/rutherford/rutherford68
8.html) from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2012.
47. Katzir, Shaul (20 June 2012). "Who knew piezoelectricity? Rutherford and Langevin on submarine
detection and the invention of sonar" (https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rsnr.201
1.0049). Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 66 (2): 141–157. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2011.0049 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.2011.0049). S2CID 1240938 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus
ID:1240938). Retrieved 2 July 2023.
48. Duck, Francis (1 November 2022). "Paul Langevin, U-boats, and ultrasonics" (https://doi.org/10.10
63%2FPT.3.5122). Physics Today. 75 (11): 42–48. Bibcode:2022PhT....75k..42D (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2022PhT....75k..42D). doi:10.1063/PT.3.5122 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2FPT.3.
5122). S2CID 253280842 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253280842).
49. Rutherford, Ernest (1914). "The structure of the atom" (http://www.ub.edu/hcub/hfq/sites/default/fil
es/ruth1914%285%29.pdf) (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 27: 488–498. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20230613022543/http://www.ub.edu/hcub/hfq/sites/default/files/ruth1914(5).pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
50. Whittaker, Edmund (1989). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Vol. 2. Courier
Dover Publications. p. 87. ISBN 0-486-26126-3.
51. Rutherford, Ernest (8 April 2009). "LII. Collision of α particles with light atoms II. Velocity of the
hydrogen atom" (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14786440608635917?journalCode
=tphm17). The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 6.
37 (222): 562–571. doi:10.1080/14786440608635917 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F147864406086
35917). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230613022542/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
abs/10.1080/14786440608635917?journalCode=tphm17) from the original on 13 June 2023.
Retrieved 13 June 2023.
52. "The Cavendish Professorship of Physics" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130703172354/http://w
ww.phy.cam.ac.uk/history/cavprof.php). University of Cambridge. Archived from the original (http://
www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history/cavprof.php) on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 15/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
53. Wien, W. (1904). "Über positive Elektronen und die Existenz hoher Atomgewichte" (https://zenodo.
org/record/2190505). Annalen der Physik. 318 (4): 669–677. Bibcode:1904AnP...318..669W (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1904AnP...318..669W). doi:10.1002/andp.18943180404 (https://doi.
org/10.1002%2Fandp.18943180404). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200713133516/htt
ps://zenodo.org/record/2190505) from the original on 13 July 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
54. Orme Masson (1921). "The Constitution of Atoms" (https://archive.org/details/londonedinburg6411
921lond/page/280/mode/2up). The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and
Journal of Science. 41 (242): 281–285. doi:10.1080/14786442108636219 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F14786442108636219).
Footnote by Ernest Rutherford: 'At the time of writing this paper in Australia, Professor Orme
Masson was not aware that the name "proton" had already been suggested as a suitable name for
the unit of mass nearly 1, in terms of oxygen 16, that appears to enter into the nuclear structure of
atoms. The question of a suitable name for this unit was discussed at an informal meeting of a
number of members of Section A of the British Association at Cardiff this year. The name "baron"
suggested by Professor Masson was mentioned, but was considered unsuitable on account of the
existing variety of meanings. Finally the name "proton" met with general approval, particularly as it
suggests the original term "protyle " given by Prout in his well-known hypothesis that all atoms are
built up of hydrogen. The need of a special name for the nuclear unit of mass 1 was drawn
attention to by Sir Oliver Lodge at the Sectional meeting, and the writer then suggested the name
"proton."'
55. "James Chadwick – Facts" (https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1935/chadwick/facts/). The
Nobel Prize. Nobel Prize Outreach AB. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191004015954/ht
tps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1935/chadwick/facts/) from the original on 4 October
2019. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
56. Rutherford, Sir Ernest (27 March 1925). "Studies of Atomic Nuclei" (https://archive.org/details/Roy
alInstitutionLibraryOfScience-PhysicalScienceVol9). Science. 62 (1601). The Royal Institution
Library of Sciences: 73–76. Bibcode:1925Sci....62..209R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925
Sci....62..209R). doi:10.1126/science.62.1601.209 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.62.1601.20
9). PMID 17748045 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17748045). Retrieved 2 October 2023.
57. "Nobel Prize for Physics : Prof. P. M. S. Blackett, F.R.S" (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F162841b0).
Nature. 162 (4126): 841. 1948. Bibcode:1948Natur.162R.841. (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1948Natur.162R.841.). doi:10.1038/162841b0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F162841b0).
