Module 1

Question 0: what is iot and characteristics

Definition: The Internet of things (IoT) describes the network of physical things or objects
that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of
connecting and exchanging data with other devices and systems over the Internet.

Characteristics of IoT:

Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.

No ambiguity in naming and addressing.

Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and non-
IP devices.

Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

Question 1 : Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are

Of two types—(Figure 1.1): Point-to-point and Point-to-multipoint.

Point-to-point: Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct

Connections between two hosts. Day-to-day systems such as a remote control

For an air conditioner or television is a point to point connection, where the

Connection has the whole channel dedicated to it only. These networks were

Designed to work over duplex links and are functional for both synchronous as

Well as asynchronous systems. Regarding computer networks, point to point

Connections find usage for specific purposes such as in optical networks.

(ii) Point-to-multipoint: In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts

Share the same link. This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-many

Connection type. Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless

Networks and IP telephony. The channel is shared between the various hosts,

Either spatially or temporally. One common scheme of spatial sharing of the

Channel is frequency division multiple access (FDMA). Temporal sharing of

Channels include approaches such as time division multiple access (TDMA).

Each of the spectral and temporal sharing approaches has various schemes

And protocols for channel sharing in point-to-multipoint networks. Point-to-

Multipoint connections find popular use in present-day networks, especially

While enabling communication between a massive number of connected devices.

Question 2 Physical topology

Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts

Are connected, computer networks can have the following four broad topologies—

(Figure 1.2): Star, Mesh, Bus, and Ring.

(i) Star: In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller

Or hub. The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly; they can only

Do so through the central hub. The hub acts as the network traffic exchange. For
Large-scale systems, the hub, essentially, has to be a powerful server to handle

All the simultaneous traffic flowing through it. However, as there are fewer

Links (only one link per host), this topology is cheaper and easier to set up. The

Main advantages of the star topology are easy installation and the ease of fault

Identification within the network. If the central hub remains uncompromised,

Link failures between a host and the hub do not have a big effect on the network,

Except for the host that is affected. However, the main disadvantage of this

Topology is the danger of a single point of failure. If the hub fails, the whole

Network fails.

(ii) Mesh: In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a

Dedicated link (in a point-to-point manner). This implies that for n hosts in a

Mesh, there are a total of n(n−1)/2 dedicated full duplex links between the hosts.

This massive number of links makes the mesh topology expensive. However,
It offers certain specific advantages over other topologies. The first significant

Advantage is the robustness and resilience of the system. Even if a link is down

Or broken, the network is still fully functional as there remain other pathways

For the traffic to flow through. The second advantage is the security and privacy

Of the traffic as the data is only seen by the intended recipients and not by all

Members of the network. The third advantage is the reduced data load on a

Single host, as every host in this network takes care of its traffic load. However,

Owing to the complexities in forming physical connections between devices and

The cost of establishing these links, mesh networks are used very selectively, such

As in backbone networks.

(iii) Bus: A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection. A backbone

Cable or bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts. The hosts

Are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps. The main advantage
Of this topology is the ease of installation. However, there is a restriction

On the length of the bus and the number of hosts that can be simultaneously

Connected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus. The bus topology

Has a simple cabling procedure in which a single bus (backbone cable) can be

Used for an organization. Multiple drop lines and taps can be used to connect

Various hosts to the bus, making installation very easy and cheap. However, the

Main drawback of this topology is the difficulty in fault localization within the

Network.

(iv) Ring: A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection.

Here, each host is configured to have a dedicated point-to-point connection with

Its two immediate neighboring hosts on either side of it through repeaters at

Each host. The repetition of this system forms a ring. The repeaters at each host

Capture the incoming signal intended for other hosts, regenerates the bit stream,
And passes it onto the next repeater. Fault identification and set up of the ring

Topology is quite simple and straightforward. However, the main disadvantage

Of this system is the high probability of a single point of failure. If even one

Repeater fails, the whole network goes down.

Question 3 : Network reachability

Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network

Reachability: personal area networks, local area networks, wide area networks, and

Metropolitan area networks.

(i) Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs, as the name suggests, are mostly

Restricted to individual usage. A good example of PANs may be connected

Wireless headphones, wireless speakers, laptops, smartphones, wireless

Keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a house. Generally, PANs are

Wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low-power technologies

Such as Bluetooth. The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters

To a few meters.

