MODULE 1: FOUNDRY PROCESS
Introduction to casting process:
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical
to make by other methods. The process is equally suitable for the production of a very small
batch as well as on a very large scale.
Applications of sand casting process:
Cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, piston rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings,
water supply pipes etc.
Steps in casting process:
• Melting the metal.
• Pouring the molten metal into previously made mold or cavity which confirms the shape
of the desired component.
• Allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify in the mold cavity.
• Removing the solidified components from the mold, cleaning it and subjecting to further
treatment, if necessary.
Casting Terminology:
Fig. 1.1 Cross section of a sand mould ready for pouring
Flask: A moulding flask holds the sand mould. Depending upon the position of the flask in the
mould structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag, cope and cheek. It is made up of
wood for temporary applications or more generally of metal for long term use.
Drag: Lower moulding flask. Cope: Upper moulding flask.
Cheek: Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand
mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line between the two halves of the pattern.
Pattern: Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. The mould
cavity is made with the help of the pattern.
Core: It is used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Chaplet: Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill: Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
Bottom board: This is a board which is normally made of wood and is used at the start of the
mould making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it and then the
ramming is done in the drag.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the mould
cavity.
Runner: The passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated
before they reach the mould cavity.
Gate: The actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow back
into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to solidification.
Pattern in casting:
A pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into which molten
material will be poured during the casting process. Patterns used in sand casting may be made of
wood, metal, plastics or other materials.
Pattern materials:
Usual pattern materials are wood, metal and plastics. But wood is most commonly used as
pattern material, because of its easy availability, low weight, can be easily shaped and is
relatively cheap. Major disadvantage of wood is moisture absorption, which leads to
distortions and dimensional changes. Usual varieties of wood commonly used for pattern
making are pine, mahogany, teak, walnut and deodar. Plywood boards are also used for
making patterns, because of their availability in various thicknesses, higher strength and no
need for seasoning. However, they can be used only for flat patterns and with no three
dimensional contours. Choice of the pattern material depends essentially on the size of the
casting, the number of castings to be made from the pattern and the dimensional accuracy
required.
Metal patterns are extensively used for large scale casting production, due to their durability,
smooth surface finish and closer dimensional tolerances. Though many materials such as cast
iron, brass, etc. can be used as pattern materials, aluminium and white metal are most
commonly used. These are light, can be easily worked, and are corrosion resistant. Plastics
are also used as pattern materials because of their low weight, easier formability, smooth
surfaces and durability. They do not absorb moisture and are therefore, dimensionally stable
and can be cleaned easily. Plastic pattern can be made by sand clay or plaster of paris
moulds. The most commonly used plastics are cold setting epoxy resins with suitable fillers.
With a proper combination it is possible to obtain no shrink plastic material. In such a case
double shrinkage allowances are not required.
Types of patterns:
1. Solid or single piece pattern
2. Split or two piece patterns
3. Gated pattern
4. Match plate pattern
5. Sweep pattern
6. Skeleton pattern
7. Loose piece pattern
8. Cope and drag pattern
9. Follow board pattern
10. Segmental pattern
1. Solid or single piece pattern
Simplest of all the patterns. Made of one piece and carries no joints, partition or loose pieces.
The pattern is cheap and it is best suited for limited production only.
2. Split or two piece patterns
Used for intricate casting of usual shapes. Made in two parts and these two parts of the pattern
are joined together with the help of dowel pins. While molding one of the patterns is contained
in the drag and other in the cope.
3. Gated pattern
Used for mass production, where multi-cavity moulds are prepared and these cavities are
connected to each other by means of gate formers, which provides suitable channels or gates in
sand for feeding all the cavities. Gated patterns reduce the moulding time. Because of higher
cost, these patterns are used for producing small castings in mass production systems.
4. Match plate pattern
Used for mass production in moulding machines. A match plate pattern is a split pattern having
the cope and drags portions mounted on opposite sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the
“match plate” that conforms to the contour of the parting surface. The gates and runners are also
mounted on the match plate, so that very little hand work is required. This results in higher
productivity.
5. Sweep pattern
Used for preparing moulds of large symmetrical castings. This effects a large saving in time,
labour and material. A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour that is rotated
about one edge to shape mould cavities having shapes of rotational symmetry. This type of
pattern is used when a casting of large size is to be produced in a short time.
6. Skeleton pattern
For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton patterns are used. These are simple
wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be cast and are also used as guides by the
molder in the hand shaping of the mould. This type of pattern is also used in pit or floor molding
process.