58. "Recipients" (https://www.royalsociety.org.nz/what-we-do/medals-and-awards/hector-medal/recipi
ents-3/). Royal Society Te Apārangi. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170430164858/http
s://www.royalsociety.org.nz/what-we-do/medals-and-awards/hector-medal/recipients-3/) from the
original on 30 April 2017. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
59. Brewerton, Emma (15 December 2014). "Ernest Rutherford" (http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/e
rnest-rutherford). Ministry for Culture and Heritage. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201212
01203746/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/people/ernest-rutherford) from the original on 1 December
2012. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
60. "Background of the Medal" (http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/programmes/awards/sidey-medal/back
ground/). Royal Society of New Zealand. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160919031437/
http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/programmes/awards/sidey-medal/background/) from the original on
19 September 2016. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
61. "Recipients" (http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/programmes/awards/sidey-medal/recipients/). Royal
Society of New Zealand. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170409021241/http://royalsociet
y.org.nz/programmes/awards/sidey-medal/recipients/) from the original on 9 April 2017. Retrieved
7 August 2015.
62. "No. 12647" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/Edinburgh/issue/12647/page/269). The Edinburgh
Gazette. 27 February 1914. p. 269.
63. "No. 14089" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/Edinburgh/issue/14089/page/4). The Edinburgh
Gazette. 2 January 1925. p. 4.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 16/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
64. "No. 33683" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/33683/page/533). The London Gazette.
23 January 1931. p. 533.
65. "Ernest Rutherford – Biography" (https://nzhistory.govt.nz/people/ernest-rutherford). New Zealand
History. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230623110402/https://nzhistory.govt.nz/people/er
nest-rutherford) from the original on 23 June 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
66. "Ernest Rutherford's potato masher" (https://prints.royalsociety.org/products/ernest-rutherfords-pot
ato-masher-rs-8469). Royal Society Print Shop. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202308102
31752/https://prints.royalsociety.org/products/ernest-rutherfords-potato-masher-rs-8469) from the
original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
67. "Royal Society Picture Library | Potato masher,Potato masher" (https://pictures.royalsociety.org/im
age-rs-8469). pictures.royalsociety.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230810231608/ht
tps://pictures.royalsociety.org/image-rs-8469) from the original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved
10 August 2023.
68. Intergen. "General" (https://www.bdmhistoricalrecords.dia.govt.nz/).
www.bdmhistoricalrecords.dia.govt.nz. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201112022628/htt
ps://www.bdmhistoricalrecords.dia.govt.nz/) from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved
8 February 2023.
69. "Family history in from the cold" (http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/560019/Family-
history-in-from-the-cold). 18 March 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180914094507/
http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/christchurch-life/560019/Family-history-in-from-the-cold) from the
original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
70. Summerfield, Fiona (9 November 2012). "Historic St Paul's Church in the Christchurch suburb of
Papanui is being fully restored" (http://anglicantaonga.org.nz/news/tikanga_pakeha/new_lease_of
_life_for_historic_chch_church). Anglican Taonga. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2018091
4165438/http://anglicantaonga.org.nz/news/tikanga_pakeha/new_lease_of_life_for_historic_chch_
church) from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2019.
71. The Complete Peerage, Volume XIII – Peerage Creations, 1901–1938. St Catherine's Press.
1949. p. 495.
72. Heilbron, J. L. (12 June 2003). Ernest Rutherford: And the Explosion of Atoms (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=_vNW1wg9npgC&pg=PA123). Oxford University Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-
0-19-512378-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230113203740/https://books.google.com/
books?id=_vNW1wg9npgC&pg=PA123) from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved
22 February 2016.
73. "Viceroy Opens The Congress – Sir James Jeans's Address". The Times. Calcutta. 3 January
1938.
74. "Ernest Rutherford: father of nuclear science" (https://web.archive.org/web/20210612184534/http
s://media.newzealand.com/en/story-ideas/ernest-rutherford-father-of-nuclear-science/). New
Zealand Media Resources. Archived from the original (https://media.newzealand.com/en/story-ide
as/ernest-rutherford-father-of-nuclear-science/) on 12 June 2021.