(ii) Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single

Network through wired or wireless connections. However, LANs are restricted

To buildings, organizations, or campuses. Typically, a few leased lines connected

To the Internet provide web access to the whole organization or a campus; the

Lines are further redistributed to multiple hosts within the LAN enabling hosts.

The hosts are much more in number than the actual direct lines to the Internet to

Access the web from within the organization. This also allows the organization

To define various access control policies for web access within its hierarchy.

Typically, the present-day data access rates within the LANs range from 100

Mbps to 1000 Mbps, with very high fault-tolerance levels. Commonly used

Network components in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches, terminals,

And computers.

(iii) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): The reachability of a MAN lies between

That of a LAN and a WAN. Typically, MANs connect various organizations or

Buildings within a given geographic location or city. An excellent example of

A MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP) supplying Internet connectivity

To various organizations within a city. As MANs are costly, they may not

Be owned by individuals or even single organizations. Typical networking

Devices/components in MANs are modems and cables. MANs tend to have

Moderate fault tolerance levels.

(iv) Wide Area Networks (WAN): WANs typically connect diverse geographic

Locations. However, they are restricted within the boundaries of a state or

Country. The data rate of WANs is in the order of a fraction of LAN’s

Data rate. Typically, WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use public
Switched telephone networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links. Due to the

Long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise during

Transmission and are very costly to maintain. The fault tolerance of WANs are

Also generally low.

Question 4:

The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework that partitions any networked

Communication device into seven layers of abstraction, each performing distinct tasks

Based on the underlying technology and internal structure of the hosts. These seven

Layers, from bottom-up, are as follows: 1) Physical layer, 2) Data link layer, 3) Network

Layer, 4) Transport layer, 5) Session layer, 6) Presentation layer, and 7) Application layer.

The major highlights of each of these layers are explained in this section.

(i) Physical Layer: This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of the

OSI model. The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and

Mechanical operations of the host at the actual physical level. These operations

Include or deal with issues relating to signal generation, signal transfer, voltages,
The layout of cables, physical port layout, line impedances, and signal loss. This

Layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network (star, mesh, bus, or

Ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and bit rate control

Operations. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a

Symbol.

(ii) Data Link Layer: This is a media layer and layer 2 of the OSI model. The data

Link layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and termination of the

Connection between two hosts, and the detection and correction of errors during

Communication between two or more connected hosts. IEEE 802 divides the

OSI layer 2 further into two sub-layers [2]: Medium access control (MAC) and

Logical link control (LLC). MAC is responsible for access control and permissions

For connecting networked devices; whereas LLC is mainly tasked with error

Checking, flow control, and frame synchronization. The protocol data unit
Associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.

(iii) Network Layer: This layer is a media layer and layer 3 of the OSI model.

It provides a means of routing data to various hosts connected to different

Networks through logical paths called virtual circuits. These logical paths

May pass through other intermediate hosts (nodes) before reaching the actual

Destination host. The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing

Of packets, congestion control, error handling, and Internetworking. The protocol

Data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.

(iv) Transport Layer: This is layer 4 of the OSI model and is a host layer. The

Transport layer is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow control to

Achieve a transparent transfer of data between hosts. This layer is responsible for

Keeping track of acknowledgments during variable-length data transfer between

Hosts. In case of loss of data, or when no acknowledgment is received, the

Transport layer ensures that the particular erroneous data segment is re-sent to

The receiving host. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to

As a segment or datagram.

(v) Session Layer: This is the OSI model’s layer 5 and is a host layer. It is responsible

For establishing, controlling, and terminating of communication between

Networked hosts. The session layer sees full utilization during operations such

As remote procedure calls and remote sessions. The protocol data unit associated

With this layer is referred to as data.

(vi) Presentation Layer: This layer is a host layer and layer 6 of the OSI model. It

Is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks such

That the syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained across the network, for

Which it is also referred to as the syntax layer. The protocol data unit associated

With this layer is referred to as data.

 (vii) Application Layer: This is layer 6 of the OSI model and is a host layer. It is

Directly accessible by an end-user through software APIs (application program

Interfaces) and terminals. Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer

Protocol), e-mails, and other such operations are initiated from this layer. The

Application layer deals with user authentication, identification of communication

Hosts, quality of service, and privacy. The protocol data unit associated with this

Layer is referred to as data.