7. Loose piece pattern
Some patterns are made to have loose pieces in order to enable their easy withdrawal from the
mould. These pieces form and integral part of the pattern during moulding. After the mould is
complete, the pattern is withdrawn leaving the pieces in the sand, which are later withdrawn
separately by a lifter.
8. Cope and drag pattern
When very large casting are to be made, the complete pattern becomes too heavy to be handled
by a single operator. Such pattern is made in two parts which are separately moulded in different
moulding boxes. After completion of the moulds, the two boxes are assembled to from the
complete cavity. It is similar to two-piece pattern.
9. Follow board pattern
A follow board is a wooden board used for supporting a pattern during moulding. It acts as a
seat for the pattern.
10. Segmental pattern
The segmental pattern is functionally similar to sweep pattern. To create the mould, it is rotated
about the post in the same way as in sweep pattern. But it is not revolved continuously about the
post to prepare the mould. Rather, it prepares the mould by parts.
Pattern allowances:
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Draft allowance
3. Distortion or camber allowance
4. Rapping or Shaking allowance
5. Finishing allowance
1. Shrinkage allowance
Most of the metals have a tendency to shrinks in size when it cools. Shrinkage allowance is given
to a pattern to compensate for the contraction of the molten metal on cooling. For this, the
dimensions of the pattern is made slightly oversize. This allowance is different for different
metals. If a metallic pattern is to be made from a wooden pattern, then double allowance should
be given for the wooden pattern. One for the shrinkage of the metal of the pattern and the other
for the metal which is to be cast.
2. Draft allowance
For easy removal of a pattern from a mould, it is slightly tapered to provide a clearance. This
tapering of the sides of the pattern known as draft allowance. The amount of draft required
depends upon the shape and size of the casting, moulding method and intricacy of pattern.
3. Distortion or camber allowance
This allowance applies only to castings of irregular shapes such as U-shape or those having large
flat areas, which are distorted in the process of cooling as a result of metal shrinkage.
4. Rapping or Shaking allowance
Before the with drawl from the sand mould, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to
enlarge the mould cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. In an average sized casting, this
increase in the size can be ignored. In large castings or in one that must fit without machining,
however shake allowance must be considered by making the pattern slightly smaller.
5. Finishing or machining allowance
This allowance is provided on the pattern if the casting is to be machined. This allowance is
given in addition to shrinkage allowance. The amount of this allowance varies from 1.6 to 12.5
mm which depends upon the type of the casting metal, size and the shape of the casting. The
ferrous metals require more machining allowance than non ferrous metals.
Pattern colour code:
For clarity of the mould maker, pattern surfaces are colored differently. The colour codes used in
patterns are:
1. Red or Orange: Surfaces not to be finished and left as cast
2. Yellow: Surfaces to be machined
3. Black: On core prints for un-machined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black: On core prints for machined openings
5. Green: On seats of loose pieces and loose core prints
6. Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish: To strengthen the weaker patterns or to shorten a
casting
Moulding sand:
Moulding is a process of making a cavity by means of a pattern. The molten metal is poured into
the moulds to produce casting.
Properties of moulding sand:
1. Porosity or permeability
Property of sand which permits the steam and other gases to pass through the sand mould. The
porosity of sand depends upon its grain size, grain shape, moisture and clay content. If the sand
is too fine, the porosity will be low.
2. Plasticity
Property of sand due to which it flows in all directions of the moulding box. The sand must have
sufficient plasticity to produce a good mould.
3. Refractoriness
Property which enables it to resist high temperature of the molten metal without breaking down
or fusing.
4. Adhesiveness
Property of sand due to it adheres or cling to the sides of the moulding box.
5. Cohesiveness
Property of sand due to which the sand grains stick together during ramming. It is defined as the
strength of the moulding sand.
Classification of Moulding sand:
1. Green sand
2. Dry Sand
3. Loam Sand
4. Facing Sand
5. Backing Sand or Floor Sand
6. Parting Sand
7. Core Sand
1. Green Sand
The sand in its natural or moist state is called green sand. It is also called tempered sand. It is a
mixture of sand with 20 to 30 percent clay and 6 to 10 percent water. The mould prepared with
this sand is called green sand mould, which is used for small size casting of ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.
2. Dry Sand
When the green sand moulds are baked or dried before pouring the molten metal, they are called
dry sand moulds. The sand of this condition is called dry sand. The dry sand moulds have
greater strength, rigidity and thermal stability. These moulds used for large and heavy
casting.
3. Loam Sand
A mixture of 50 percent sand grains and 50 percent clay is called loam sand. It is used for
moulds of large grey iron casting.
4. Facing Sand
It comes in direct contact with the molten metal during casting. It is specially prepared sand from
silica sand and clay.
