ENERGY

TRANSFORMATIONS
ENERGY; is the capacity to perform work, essential for processes like
growth, movement, metabolism, and reproduction

LIGHT ENERGY; is the form of electromagnetic energy from the sun that is
captured by photosynthetic organisms like plants, algae.

CHEMICAL ENERGY; is the energy stored in the bonds of molecules (like

glucose, ATP, or lipids).

EXCITED ELECTRON; is when an electron temporarily occupies an energy

state greater than its ground state, it is in an excited state

THE THYLAKOID SPACE; membrane-bound compartments inside

chloroplasts and cyanobacteria.

CHANGE OF LIGHT ENERGY TO CHEMICAL

ENEGRY

Step 1: Light Absorption (in Thylakoid Membranes of

Chloroplasts)

 Chlorophyll (green pigment) absorbs sunlight.

 Light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll, boosting them to a

higher energy level.

Step 2: Water Splitting (Photolysis)

 An enzyme splits water (H₂O) into:

o Oxygen (O₂) → Released as waste.

o Protons (H⁺) → Used later.

o Electrons (e⁻) → Replace lost electrons in chlorophyll.

Step 3: Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

 Excited electrons move through proteins in the thylakoid membrane.

 Energy from electrons is used to pump H⁺ ions into the thylakoid

space, creating a gradient.
Step 4: ATP & NADPH Formation

 H⁺ ions flow back through ATp synthase, producing ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) (energy molecule).

 Electrons + H⁺ + NADP⁺ → NADPH (another energy carrier).

Step 5: Calvin Cycle (in Stroma of Chloroplasts)

 CO₂ from the air enters the cycle.

 ATP & NADPH from the light reactions provide energy and
electrons.

 3-carbon molecules (G3P) are formed; some are used to

make glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).

Final Product:

 Glucose (stored chemical energy for growth and metabolism).

 Oxygen (O₂) released as a byproduct.

Summary Equation:
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYTHESIS

1. Light Intensity

 Effect: Increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain point.

 Explanation: Light provides the energy needed for the

photosynthesis reaction. More light means more energy, which
accelerates the reaction.

 Limitation: Beyond a certain level, increasing light has no further

effect because other factors (like CO₂ or temperature) become
limiting.

Investigation Plan: The Effect of Light Intensity on the Rate of

Photosynthesis

Objective:

To determine how different light intensities affect the rate of

photosynthesis in aquatic plants (e.g., Elodea or Cabomba).

Hypothesis:

As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis will increase

until another factor (e.g., CO₂ concentration or temperature) becomes
limiting.

Variables:

 Independent Variable (IV): Light intensity (adjust using a lamp at

different distances: 10 cm, 20 cm, 30 cm, 40 cm, 50 cm).

 Dependent Variable (DV): Rate of photosynthesis (measured by

oxygen bubbles produced per minute or using a gas syringe to
collect oxygen volume).

 Control Variables:

o Temperature (keep constant using a water bath if necessary).

o CO₂ concentration (use a fixed amount of sodium hydrogen

carbonate solution).

o Type and health of the plant (use the same species in each
test).

o Time allowed for photosynthesis (e.g., 5 minutes per trial).

Materials:

 Aquatic plant (Elodea or Cabomba)

 Beaker or test tube

 Sodium hydrogen carbonate solution (to provide CO₂)

 Lamp (LED or bulb of known wattage)

 Ruler (to measure distance between lamp and plant)

 Stopwatch

 Glass funnel (to collect bubbles)

 Test tube or capillary tube (to measure gas volume)

 Thermometer (to monitor temperature)

 Dark paper/screen (to block external light)

Method:

1. Set up the apparatus:

o Fill a beaker with water and add a small amount of sodium

hydrogen carbonate (to ensure CO₂ is not limiting).

o Place a freshly cut piece of Elodea underwater, stem-up, under

a funnel.

o Invert a test tube or gas syringe over the funnel to collect

oxygen.

2. Control light conditions:

o Place the lamp at a fixed distance (e.g., 10 cm) from the plant.

o Shield the setup from other light sources using dark paper.

3. Measure oxygen production:

o Allow the plant to acclimatize for 2 minutes.

o Count the number of oxygen bubbles produced in 5 minutes

(or measure gas volume in a syringe).

o Repeat 3 times for reliability.

4. Change light intensity:

o Repeat steps 2–3 at different distances (20 cm, 30 cm, etc.).

 o Ensure the temperature remains constant.

5. Record results:

o Tabulate bubble count/oxygen volume vs. light intensity

(inverse square law can estimate light changes with distance).

Data Analysis:

 Calculate the mean rate of photosynthesis (bubbles/min or cm³

O₂/min) for each distance.

 Plot a graph of light intensity (x-axis) vs. rate of

photosynthesis (y-axis).

