Starting and Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motors

Necessity of Starter:
In a three-phase induction motor, the magnitude of an induced e.m.f. in the rotor circuit
depends on the slip of the induction motor. This induced e.m.f. effectively decides the
magnitude of the rotor current. The rotor current in the running condition is given by,

But at start, the speed of the motor is zero and slip is at its maximum i.e. unity. So magnitude
of rotor induced e.m.f. is very large at start. As rotor conductors are short circuited, the large
induced e.m.f. circulates very high current through rotor at start.
The condition is exactly similar to a transformer with short circuited secondary. Such a
transformer when excited by a rated voltage, circulates very high current through short
circuited secondary. As secondary current is large, the primary also draws very high current
from the supply. Similarly in a three phase induction motor, when rotor current is high,
consequently the stator draws a very high current from the supply. This current can be of the
order of 5 to 8 times the full load current, at start.
Due to such heavy inrush current at start there is possibility of damage of the motor winding.
Similarly such sudden inrush of current causes large line voltage drop. Thus other appliances
connected to the same line may be subjected to voltage spikes which may affect their
working. To avoid such effects, it is necessary to limit the current drawn by the motor at start.
The starter is a device which is basically used to limit high starting current by supplying
reduced voltage to the motor at the limit of starting. Such a reduced voltage is applied only
for short period and once rotor gets accelerated, full normal rated voltage is applied.
Not only the starter limits the starting current but also provides the protection to the induction
motor against overloading loading and low voltage situations. The protection against single
phasing is also provided by the starter. The induction motor having rating below 5 h.p. can
withstand starting currents hence such motors can be started directly on line. But such motors
also need overload, single phasing and low voltage protection which is provided by a starter.

Direct on Load Line Starter (D.O.L.):

In case of small capacity motors having rating less than 5 h.p., the starting current is not very
high and such motors can withstand such starting current without any starter. Thus there is no
need to reduce applied voltage, to control the starting current. Such motors use a type of
starter which is used to connect stator directly to the supply lines without any reduction in
voltage. Hence the starter is known as direct on line starter.
Though this starter does not reduce the applied voltage, it is used because it protects the
motor from various severe abnormal conditions like over loading, low voltage, single phasing
etc.
The NO contact is normally open and NC is normally closed. At start, NO is pushed for fraction
of second due to which coil gets energized and attracts the contactor. So stator directly gets
supply. The additional contact provided, ensures that as long as supply is ON, the coil gets supply
and keeps contactor in ON position. When NC is pressed, the coil circuit gets opened due to
which coil gets de-energized and motor gets switched OFF from the supply.
Under over load condition, current drawn by the motor increases due to which is an excessive
heat produced, which increases temperature beyond limit. Thermal relays get opened due to high
temperature, protecting the motor from overload conditions.
Star - Delta Starter
This is the cheapest starter of all and hence used very commonly for the induction motors. It uses
triple pole double throw (TPDT) switch. The switch connects the stator winding in star at start.
Hence per phase voltage gets reduced by the factor 1/√3. Due to this reduced voltage, the starting
current is limited.
When the switch is thrown on other side, the winding gets connected in delta, across the supply.
So it gets normal rated voltage. The windings are connected in delta when motor gathers
sufficient speed.
The operation of the switch can be automatic by using relays which ensures that motor will not
start with the switch in Run position. The cheapest of all and maintenance free operation are the
two important advantages of this starter. While its limitations are, it is suitable for normal delta
connected motors and the factor by which voltage changes is 1/√3 which can not be changed.

Ratio of Tst to TF.L.

in case of autotransformer that if x is the factor by which the voltage is reduced then,

Now the factor x in this type of starter is 1/√3.

where Isc = Starting phase current when delta connection with rated voltage IF.L. = Full load phase
current when delta connection

