🔬 1.

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: What is the principle of a p-n junction diode?​

A: It works on the principle of unidirectional conductivity. It allows electric current to
pass only in forward bias and blocks it in reverse bias due to the depletion region
acting as a barrier.​

●​ Q2: What is the knee voltage?​

A: It's the minimum forward voltage at which the diode starts conducting significantly
(typically 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium).​

●​ Q3: Why does current not flow in reverse bias?​

A: The reverse bias increases the width of the depletion layer, thus preventing the
flow of majority carriers.​

●​ Q4: What is breakdown voltage?​

A: It is the voltage in reverse bias at which the diode conducts heavily due to
avalanche or Zener breakdown.​

🌈 2. Diffraction Grating
Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: What is diffraction and how is it different from interference?​

A: Diffraction is the bending of light around the edges. Interference is the
superposition of waves. In diffraction grating, both concepts overlap.​

●​ Q2: What is the condition for principal maxima?​

A: nλ=dsin⁡θn\lambda = d\sin\theta, where d is grating spacing and n is order of
diffraction.​

●​ Q3: What happens when you increase the number of lines per mm?​
A: Sharpness and resolution of spectral lines improve.​

●​ Q4: What is the dispersive power of a grating?​

A: It’s the ability to separate closely spaced wavelengths and is proportional to the
order number and inversely to grating constant.​
💡 3. Logic Gates
Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: Define Boolean Algebra.​

A: Boolean algebra is the algebra of logic where variables take only binary values (0
and 1), used to simplify digital circuits.​

●​ Q2: Draw and explain the logic symbols of basic gates.​

A: AND: D shape with flat input, OR: Curved input, NOT: Triangle with bubble.​

●​ Q3: What are universal gates and why are they called so?​
A: NAND and NOR gates can be used to realize any Boolean function, hence they
are universal.​

●​ Q4: What is a half-adder and full-adder?​

A: Half-adder adds two bits, full-adder adds three (including carry).​

🔵 4. Newton’s Rings
Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: What causes the formation of Newton’s Rings?​

A: Thin film interference between light waves reflected from a convex lens and flat
glass plate creates concentric rings.​

●​ Q2: What is the formula for diameter of nth dark ring?​

A: Dn2=4nλRD_n^2 = 4n\lambda R, where RR is radius of curvature.​

●​ Q3: Why is the center dark?​

A: Due to destructive interference (180° phase change at reflection).​

●​ Q4: How is wavelength of light calculated?​

A: From difference of diameters:​
λ=Dn+p2−Dn24pR\lambda = \frac{D_{n+p}^2 - D_n^2}{4pR}​

🌀 5. Torsional Pendulum
Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):
 ●​ Q1: What is the restoring torque in a torsional pendulum?​
A: τ=−κθ\tau = -\kappa \theta, where κ\kappa is torsional constant, θ\theta is angular
displacement.​

●​ Q2: What is the time period formula?​

A: T=2πI/κT = 2\pi \sqrt{I/\kappa}​

●​ Q3: How do you find modulus of rigidity (η)?​

A: Using η=8πLIT2r4\eta = \frac{8\pi L I}{T^2 r^4}, with L = length, I = moment of
inertia, r = radius.​

●​ Q4: What is moment of inertia?​

A: It's the rotational equivalent of mass:​
For disc: I=12MR2I = \frac{1}{2}MR^2​

🌐 6. Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber

Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: What is total internal reflection and how is it related to optical fibers?​
A: Light entering fiber at angle greater than critical angle reflects completely inside
core-cladding boundary.​

●​ Q2: What is the condition for light propagation?​

A: θi≤θmax\theta_i \leq \theta_{max}​
Acceptance angle θmax\theta_{max} corresponds to NA.​

●​ Q3: How do you calculate NA?​

A: NA=n12−n22NA = \sqrt{n_1^2 - n_2^2}​

●​ Q4: What is the significance of higher NA?​

A: Better light-gathering ability and more signal power.​

☀️ 7. Solar Cell Characteristics

Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: What type of junction is used in a solar cell?​

A: p-n junction made of semiconductors like silicon.​
 ●​ Q2: Explain I-V characteristics of a solar cell.​
A: In the 4th quadrant; current is high at zero voltage (short-circuit) and zero at
open-circuit voltage.​