Question 5 Evolution of IoT or sequence of technological developments leading to the

shaping of the modern-day IoT

The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts

Over a few decades. The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems

By achieving easy integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive

Benefits by using connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for

The development of IoT. Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological advancements
For shaping the IoT as it is today. These sequence of technical developments toward

The emergence of IoT are described in brief:

ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which

Are linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of

The identity of a user and their account through a specially coded card. The

Central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even

When banks were closed beyond their regular work hours. These ATMs were

Ubiquitous money dispensers. The first ATM became operational and connected

Online for the first time in 1974.

• Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication

Platform. The Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has

Been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the field of computing

And communication.
• Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became

Operational in early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating

Remotely with the power grid. They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’

Power usage and eased the process of billing and power allocation from grids.

Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at

Connected home-automation systems. Present-day digital locks are so robust

That smartphones can be used to control them. Operations such as locking and

Unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in the access lists,

Can be easily performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.

• Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors,

And relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures.

The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart

Rate and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors
In hospitals. The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of

Medical records and test results much faster, cheaper, and convenient for both

Patients as well as hospital authorities.

• Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or

With other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it.

These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.

• Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring,

And actuation systems. The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst

Themselves enables unified and synchronized operations and information

Dissemination. Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking,

Transportation, and others.

• Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each,

They can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot
Operate. For example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil

Or even to diagnose problems in the human body.

• Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines,

Distribution lines, and manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction

In mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes is

Drastically reduced.

• UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public-

Domain solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys,

Surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.

The present-day IoT spans across various domains and applications. The major

Highlight of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain technology

Enabler. Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over

IoT-based platforms. Support for legacy technologies and standalone paradigms,

Along with modern developments, makes IoT quite robust and economical for

Commercial, industrial, as well as consumer applications. IoT is being used in

Vivid and diverse areas such as smart parking, smartphone detection, traffic

Congestion, smart lighting, waste management, smart roads, structural health,

Urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages,

Radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control, snow level
monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution, smart grid,

Tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field communications) payments,

Intelligent shopping applications, landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection

Of earthquakes, supply chain control, smart product management, and others.

Question 6 IoT Networking Components

An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with

their application domains. Various established works such as that by Savolainen et al.

[2] generally outline five broad categories of IoT networking components. However,

we outline the broad components that come into play during the establishment of

any IoT network, into six types: 1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT LAN, 4) IoT WAN,

5) IoT gateway, and 6) IoT proxy. A typical IoT implementation from a networking
perspective is shown in Figure 4.9. The individual components are briefly described

here:

(i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of

these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which

communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or outside

it). The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a
common gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are

through gateways and proxies.

(ii) IoT Router: An I oT router is a piece of networking equipment that is primarily

Tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network;

It keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network. A router can be

Repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.

(iii) IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the

Purview of a single gateway. Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity

Technologies. IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet. Generally,

They are localized within a building or an organization.

 (v) IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments

Such as LANs. They are typically organizationally and geographically wide,

With their operational range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of

Kilometers. IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the

Segments they are connecting.

(vi) IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a

WAN or the Internet. Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs. Their

Primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer

Using only layer 3.

(vii) IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application

Layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities. Typically, application layer

Proxies are a means of providing security to the network entities under it ; it

Helps to extend the addressing range of its network.

IoT Network Structure and Connectivity

IoT Nodes communicate within an IoT LAN, each having a locally unique identifier (LU-x).

IoT Routers connect multiple LANs, directing data towards an IoT Gateway or IoT Proxy.

IoT Gateways and IoT WANs enable Internet connectivity, extending the network beyond
local boundaries.

The network infrastructure is predominantly wireless, ensuring scalability, mobility, and

reduced installation costs.

By integrating these components, IoT networks facilitate seamless data exchange, remote
monitoring, automation, and enhanced decision-making across industries.

Question 7 planes

Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a vast ecosystem built upon a complex interdependence of
various technologies—both legacy and modern—that work together to enable seamless
connectivity, data exchange, and intelligent processing.

The IoT paradigm can be divided into four key planes, each playing a crucial role in shaping
IoT-enabled solutions. These planes are:

1. Services Plane
The services plane is the foundation of IoT, consisting of:

Things (Devices): The physical objects embedded with sensors, actuators, and processors,
such as wearables, smartphones, household appliances, factory machinery, UAVs, smart
glasses, and vehicles.

Low-Power Connectivity: These are the communication protocols that enable devices to
connect within a local IoT network. This includes:

Legacy technologies: Wi-Fi, Ethernet, Cellular (2G/3G/4G/5G).

Modern wireless protocols: Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRa, DASH, Insteon.