5. Backing or Floor Sand
It is used to back up the facing sand. It is black in colour.
6. Parting Sand
It is employed on the faces of the pattern before moulding. The parting sand consists of dried
silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand.
7. Core Sand
The cores are defined as sand bodies used to form the hollow portions or cavities of desired
shape and size in the casting. The sand used for making these cores is called core sand. It is the
silica sand mixed with linseed oil as binder.
Gating System:
The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is
called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through
which molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity.
The nomenclature of gating system depends upon the function of different channels which they
perform.
-Down gate or sprue
-Cross gate or runners
-Ingates or gates
The metal flows down from the pouring basin into the down gate (or sprue) and passes through
the cross gate (or runner) and ingates (or gates) before entering into the mold cavity.
Objectives of providing Gating System:
• To minimize turbulence and to avoid trapping gasses into the mold.
• To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify.
• To avoid shrinkage.
• To establish the temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if
occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
• Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions.
Riser:
Riser is a source of extra molten metal which flows to mold cavity to compensate for shrinkage
of the casting during its solidification. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have
shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally. In a mold shrinkage occurs in three stages,
i.e. in the liquid state, during transformation from liquid to solid and in the solid state. First type
of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the second type of
shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting which is
last to freeze.
Functions of Risers:
Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage. Allow mold gases to escape.
Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact.
Casting Yield:
All the metal used while pouring do not form casting. There will be some losses in the melting.
Also, there is a possibility that some castings may be rejected because of the presence of various
defects. On completion of the casting process, the gating system used is removed from the
solidified casting and re-melted to be used again as raw material. Metal utilization in foundry is
shown in Fig.
Casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting mass (W) to the mass of metal poured into
the mould (w), expressed as a percentage as follows.
Gating ratio:
Gating ratio is a term used to describe the relative cross sectional areas of the components of a
getting system. It is defined as cross-section ratio of sprue area : total runner area : total gate area
(As : Ar : Ag). For example, a gating system which has a sprue of 1 sq. in. cross section, a runner
of 2 sq. in. cross section, and two gates each of 1 sq. in. cross section, has a gating ratio of 1 : 2 :
2.
The gating ratio determines whether a gating system is a pressurized system or a non-pressurized
system.In non-pressurized gating system sprue exit area is less than the total gate area (As < Ag),
for example 1:2:2, 1:4:4 etc. Choke is located at the sprue exit. Hence due to lower velocity,
filling rate will be less. The process yield increases but it suffers from the disadvantage of flow
separation.
Fig. Pressurized gating system
Special Casting Process:
Sand Casting:
Sand casting is one of the oldest, most popular and simplest types of casting. Sand casting allows
for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a very reasonable cost. Sand casting also
allows wide verities of metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds. The
sand is bonded together using clays, chemical binders or polymerized oils (such as motor oil).
Sand can be recycled many times in most operations and requires little maintenance.
Shell Molding:
Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened shell of
sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated
by a metallic pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer
sand, it gives much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precised than
sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper
alloys. This process is ideal for small and medium sized complex items.
Investment casting:
Investment casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dating back to thousands of
years, in which molten metal is poured into a ceramic mold. The mold is formed by using a wax
pattern. The pattern is dipped into ceramic slurry that hardens into the mold. Investment casting
is also known as "lost-wax casting" because the wax pattern is melted out of the mold after it has
been formed. Lost-wax process is one-to-one (one pattern creates one part), which increases
production time and cost relative to other casting processes. However, since the mold is
destroyed during the process, parts with complex geometries and intricate shapes can be casted.
Investment casting can use of most metals like aluminum alloys, bronze alloys, magnesium
alloys, cast iron, stainless steel and tool steel. This process is beneficial for casting metals with
high melting temperatures that cannot be molded in plaster or metal. Parts that are typically made
by investment casting include those with complex geometry such as turbine blades or firearm
components. High temperature applications are also common, which includes parts for the
automotive, aircraft, and military industries.
Steps involved in investment casting:
Pattern making, Mold making, Preheating and Pouring, Cooling, Casting removal, Finishing
Pattern making - The wax patterns are injection molded into a metal die and are formed as one
piece. Cores may be used to form any internal features on the pattern. Several patterns are
attached to a central wax gating system (sprue, runners, and risers), to form a tree-like assembly.
The gating system forms the channels through which the molten metal flows to the mold cavity.
Mold making - The pattern tree is dipped into a slurry of fine ceramic particles, coated with
more coarse particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell around the patterns and gating
system. This process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand the molten metal.