●​ Q3: What are key parameters?​

A:​

○​ Isc: Short-circuit current​

○​ Voc: Open-circuit voltage​

○​ Pmax: Maximum power​

○​ FF: Fill Factor​

○​ Efficiency: η=PmaxPin×100%\eta = \frac{P_{max}}{P_{in}} \times 100\%​

●​ Q4: What affects solar cell performance?​

A: Light intensity, temperature, material quality.​

🎸 8. Melde’s String Experiment

Viva Questions & Answers (Extended):

●​ Q1: What does Melde’s experiment verify?​

A: Formation of standing waves and determination of frequency.​

●​ Q2: Differentiate between transverse and longitudinal modes.​

A:​

○​ Transverse: Vibrations are perpendicular to length.​

○​ Longitudinal: Vibrations along the length.​

●​ Q3: What is the formula used?​

A:​
f=n2LTμf = \frac{n}{2L} \sqrt{\frac{T}{\mu}},​
where μ=mL\mu = \frac{m}{L}
●​ Q4: What happens when the tension is increased?​
A: Frequency increases; more loops form.​

●​
●​
●​ Final Revison :

1. V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

1.​ Connect the p-n junction diode in forward bias using a DC power supply.​

2.​ Gradually increase the input voltage and note the corresponding current.​

3.​ Repeat the steps for reverse bias connection.​

4.​ Record voltage and current readings in both cases.​

5.​ Plot V-I graphs for forward and reverse bias to analyze behavior.​

2. Diffraction Grating

1.​ Set up the spectrometer and align it using a mercury vapor lamp.​

2.​ Place the diffraction grating on the grating table.​

3.​ Observe diffraction maxima on either side of the central image.​

4.​ Measure angular positions for known spectral lines.​

5.​ Use the diffraction equation to calculate the wavelength.​

3. Logic Gates

1.​ Connect the ICs for logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) on a breadboard.​

2.​ Provide binary inputs (0 or 1) using switches or input terminals.​

3.​ Observe the output on an LED or logic probe.​

4.​ Verify outputs against expected results from the truth table.​

5.​ Repeat for each logic gate and record your observations.​
4. Newton’s Rings

1.​ Place a plano-convex lens on a flat glass plate to form a thin air film.​

2.​ Illuminate the setup using monochromatic light (like sodium lamp).​

3.​ Observe concentric rings through a microscope.​

4.​ Measure the diameters of alternate dark rings using a traveling microscope.​

5.​ Calculate the wavelength using ring diameter formula.​

5. Torsional Pendulum

1.​ Suspend the disc or cylinder using a thin wire from a rigid support.​

2.​ Displace the disc slightly in the horizontal plane.​

3.​ Release it and allow torsional oscillations to occur.​

4.​ Record the time for multiple oscillations using a stopwatch.​

5.​ Calculate the time period and modulus of rigidity using the formula.​

6. Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber

1.​ Direct a laser beam or light source into one end of the optical fiber.​

2.​ Project the light emerging from the other end onto a screen.​

3.​ Measure the spot diameter formed on the screen at a known distance.​

4.​ Use geometry to find the acceptance angle.​

5.​ Calculate Numerical Aperture using NA = sin(θₐ) and compare with theory.​

7. Solar Cell Characteristics

 1.​ Connect the solar cell to a variable resistive load.​

2.​ Illuminate the cell using a lamp or direct sunlight.​

3.​ Measure current and voltage for different load resistances.​

4.​ Plot the I-V characteristics curve.​

5.​ Determine Isc, Voc, Pmax, Fill Factor, and Efficiency from the graph.​

8. Melde’s Experiment (Transverse & Longitudinal Modes)

1.​ Connect one end of the string to a vibrator and the other to a pulley with weight.​

2.​ Set the vibrator to desired frequency using signal generator.​

3.​ Adjust tension until standing waves form on the string.​

4.​ Observe and count the number of loops formed.​

5.​ Use loop count and tension to calculate frequency or linear density.​

Experiment Formula(s) Quantities/U Important Numericals/Examples

nits

1. V-I - Forward - Voltage (V) - Silicon Diode: Cut-in voltage ≈ 0.7V

Characteris region: Current (mA) Germanium Diode: Cut-in voltage ≈ 0.3V
tics of P-N exponential
Junction I-V relation -
Diode Reverse bias:
negligible
current until
breakdown