These protocols allow short-range communication between devices and the nearest hub,
router, or gateway, acting as the first level of IoT connectivity.

2. Local Connectivity Plane

The local connectivity plane is responsible for managing and distributing IoT
communication within a localized space.

Purpose: It enables multiple IoT devices within a home, building, or industrial facility to
connect to the network through a single router or gateway.
Key Features:

Address management: Efficient use of IP addresses.

Device management: Ensures smooth operation of connected devices.

Security: Protects IoT communications.

Sleep scheduling: Optimizes power consumption for battery-powered devices.

Example: In a smart home, devices across different floors communicate through local IoT
networks, which then merge into a single gateway that provides Internet access.

Relation to Edge Computing:

The edge computing paradigm is often deployed at this level.

It enables data processing closer to the source, reducing latency and offloading tasks from
centralized cloud systems.
 3. Global Connectivity Plane

This plane is crucial for enabling worldwide connectivity for IoT devices, allowing them to
communicate across networks, service providers, and cloud platforms.

Components:

The Web

Cloud computing platforms

Data centers

Remote servers

Role in IoT Management:

Decides when and where data should be stored and processed.

Controls data forwarding and transformation.

Relation to Fog Computing:

Fog computing lies between local and global connectivity.

It helps offload processing from cloud systems by handling some computations near the
source, reducing data congestion on the Internet.

4. Processing Plane

The processing plane sits at the top of the IoT framework and is responsible for
transforming raw IoT data into actionable insights.

Key Functions:

Data Intelligence: Extracting meaningful insights from IoT-generated data.

Data Conversion & Cleaning: Ensures uniform formatting and removes errors.

Learning: Detecting patterns in temporal and spatial data.

Cognition: Mapping real-time data to known trends.

Algorithms: Running monitoring and control mechanisms.

Visualization: Representing data through graphs, charts, and trend analysis.

Analysis: Understanding past and present trends to predict future outcomes.

Key Technologies:

Big Data: Enables large-scale storage and processing of IoT data.

Machine Learning & AI: Automates decision-making and predictive analytics.

Conclusion

The IoT ecosystem is built on a multi-layered framework where services, connectivity, and
processing technologies work together to enable intelligent and automated solutions. With
advancements in edge computing, fog computing, AI, and machine learning, IoT continues
to evolve, offering unprecedented connectivity and automation across industries.

Question 8 IP or tcp model

The Internet protocol suite is yet another conceptual framework that provides levels

Of abstraction for ease of understanding and development of communication and

Networked systems on the Internet. However, the Internet protocol suite predates the

OSI model and provides only four levels of abstraction: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer,

3) transport layer, and 4) application layer. This collection of protocols is commonly

Referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite as the foundation technologies of this suite are

Transmission control protocol (TCP) and Internet protocol (IP) [3], [4], [6]. The TCP/IP

Protocol suite comprises the following four layers:

(i) Link Layer: The first and base layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite is also known as

The network interface layer. This layer is synonymous with the collective physical

And data link layer of the OSI model. It enables the transmission of TCP/IP

Packets over the physical medium. According to its design principles, the link

Layer is independent of the medium in use, frame format, and network access,

Enabling it to be used with a wide range of technologies such as the Ethernet,

Wireless LAN, and the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).

(ii) Internet Layer: Layer 2 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is somewhat synonymous
To the network layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for addressing, address

Translation, data packaging, data disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet

Delivery tracking operations. Some core protocols associated with this layer

Are address resolution protocol (ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control

Message protocol (ICMP), and Internet group management protocol (IGMP).

Traditionally, this layer was built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6,

Enabling the accommodation of a much more significant number of addresses

And security measures.

(iii) Transport Layer: Layer 3 of the TCP/IP protocol suite is functionally

Synonymous with the transport layer of the OSI model. This layer is tasked with

The functions of error control, flow control, congestion control, segmentation,

And addressing in an end-to-end manner; it is also independent of the underlying

Network. Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP)
Are the core protocols upon which this layer is built, which in turn enables it

To have the choice of providing connection-oriented or connectionless services

Between two or more hosts or networked devices.

(iv) Application Layer: The functionalities of the application layer, layer 4, of the

TCP/IP protocol suite are synonymous with the collective functionalities of the

OSI model’s session, presentation, and application layers. This layer enables an

End-user to access the services of the underlying layers and defines the protocols

For the transfer of data. Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol

(FTP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), domain name system (DNS),

Routing information protocol (RIP), and simple network management protocol

(SNMP) are some of the core protocols associated with this layer.