 Determine if the relationship is linear or plateaus (indicating another

limiting factor).

Safety & Considerations:

 Avoid touching hot lamps.

 Use gloves when handling sodium hydrogen carbonate.

 Ensure the plant is healthy and well-lit before starting.

 Repeat trials to improve reliability.

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Concentration

 Effect: Increases the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level.

 Explanation: CO₂ is a raw material in photosynthesis. More CO₂

allows the plant to synthesize glucose faster.

 Limitation: If other factors are limited (e.g., light or temperature),

increasing CO₂ won't increase the rate further.

3. Temperature

 Effect: Has an optimum range (usually 25–35°C for most plants).

  Explanation: Photosynthesis is an enzyme-controlled process. At
low temperatures, enzymes work slowly. At high temperatures,
enzymes may denature.

 Limitation: Extremely high temperatures can damage plant tissues

and stop photosynthesis.

SAFETY PROTOCOLS

 Electrical Safety (lamp use):

o Keep water away from electrical sockets and the lamp.
o Do not touch the lamp bulb during or immediately after the experiment (it gets
hot).
 Handling Hot Water:
o Use tongs or heatproof gloves when handling hot beakers or water baths.
o Don’t overheat water above safe lab limits (e.g., 40–45°C).
 Glassware Safety:
o Handle beakers and glass thermometers carefully to avoid breakage.
o Clean up any broken glass immediately with teacher supervision.
 Chemical Safety (Sodium Bicarbonate):
o It is generally safe but avoid ingestion or eye contact.
o Wash hands after the experiment.
 General Lab Safety:
o Keep your workspace dry and tidy.
o Do not run in the lab and always follow teacher instructions.
 Possible Sources of Error
Inaccurate bubble Bubbles may be small or come too fast to count
counting accurately.
Uneven plant The plant may not produce bubbles consistently due to age or
condition damage.
Room light Extra light from windows may affect results in the light intensity
interference experiment.
Temperature Water may cool or heat up during the experiment, especially if not
fluctuation kept constant.
CO₂ not fully Sodium bicarbonate may not dissolve evenly, affecting CO₂
dissolved concentration.
Some oxygen bubbles may cling to the plant and not be
Oxygen bubbles sticking
counted.
Human reaction time may cause timing errors when using a
Timing inaccuracies
stopwatch.

HOW THE ENHANCEMENT OF PHOTOSYTHESIS CAN INCREASE FOOD AND

FUEL PRODUCTION

1. Genetic Engineering

 Modifies crop genes to increase photosynthetic efficiency.

  Examples:

o Inserting genes from algae or bacteria to speed up

photosynthesis.

o Reducing photorespiration through genetic modification.

 Impact: Increases crop yield, growth rate, and stress resistance.

2. Optimizing Light Absorption

 Alters leaf shape or chlorophyll content for better light capture.

 Examples:

o Developing crops that absorb more light spectrum.

o Designing leaves to let light reach lower canopy levels.

 Impact: Enhances light use efficiency and biomass production.

3. Improving Rubisco Efficiency

 Rubisco is a key enzyme in carbon fixation but works slowly and

inefficiently.

 Solutions:

o Introduce efficient Rubisco from other organisms.

o Create synthetic pathways to reduce photorespiration.

 Impact: Boosts carbon fixation and overall plant productivity.

4. Synthetic Biology & Artificial Photosynthesis

 Mimics or enhances natural photosynthesis using artificial systems

or microbes.

 Examples:

o Artificial leaves to produce hydrogen fuel.

o Engineered algae or bacteria to produce biofuels.

 Impact: Provides sustainable, low-emission fuel sources.

5. Agronomic Practices and Controlled Environments

  Farming methods that optimize photosynthesis.

 Examples:

o Use of greenhouses, vertical farms with controlled light and

CO₂.

o Crop spacing and pruning to maximize light exposure.

 Impact: Increases land efficiency and reduces crop losses.

Impact on Food Production

 Increased crop yield.

 More efficient use of land.

 Improved resistance to climate stress.

 Enhanced nutritional value in some GM crops.

Impact on Fuel Production

 More plant biomass available for biofuel production.

 Sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.

 Potential for carbon-neutral or carbon-negative energy sources.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Feature Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Oxygen Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen

Requirement

Location in Occurs in the Occurs in the cytoplasm

Cell mitochondria

Glucose Complete breakdown of Incomplete breakdown of

Breakdown glucose glucose

End Products Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and Lactic acid (in animals) or
water (H₂O) ethanol + CO₂ (in yeast)

Energy High (about 36–38 ATP Low (about 2 ATP per

Released per glucose) glucose)
(ATP)

Efficiency More efficient in energy Less efficient

 production

Examples Most plants, animals, and Some bacteria, yeast,

aerobic microorganisms muscle cells during
intense activity