Auto-transformer Starter

A three phase star connected autotransformer can be used to reduce the voltage applied to the
stator. Such a starter is called an autotransformer starter. The schematic diagram of auto-
transformer starter. The schematic diagram of auto-transformer starter is shown in the Fig.
It consists of a suitable change over switch.
When the switch is in the start position, the stator winding is supplied with reduced voltage.
This can be controlled by tappings provided with autotransformer.
The reduction in applied voltage by the fractional percentage tappings x, used for an
autotransformer is shown in the Fig
When motor gathers 80% of the normal speed, the change over switch is thrown into run position.
Due to this, rated voltage gets applied to stator winding. The motor starts rotating with normal
speed. Changing of switch is done automatically by using relays. The power loss is much less in
this type of starting. It can be used for both star and delta connected motors. But it is expensive
than stator resistance starter.
Relation between Tst and TF.L.
Let x be the fractional percentage tappings used for an autotransformer to apply reduced voltage
to the stator.
So if, Isc = Starting motor current at rated voltage and Ist = Starting motor current with starter
then Ist = x Isc .....Motor side ........................ (1)
But there is exists a fixed ratio between starting current drawn from supply Ist(supply) and
starting moor current Ist (motor) due to autotransformer, as shown in the Fig

Speed control of Three Phase Induction motor

A three phase induction motor is practically a constant speed motor like a d.c. shunt motor. But
the speed of d.c. shunt motor can be varied smoothly just by using simple rheostats. This
maintains the speed regulation and efficiency of d.c. shunt motor. But in case of three phase
induction motors it is very difficult to achieve smooth speed control. And if the speed control is
achieved by some means, the performance of the induction motor in terms of its power factor,
efficiency etc. gets adversely affected.
For the induction motor we know that,
From this expression it can be seen that the speed of induction motor can be changed either
by changing its synchronous speed or by changing the slip s.
Similarly torque produced in case of three phase induction motor is given by, N = Ns (1 - s)
So as the parameters like R2, E2 are changed then to keep the torque constant for constant
load condition, motor reacts by change in its slip. Effectively its speed changes.
Thus speed of the induction motor can be controlled by basically by:

1. Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f control.

2. Supply voltage control.
3. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.

Supply Voltage Control:

We know that, T α (k s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)

Now E2, the rotor induced e.m.f. at standstill depends on the supply voltage V.
... E2 α V
Also for low slip region, which is operating region of the induction motor, (s X2)2<<R2 and
hence can be neglected.
... T α ( s E22 R2)/R 2) α sV2 for constant R2
Now if supply voltage is reduced below rated value, as per above equation torque produced
also decreases. But to supply the same load it is necessary to develop the same torque hence
value of slip increases so that torque produced remains same. Slip increases means motor
reacts by running at lower speed, to decrease in supply voltage. So motor produces the
required load torque at a lower speed. The speed-torque characteristics for the motor using
supply voltage control are shown in the Fig.

Speed-torque curves for motor with voltage control

But in this method, due to reduction in voltage, current drawn by the motor increases. Large
change in voltage for small change in speed is required is the biggest disadvantage. Due to
increased current, the motor may get overheated. Additional voltage changing equipment is
necessary. Hence this method is rarely used in practice. Motors driving fan type of loads use
this method of speed control. Due to reduced voltage, E2 decreases, decreasing the value of
maximum torque too.
Supply Frequency Control or V / f Control
The synchronous speed is given by, Ns = 120f / Ps
Thus by controlling the supply frequency smoothly, the synchronous speed can be controlled over
a wide range. This gives smooth speed control of an induction motor.
But the expression for the air gap flux is given by

This is according to the e.m.f. equation of a transformer where, K1 = Stator winding constant
Tph1 = Stator turns per phase V = Supply voltage
f = Supply frequency
It can be seen from this expression that if the supply frequency f is changed, the value of air gap
flux also gets affected. This may result into saturation of stator and rotor cores. Such a saturation
leads to the sharp increase in the (magnetization) no load current of the motor. Hence it is
necessary to maintain air gap flux constant when supply frequency f is changed.
To achieve this, it can be seen from the above expression that along with f, V also must be
changed so as to keep (V/f) ratio constant. This ensures constant air gap flux giving speed control
without affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this method is called V / f control.

Hence in this method, the supply to the induction motor required is variable voltage variable
frequency supply and can be achieved by an electronic scheme using converter and inverter
circuitry. The scheme is shown in the Fig. The normal supply available is constant voltage
constant frequency a.c. supply. The converter converts this supply into a d.c. supply. This d.c.
supply is then given to the inverter. The inverter is a device which converts d.c. supply, to
variable voltage variable frequency a.c. supply which is required to keep V / f ratio constant.
By selecting the proper frequency and maintaining V / f constant, smooth speed control of the
induction motor is possible.
Rotor Resistance Control
The arrangement is shown in the Fig
We know that, T α (k s E22 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)
Voltage is constant
Also for low slip region, which is operating region of the induction motor, (s X2)2<<R2 and
hence can be neglected.