The shell is then placed into an oven and the wax is melted out leaving a hollow ceramic shell
that acts as a one-piece mold.
Preheating and Pouring - The mold is preheated in a furnace to approximately 1000°C and the
molten metal is poured from a ladle into the gating system of the mold, filling the mold cavity.
Pouring is typically achieved manually under the force of gravity, but other methods such as
vacuum or pressure are sometimes used.
Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the
shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part, thickness of the
mold, and the material used.
Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold is broken and the casting
removed. The ceramic mold is typically broken using water jets, but several other methods exist.
Once removed, the parts are separated from the gating system by either sawing or cold breaking
(using liquid nitrogen).
Finishing - Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting are used to smooth
the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the final part.
Permanent mold casting:
Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds (permanent
molds), usually made of metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold.
However, gas pressure or vacuum are also used. Common casting metals
are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys
and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one
casting still have a limited life.
Die casting:
The die casting process forces molten metal under high pressure into mold cavities (which are
machined into dies). Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals, specifically zinc,
copper, and aluminium-based alloys, but ferrous metal die castings are also possible. The die
casting method is especially suited for applications where many small to medium-sized parts are
needed with good detail, a fine surface quality and dimensional consistency.
Centrifugal casting:
In centrifugal casting (or Rotocasting), a permanent mold is rotated continuously about its axis at
high speeds (300 to 3000 rpm) when the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is
centrifugally thrown towards the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. It produces
fine-grained castings, because of chilling against the mould surface. Impurities and inclusions are
thrown to the surface of the inside diameter, which can be machined away. Centrifugal casting
machines may be either horizontal or vertical-axis. Horizontal axis machines are preferred for
casting long and thin cylinders, whereas vertical axis machines are preferred for rings. Most
castings are solidified from the outside first. This may be used to encourage directional
solidification of the casting, and thus give useful metallurgical properties to it.
Types of centrifugal casting:
• True centrifugal casting
• Semi-centrifugal casting
• Centrifuging
True centrifugal casting:
It is used to produce hollow castings. Characteristic feature of this process is that the hole is
produced by the centrifugal force alone and no cores are used. The mould is rotated about its
axis, which is held horizontal, inclined or vertical. The outside surface of the job may be round,
square, hexagonal etc. and must be symmetrical with the whole axis. The central hole should be
round and is formed without cores.
Semi-centrifugal casting:
The process is suitable for large axis-symmetrical castings like gear blanks, fly wheels and track
wheels. Any hole if required is made with the use of a core. The mould is clamped to a turn table
with casting axis along the axis of rotation.
Centrifuging:
Centrifuging or centrifuge casting is employed to force metal under pressure into moulds of
small castings or castings not symmetrical about any axis of rotation. The moulds are made
around a central axis of rotation, to balance each other. The metal is poured along this axis of
rotation through a central sprue and made to flow into mould cavities through radial ingates cut
on the mould interface. Centrifuging helps in proper feeding of castings resulting in clean and
close grained castings.
Defects in sand castings:
Sand blow and Pinholes, Sand wash, Scab, Penetration, Mold shift, Core shift, Mold crack
Sand blow and Pinholes: Defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity or cavities caused
by release of mold gases during pouring. It is present just below the casting top surface. Causes:
Low permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold.
Sand wash: Results from erosion of the sand mold during pouring. This contour is formed in
the surface of the final cast part.
Scab: It is caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and gets
embedded in the casting surface.
Penetration: Surface defect that occurs when the liquid penetrates into the sand mold as the
fluidity of liquid metal is high. After solidifying, the casting surface consists of a mixture of sand
and metal. Harder ramming of sand mold minimize this defect.
Mold shift: Defect caused by displacement of the mold cope in sidewise direction relative to the
drag. This results in a step in the cast product at the parting line.
Core shift: Displacement of core vertically. Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of
the molten metal.
Mold crack: ‘Fin’ like defect in cast part that occurs when mold strength is very less, and a
crack develops, through which liquid metal can seep.
Common defects in casting:
Misruns, Cold shuts, Cold shots, Shrinkage cavity, Microporosity
Misruns: Castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity. This occurs because of
(1) low fluidity of the molten metal, (2) low pouring temperature, (3) slow pouring, (4) thinner
cross-section of the mold cavity.
Cold shuts: This defect occurs when two layers of the molten metal flow together but no fusion
occurs between them due to premature freezing.
Cold shots: Formation of solid globules of metal that are entrapped in the casting. Proper
pouring procedures and gating system designs can prevent this defect.
Shrinkage cavity: Cavity on the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused during
solidification. Proper riser design can solve this problem.
Microporosity: Network of small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage.
