UNIT 5

INDUCED STRESS
1. Describe the Charpy Impact Testing Procedure:
The Charpy impact test is a standardized method for determining the toughness or impact
resistance of a material. Here's a basic outline of the testing procedure along with a simple sketch
of the Charpy impact testing setup:

Charpy Impact Testing Procedure:

1. Sample Preparation:
- Start with standardized Charpy specimens, typically in the form of rectangular bars with
specific dimensions according to testing standards.

- Machine the specimens to precise dimensions, ensuring smooth and parallel surfaces.

2. Test Setup:
- The Charpy impact testing machine consists of a pendulum, an anvil, and a specimen holder.
- The pendulum is raised to a predetermined height and then released to strike the specimen.

3. Specimen Mounting:
- Secure the specimen horizontally in the specimen holder, ensuring proper alignment with the
center of impact.

4. Calibration:
- Calibrate the machine according to testing standards to ensure accurate measurements of
energy absorbed during impact.

5. Testing:
- Release the pendulum, allowing it to strike the center of the specimen with a single blow.
- The pendulum's energy is transferred to the specimen, causing it to fracture.
- The pendulum continues its swing, and the height it reaches after impact is measured.

6. Measurement:
- Measure the height of the pendulum's swing after impact using a scale or digital readout.
- This measurement corresponds to the energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture.

7. Recording Results:
- Record the absorbed energy value for each specimen tested.
- Repeat the test for multiple specimens to ensure consistency and reliability.

8. Analysis:
 - Analyze the results to determine the material's impact toughness.

- Typically, a higher absorbed energy indicates greater toughness, while lower values
suggest lower toughness.
Charpy Impact Testing Setup Sketch
 2. explain about the Ductile and brittle materials
Ductile and brittle materials are two distinct categories based on their mechanical properties,
particularly in response to stress and strain. Here's a breakdown of each:

Ductile Materials:
1. Definition: Ductile materials are those that can undergo significant plastic deformation before
fracture. They exhibit large strains under tensile stress.

2. Properties:
- High elongation before fracture.
- Can be drawn into wires or stretched without breaking.
- Exhibit necking behavior before fracture.
- Absorb a considerable amount of energy before failing.

3. Examples:
- Metals like copper, aluminum, and mild steel.
- Some polymers like polyethylene and rubber.

4. Applications:
- Manufacturing processes like forging, rolling, and extrusion.
- Construction of structures requiring flexibility and resilience.

Brittle Materials:
1. Definition: Brittle materials fracture without significant plastic deformation. They tend to
break suddenly when subjected to stress.
2. Properties:
- Low elongation before fracture.
- Little to no plastic deformation.
- Fail abruptly with little warning.
- Tend to fracture along cleavage planes or grain boundaries.

3. Examples:
- Ceramics like glass and porcelain.

- Some polymers like acrylics and certain types of plastics.

- Brittle metals like cast iron.
4. Applications:
- Cutting tools and abrasives.
- Electronics and semiconductor manufacturing.
- Decorative items like glassware.
3. Explain about the factors affecting the Fatigue failure
It occurs when a material undergoes repeated cyclic loading, leading to progressive damage and
eventual fracture, even when the applied stresses are below the material's yield strength. Several
factors influence fatigue:
1. Cyclic Loading: Fatigue failure is inherently related to cyclic loading, where the material
experiences alternating stresses over time. These stresses can be tension-compression, bending,
or tensional, depending on the application.

2. Stress Concentrations: Notches, cracks, holes, and other stress-raising features act as sites for
fatigue initiation. Stress concentrations significantly accelerate the rate of fatigue crack growth.

3. Material Properties:
- Strength: Higher-strength materials may resist fatigue better, but this relationship is not
always straightforward.
- Ductility: Ductile materials tend to exhibit better fatigue resistance due to their ability to
deform and redistribute stresses.
- Hardness: Higher hardness can improve fatigue resistance, but excessively hard materials
may become more susceptible to brittle fracture.
- Microstructure: Grain boundaries, inclusions, and phases within the microstructure can
influence fatigue crack initiation and propagation.

- 4. Environmental Factors:
- Corrosion: Corrosive environments can accelerate fatigue crack growth, particularly in
metals.
- Temperature: Elevated temperatures can reduce fatigue resistance due to increased diffusion
rates and altered material properties.

5. Loading Conditions:
- Mean Stress: Non-zero mean stresses, such as those present in asymmetric loading or pre-
stressed components, can significantly affect fatigue life.
- Frequency: Higher loading frequencies generally lead to shorter fatigue lives due to increased
cycling rates.

6. Design Factors:
Notch Sensitivity: Some materials are more sensitive to stress concentrations than others,
influencing their fatigue behavior.
 4 .Write The Mechanism Of Curve Creep And The Factors Affecting Various Stages
Of Creep
The creep curve represents the behavior of a material subjected to a constant load over an
extended period, typically at elevated temperatures. It typically consists of three stages: primary
creep, secondary creep, and tertiary creep.

1. Primary Creep:
- Stage Explanation: In this stage, the creep rate decreases over time. Initially, there is rapid
deformation due to the rearrangement of the material's microstructure, such as dislocation climb
and recovery processes.

- Factors Affecting:
- Temperature: Higher temperatures accelerate creep due to increased atomic mobility.
- Microstructure: Materials with finer grain sizes generally exhibit higher resistance to
primary creep due to grain boundary strengthening.

2. Secondary Creep:
- Stage Explanation: This is the steady-state creep stage where the creep rate remains
relatively constant over time. During this stage, the rate of strain hardening due to dislocation
accumulation balances the rate of softening due to dislocation recovery.

- Factors Affecting:
- Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the rate of diffusion, facilitating dislocation
movement and resulting in higher creep rates.
- Applied Stress: Higher applied stress levels result in higher creep rates due to increased
dislocation movement.
- Microstructure: Grain boundary sliding and diffusion become more prominent at higher
temperatures and larger grain sizes.

3. Tertiary Creep:
- Stage Explanation: In this stage, the creep rate accelerates until failure. It is characterized by
the rapid growth of voids, cracks, and other defects within the material leading to eventual
failure.
5. Write Down The Effect Of Stress Temperature And Strain Rate In It
The effects of stress, temperature, and strain rate are critical considerations in the design,
maintenance, and operation of aircraft structures. These factors can significantly impact the
material properties, structural integrity, and overall performance of aircraft components. Here's
how each factor influences aircraft structures

1. Stress:
- Effect: Applied stress can induce deformation and initiate failure mechanisms such as
yielding, fatigue, and fracture in aircraft structures.
- Impact: High stress concentrations at structural discontinuities, such as fastener holes or
sharp corners, can lead to stress corrosion cracking or fatigue cracks.
- Design Considerations: Aircraft structures are designed with appropriate safety factors to
ensure they can withstand anticipated operational stresses without experiencing failure.

2. Temperature:
- Effect: Temperature variations can cause thermal expansion/contraction, material property
changes, and thermal stresses within aircraft structures.
- Impact: Thermal cycling during flight operations can lead to fatigue, thermal fatigue, or
creep damage in materials, especially in areas subjected to high temperature differentials.

- Design Considerations: Materials with good thermal stability and resistance to thermal
cycling are selected for critical aircraft components.
- Effect: The rate at which stress is applied can influence the material's response to loading,
affecting its strength, ductility, and fracture behavior.
- Impact: High strain rates, such as those experienced during impact or sudden loadings (e.g.,
during landing or maneuvers), can lead to dynamic failure modes like brittle fracture or ductile
tearing.