T α ( s R2)/R22 α s/R2
Thus if the rotor resistance is increased, the torque produced decreases. But when the load on the
motor is same, motor has to supply same torque as load demands. So motor reacts by increasing
its slip to compensate decreases in T due to R2 and maintains the load torque constant. So due to
the additional rotor resistance R2, motor slip increases i.e. the speed of the motor decreases. Thus
by increasing the rotor resistance R2, speeds below normal value can be achieved. Another
advantage of this method is that the starting torque of the motor increases proportional to rotor
resistance. The Fig. 1 shows the torque-speed curves for rotor resistance control.

But this method has following disadvantages:

1. The large speed changes are not possible. This is because for large speed change, large
resistance is required to be introduced in rotor which causes large rotor copper loss due to reduce
the efficiency.
2. The method cannot be used for the squirrel cage induction motors.
3. The speeds above the normal values cannot be obtained.
4. Large power losses occur due to large loss.
5. Sufficient cooling arrangements are required which make the external rheostats bulky be
expensive.
6. Due to large power losses, efficiency is low. Thus the method is rarely used in the practice.
 Single Phase Induction Motors
Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors
Similar to a d.c. motor, single phase induction motor has basically two main parts. one
rotating and other stationary. The stationary part in single phase induction motors is called
stator while the rotating part is called rotor.
The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted on its
periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding. This is excited by a
single phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps iron losses to minimum. The
stampings are made up of material like silicon steel which minimizes the hysteresis loss. The
stator winding is wound for certain definite number of poles means when excited by single
phase
a.c. supply, stator produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of certain definite
number of poles. The number of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the
synchronous speed of the motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as Ns and it has a fixed
relation with supply frequency f and number of poles P. The relation is given by,

The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is
slightly less than the synchronous speed.
The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of uninsulated copper or
aluminium bars, placed in the slots. The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends with the
help of conducting rings called end rings. The entire structure looks like cage hence called
squirrel cage rotor. The construction and symbol is shown in the Fig.
As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is very very
small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible. The main
feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for same number of poles as that of the
stator winding

Working Principle of 1-phase Induction Motor:

For the motoring action, there must exist two fluxes which interact with each other to produce
the torque. In d.c. motors, field winding produces the main flux while d.c. supply given to
armature is responsible to produce armature flux. The main flux and armature flux interact to
produce the torque.
In the single phase induction motor, single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding.
The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called main flux. This flux links with the rotor conductors
and due to transformer action e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. The induced e.m.f. drives
current through the rotor as rotor circuit is closed circuit. This rotor current produces another
flux called rotor flux required for the motoring action. Thus second flux is produced
according to induction principle due to induced e.m.f. hence the motor is called induction
motor. As against this in d.c. motor a separate supply is required to armature to produce
armature flux. This is an important difference between d.c. motor and an induction motor.
Another important difference between the two is that the d.c. motors are self starting while
single phase induction motors are not self starting.
Let us see why single phase induction motors are not self starting with the help of a theory
called double revolving field theory.
Double Revolving Field Theory:
According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating
components which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude as half of the
maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity.
In case of single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an alternating magnetic
field having maximum magnitude of Φ1m. According to double revolving field theory,
consider the two components of the stator flux, each having magnitude half of maximum
magnitude of stator flux i.e. (Φ1m/2). Both these components are rotating in opposite
directions at the synchronous speed Ns which is dependent on frequency and stator poles.
Let Φf is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while Φb is the backward
component rotating in clockwise direction. The resultant of these two components at any
instant gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at the instant. So resultant of these two
is the original stator flux.
The Fig. 1 shows the stator flux and its two components Φf and Φb. At start both the
components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig.1(a). Thus the resultant ΦR = 0. This
is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at start. After 90o, as shown in the
Fig. 1(b), the two components are rotated in such a way that both are pointing in the same
direction. Hence the resultant ΦR is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two
components. So ΦR = (Φ1m/2)
+ (Φ1m/2) =Φ1m. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at θ = 90o as
shown in the Fig 1(c). Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the original
alternating stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors. Due to cutting
of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current produces
rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component Φf to produce a torque in one
particular direction say anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward
component Φb to produce a torque in the clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is
positive then clockwise torque is negative.
At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each torque tries to
rotate the rotor in its own direction. Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero at start.
And hence the single phase induction motors are not self starting.
Torque speed characteristics
The two oppositely directed torques and the resultant torque can be shown effectively with
the help of torque-speed characteristics. It is shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Torque-speed characteristic