2. nλ=dsin⁡θn\la - λ\lambda If grating has 6000 lines/cm, then

Diffraction mbda = (nm) - dd (m) d=1600000d = \frac{1}{600000} m =
Grating d\sin\theta - θ\theta 1.67×10−61.67 \times 10^{-6} m If
d=1Nd = (degrees) θ=20∘,n=1\theta = 20^\circ, n = 1, then
\frac{1}{N} λ=dsin⁡θ\lambda = d \sin \theta
where N =
lines per
meter
3. Logic Truth Inputs: A, B Example: For A = 1, B = 0 - AND = 0 -
Gates table-based - (binary: 0 or OR = 1 - NAND = 1 - NOR = 0
AND: 1) Output: Y
Y=A⋅BY = A (binary)
\cdot B - OR:
Y=A+BY = A
+ B - NOT:
Y=A‾Y =
\overline{A} -
NAND:
Y=A⋅B‾Y =
\overline{A
\cdot B} -
NOR:
Y=A+B‾Y =
\overline{A +
B}

4. Newton’s - - DD (mm) - Given:

Rings Dn2=4nλRD_ λ\lambda Dn+p=2.6mm,Dn=1.8mm,R=1m,p=5D_{n
n^2 = (nm) - RR (m) +p} = 2.6 \text{mm}, D_n = 1.8 \text{mm},
4n\lambda R - R = 1 \text{m}, p = 5 ⇒
λ=Dn+p2−Dn λ=(2.62−1.82)×10−620≈580 nm\lambda =
24pR\lambda \frac{(2.6^2 - 1.8^2)\times10^{-6}}{20}
= \approx 580 \text{ nm}
\frac{D_{n+p}^
2-
D_n^2}{4pR}

5. Torsional - Time period: - TT (s), II Example: For disc I=12MR2I =

Pendulum T=2πIκT = (kg·m²), LL \frac{1}{2}MR^2, M = 1 kg, R = 0.1 m →
2\pi (m), rr (m) I=0.005 kg\cdotpm2I = 0.005 \,
\sqrt{\frac{I}{\k \text{kg·m}^2
appa}} -
Modulus of
rigidity:
η=8πLIT2r4\et
a = \frac{8\pi
L I}{T^2 r^4}

6. - - NANA If n1=1.5,n2=1.45n_1 = 1.5, n_2 = 1.45

Numerical NA=n12−n22 (unitless) - NA=1.52−1.452=0.1475≈0.384NA =
Aperture of NA = n1,n2n_1, \sqrt{1.5^2 - 1.45^2} = \sqrt{0.1475}
Optical \sqrt{n_1^2 - n_2: \approx 0.384
Fiber n_2^2} - refractive
θ=sin⁡−1(NA)\t indices
heta =
\sin^{-1}(NA)
7. Solar Cell - Fill Factor: - VV, II, Example:
Characteris FF=Vmp⋅Imp Power (mW) - Voc=0.6V,Isc=30mA,Vmp=0.5V,Imp=25m
tics Voc⋅IscFF = FF (ratio), η AV_{oc} = 0.6V, I_{sc} = 30mA, V_{mp} =
\frac{V_{mp} (%) 0.5V, I_{mp} = 25mA ⇒
\cdot FF=0.5⋅250.6⋅30=0.694FF = \frac{0.5
I_{mp}}{V_{oc \cdot 25}{0.6 \cdot 30} = 0.694 Efficiency
} \cdot I_{sc}} depends on illumination
- Efficiency:
η=PmaxPin×1
00%\eta =
\frac{P_{max}}
{P_{in}} \times
100\%

8. Melde’s - f=n2LTμf = - f (Hz), T (N), Example: Mass = 0.01 kg, L = 1m →

Experiment \frac{n}{2L} μ (kg/m), L μ=0.01kg/m\mu = 0.01 \text{kg/m},
\sqrt{\frac{T}{\ (m), n (no. of Tension = 1N 3 loops ⇒
mu}} loops) f=32⋅110.01=32⋅10=15 Hzf = \frac{3}{2
μ=mL\mu = \cdot 1} \sqrt{\frac{1}{0.01}} = \frac{3}{2}
\frac{m}{L} \cdot 10 = 15 \text{ Hz}