75. Giunta, Carmen (2019). "Rutherford and Blackett artificial transmutation" (https://web.lemoyne.ed
u/giunta/classicalcs/ruthblack.html). web.lemoyne.edu. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
30627010731/https://web.lemoyne.edu/giunta/classicalcs/ruthblack.html) from the original on 27
June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 17/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia
76. "September 12, 1933 – Leó Szilárd conceives the idea of the nuclear chain reaction" (https://rinco
neducativo.org/en/anniversaries/september-12-1933-leo-szilard-conceives-the-idea-of-the-nuclear
-chain-reaction/#:~:text=On%20September%2012%2C%201933%2C%20in%20London%2C%20
Szil%C3%A1rd%20read,transformation%20of%20atoms%20was%20talking%20about%20%22sill
y%20alcohol%22.). Rincón educativo (in Spanish and English). Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20230627010731/https://rinconeducativo.org/en/anniversaries/september-12-1933-leo-szilard
-conceives-the-idea-of-the-nuclear-chain-reaction/#:~:text=On%20September%2012%2C%20193
3%2C%20in%20London%2C%20Szil%C3%A1rd%20read,transformation%20of%20atoms%20wa
s%20talking%20about%20%22silly%20alcohol%22.) from the original on 27 June 2023. Retrieved
27 June 2023.
77. "The British association – breaking down the atom". The Times. 12 September 1933.
78. Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 27.
ISBN 0-671-44133-7.
79. Freemantle, Michael (2003). "ACS Article on Rutherfordium" (http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/rut
herfordium.html). Chemical & Engineering News. American Chemical Society. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080328131206/http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/rutherfordium.html) from
the original on 28 March 2008. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
80. "Review of Radio-activity by Ernest Rutherford" (https://books.google.com/books?id=WTPmAAAA
MAAJ&pg=PA347). The Oxford Magazine. 23. The Proprietors: 347. 25 January 1905. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20230210134711/https://books.google.com/books?id=WTPmAAAAMA
AJ&pg=PA347) from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.
81. Carmichael, R. D. (1916). "Book Review: Radioactive Substances and their Radiations" (https://w
ww.ams.org/journals/bull/1916-22-04/S0002-9904-1916-02762-5/S0002-9904-1916-02762-5.pdf)
(PDF). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 22 (4): 200. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1916-
02762-5 (https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1916-02762-5). Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20210224194040/https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1916-22-04/S0002-9904-1916-02762-
5/S0002-9904-1916-02762-5.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 28 April
2021.

Further reading
Badash, Lawrence (2008) [2004]. "Rutherford, Ernest". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
(online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35891 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fre
f%3Aodnb%2F35891). (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://www.oxforddnb.com/hel
p/subscribe#public) required.)
Cragg, R. H. (1971). "Lord Ernest Rutherford of Nelson (1871–1937)". Royal Institute of
Chemistry, Reviews. 4 (2): 129. doi:10.1039/RR9710400129 (https://doi.org/10.1039%2FRR9710
400129).
Campbell, John. (1999) Rutherford: Scientist Supreme (http://www.rutherford.org.nz/bkcamrss.ht
m), AAS Publications, Christchurch, ISBN 0-4730-5700-X
Marsden, E. (1954). "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture, 1954. Rutherford-His Life and Work,
1871–1937". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 226 (1166): 283–305.
Bibcode:1954RSPSA.226..283M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954RSPSA.226..283M).
doi:10.1098/rspa.1954.0254 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1954.0254). S2CID 73381519 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73381519).
Reeves, Richard (2008). A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford. New York:
W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-33369-8
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-
671-44133-7
Wilson, David (1983). Rutherford. Simple Genius, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-23805-4
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 18/19
6/10/25, 4:09 PM Ernest Rutherford - Wikipedia

External links
Biography and web exhibit (https://history.aip.org/e External videos
xhibits/rutherford/) American Institute of Physics
Ernest Rutherford (https://www.nobelprize.org/laure bookPresentation
A Force of
by Richard Reeves on his
Nature: The Frontier Genius of
ate/167) on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel
Lecture, 11 December 1908 The Chemical Nature Ernest Rutherford,, January 16, 2008 (https://w
of the Alpha Particles from Radioactive Substances ww.c-span.org/video/?201807-1/a-force-natur
The Rutherford Museum (http://www.physics.mcgill. e), C-SPAN
ca/museum/rutherford_museum.htm)
Rutherford Scientist Supreme (http://www.rutherfor
d.org.nz/)
Newspaper clippings about Ernest Rutherford (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/024860) in
the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
"Ernest Rutherford, 150th anniversary" (https://sebastienfritsch.wixsite.com/ernestrutherford150?l
ang=en). Retrieved 29 June 2024. Well-source site with details on Rutherford's life.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Rutherford&oldid=1291801279"

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford 19/19