It can be seen that at start N = 0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase
motors are not self starting.
However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant average torque
increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And motor starts rotating in that
direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to rotor externally hence some
modifications are done in the construction of single phase induction motors to make them self
starting.
Types of Single Phase Induction Motors:
In practice some arrangement is provided in the single phase induction motors so as that the
stator flux produced becomes rotating type rather than the alternating type, which rotates in
particular direction only. So torque produced due to such rotating magnetic field is
unidirectional as there is no oppositely directed torque present. Hence under the influence of
rotating magnetic field in one direction, the induction motor becomes self starting. It rotates
in same direction as that of rotating magnetic field. Thus depending upon the methods of
producing rotating stator magnetic flux, the single phase induction motors are classified as,
1. Split phase induction motor
2. Capacitor start induction motor
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor
4. Shaded pole induction motor

To produce rotating magnetic field, it is necessary to have minimum two alternating fluxes
having a phase difference between the two. The interaction of such two fluxes produces a
resultant flux which is rotating magnetic flux, rotating in space in one particular direction. So
an attempt is made in all the single phase induction motors to produce an additional flux other
than stator flux, which has a certain phase difference with respect to stator flux.

Split Phase Induction Motor:

This type of motor has single phase stator winding called main winding. In addition to this,
stator carries one more winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. The auxiliary
winding carries a series resistance such that its impedance is highly resistive in nature. The
main winding is inductive in nature.
Let Im = Current through main winding
and Ist = Current through auxiliary winding
As main winding is inductive, current Im lags voltage by V by a large angle Φm while Ist is
almost in phase in V as auxiliary winding is highly resistive. Thus there exists a phase
difference of α between the two currents and hence between the two fluxes produced by the
two currents. This is shown in the Fig.1(c). The resultant of these two fluxes is a rotating
magnetic field. Due to this, the starting torque, which acts only in one direction is produced.
 Fig. 1 Split phase induction motor

The auxiliary winding has a centrifugal switch in series with it. When motor gather a speed
upto 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, centrifugal switch gets opened mechanically and
in running condition auxiliary winding remains out of the circuit. So motor runs only stator
winding. So auxiliary winding is designed for short time use while the main winding is
designed for continuous use. As the current Im and Ist are splitted from each other by angle
'α ' at start, the motor is commonly called split phase motor.
The torque-speed characteristics of split phase motors is shown in the Fig.2.

The starting torque Tst is proportional to the split angle 'α ' but split phase motors give poor
starting torque which is 125 to 150% of full load torque.
The direction of rotation of this motor can be reversed by reversing the terminals of either
main winding or auxiliary winding. This changes the direction of rotating magnetic field
which in turn changes the direction of rotation of the motor.
Applications
These motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. These are used for
easily started loads like fans, blowers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, washing machines, oil
burners, office equipments etc. These are available in the range of 1/120 to 1/2 kW.
Capacitor Start Induction Motors:
The construction of this type of motors is similar to the resistance split phase type. The
difference is that in series with the auxiliary winding the capacitor is connected. The
capacitive circuit draws a leading current, this feature used in this type to increase the split
phase angle α between the two currents Im and Ist.
Depending upon whether capacitor remains in the circuit permanently or is disconnected
from the circuit using centrifugal switch, these motors are classified as,
1. Capacitor start motor and
2. Capacitor start capacitor run motors
The connection of capacitor start motor is shown in the Fig. 1(a). The current Im lags the
voltage by angle Φm while due to capacitor the current Ist leads the voltage by angle Φst.
Hence there exists a large phase difference between the two currents which is almost 90o ,
which is an ideal case. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.1(b).

The starting torque is proportional to 'α 'and hence such motors produce very high starting
torque When speed approaches to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, the starting winding
gets disconnected due to operation of the centrifugal switch. The capacitor remains in the
circuit only at start hence it is called capacitor start motors.
Key point : In case of capacitor start capacitor run motor, there is no centrifugal switch and
capacitor remain permanently in the circuit. This improves the power factor.

The phasor diagram remains same as shown in the Fig.1(b). The performance not only at start
but in running condition also depends on the capacitor C hence its value is to be designed so
as to compromise between best starting and best running condition. Hence the starting torque
available in such type of motor is about 50 to 100% of full load torque. The direction of
rotation, in both the types can be changed by interchanging the connection of main winding
or auxiliary winding. The capacitor permanently in the circuit improves the power factor.
These motors are more costly than split phase type motors.
The capacitor value can be selected as per the requirement of starting torque, the starting
torque can be as high as 350 to 400 % of full load torque. The torque-speed characteristics is
as shown in the Fig.3.
 Fig.3 Torque speed characteristic of capacitor split phase motor
Applications
These motors have high starting torque and hence are used for hard starting loads. These are
used for compressors, conveyors, grinders, fans, blowers, refrigerators, air conditions etc.
These are most commonly used motors. The capacitor start capacitor run motors are used in
celling fans, blowers and air-circulations. These motors are available upto 6 kW.

Shaded Pole Induction Motor:

This type of motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of salient poles i.e.
projected poles. The poles are shaded i.e. each pole carries a copper band on one of its
unequally divided part called shading ban Fig.1(a) shows 4 pole shaded pole construction
while Fig. 1(b) shows a single pole consisting of copper shading band.

Fig 1
Key point : When single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding, due to shading
provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated.
The production of rotating magnetic field can be explained as below :
The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and produces alternating flux. The
waveform of the flux is shown in the Fig. 2(a). The distribution of this flux in the pole area is
greatly influenced by the role of copper shading band. Consider the three instants say t1, t2
and t3 during first half cycle of the flux as shown, in the Fig 2(a).
 Fig. 2 (a) Waveform of stator flux
At instant t = t1, rate of rise of current and hence the flux is very high. Due to the transformer
action, large e.m.f. gets induced in the copper shading band. This circulates current through
shading band as it is short circuited, producing its own flux. According to lenz's law, the
direction of this current is so as to oppose the cause i.e. rise in current. Hence shading ring
flux is opposing to the main flux. Hence there is crowding of flux in non-shaded part while
weakening of flux in shaded part. Overall magnetic axis shifts in non-shaded part as shown in
the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2 Production of rotating magnetic field

At instant t = t2, rate of rise of current and hence the rate of change of flux is almost zero as
flux almost reaches to its maximum value. So dΦ/dt = 0. Hence there is very little induced
e.m.f. in the shading ring. Hence the shading ring flux is also negligible, hardly affecting the
distribution of the main flux. Hence the main flux distribution is uniform and magnetic axis
lies at the centre of the pole face as shown in the Fig. 2(c).
At the instant t = t3, the current and the flux is decreasing. The rate of decrease is high which
again induces a very large e.m.f. in the shading ring. This circulates current through the ring
which produces its own flux. Now direction of the flux produced by the shaded ring current is
so as to oppose the cause which is decrease in flux. So it oppose the decrease in flux means
its direction is same as that of main flux, strengthening it. So there is crowding of flux in the
shaded part as compared to non-shaded part. Due to this the magnetic axis shifts to the
middle of the shaded part of the pole. This is shown in the Fig. 2(d).
This sequence keeps on repeating for negative half cycle too. Consequently this produces an
effect of rotating magnetic field, the direction of which is from non-shaded part of the pole to
the shaded part of the pole. Due to this, motor produces the starting torque is low which is
about 40 to 50% of the full load torque for this type of motor. The torque speed
characteristics is shown in the Fig. 3.
 Fig. 3 Torque-speed characteristics of shaded pole motor

Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but this type of
motor has a lot of limitations as :
1. The starting torque is poor.
2. The power factor is very low.
3. Due to I2R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.
4. The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the additional set of
shading rings is required. By opening one set and closing other, direction can be reversed but
the method is complicated and expensive.
5. The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are usually available
in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW.
Application
These motors are cheap but have very low starting torque, low power factor and low
efficiency. These motors are commonly used for the small fans, by motors, advertising
displays, film projectors, record players, gramophones, hair dryers, photo copying machines
etc.