Question 9 Difference Between OSI and TCP/IP Models

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, developed by ISO, is a conceptual

framework with seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application. It provides a standardized approach to networking, focusing
on modularity and interoperability. The model is theoretical and not strictly implemented in
real-world networking.

In contrast, the TCP/IP (Internet Protocol) model, also known as the Internet protocol suite,
is a four-layer framework: Link, Internet, Transport, and Application. It predates the OSI
model and is practically implemented, forming the backbone of the modern Internet. While
OSI separates concerns into distinct layers, TCP/IP integrates some functionalities (e.g.,
OSI’s Session, Presentation, and Application layers merge into the TCP/IP Application
layer).

OSI is protocol-independent and mainly used for teaching and conceptualization, while
TCP/IP is protocol-driven, relying on core protocols like IP, TCP, UDP, HTTP, and DNS.
Additionally, OSI follows a strict top-down approach, whereas TCP/IP was designed with a
flexible, real-world-oriented architecture that allows efficient data transmission across
networks.

Question 10 The interdependence and reach of IoT over various application domains and

networking paradigms

(i) M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system

of connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves

without human intervention. The communication between the machines can

be for updates on machine status (stocks, health, power status, and others),

collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the systems and the

environment, and others.

(ii) CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control

loop—from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation—using a feedback

mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the

feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the

system keeps on actuating and sensing. Humans have a simple supervisory role

in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level operations are automated.

(iii) IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even

Reversing the ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the

Environment [3]. The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and

Sustainable farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the

Energy efficiency of systems and processes, and others. In brief, we can safely

Assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and affects the environment, falls

Under the purview of IoE.

(v) Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial

Revolution pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. The previous

Revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production, and the

Industrial revolution, respectively. This paradigm strongly puts forward the

Concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one another without much

Human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT. The digitization

And connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce

Management, optimization of production time and resources, and better upkeep

And lifetimes of industrial systems.

(vi) IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to

Decentralize online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks

While maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data. A famous site

For IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited the

Power of banks and governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power

Of corporations, governments, and their spy agencies [4].

4.2.1 IoT versus M2M

4.2.2

M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and interactions

Between various machines and devices. These interactions can be enabled through a

Cloud computing infrastructure, a server, or simply a local network hub. M2M collects
Data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling device management and device

Interaction. Telecommunication services providers introduced the term M2M, and

Technically emphasized on machine interactions via one or more communication

Networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks). M2M is part of the IoT and is

Considered as one of its sub-domains, as shown in Figure 4.7. M2M standards occupy

A core place in the IoT landscape. However, in terms of operational and functional

Scope, IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader range of interactions

Such as the interactions between devices/things, things, and people, things and

Applications, and people with applications; M2M enables the amalgamation of

Workflows comprising such interactions within IoT. Internet connectivity is central

To the IoT theme but is not necessarily focused on the use of telecom networks.

4.2.3 IoT versus CPS

4.2.4

Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and feedback
As a complete package. In other words, a digital twin is attached to a CPS-based

System. As mentioned earlier, a digital twin is a virtual system–model relation, in

Which the system signifies a physical system or equipment or a piece of machinery,

While the model represents the mathematical model or representation of the physical

System’s behavior or operation. Many a time, a digital twin is used parallel to a

Physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the comparison of the physical

System’s output, performance, and health. Based on feedback from the digital twin,

A physical system can be easily given corrective directions/commands to obtain

Desirable outputs. In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback

Or a digital twin system. IoT is more focused on networking than controls. Some of the

Constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as those formed by CPS-based

Instruments and networks) may include feedback and controls too. In this light, CPS

May be considered as one of the sub-domains of IoT, as shown in Figure 4.7.

4.2.3 IoT versus WoT

From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access

And control over IoT resources and applications. These resources and applications

Are generally built using technologies such as HTML 5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP, and

Others. REST (representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT. The use

Of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface) enables both

Developers and deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance, and maturity of

Existing web technologies without having to redesign and redeploy solutions from

Scratch. Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability

And security challenges, especially when trying to build a globally uniform WoT. As

IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems, and

Applications, which often do not consider the unification aspect and the limitations of

The Internet, the need for WoT, which aims to integrate the various focus areas of IoT
Into the existing Web is really invaluable. Technically, WoT can be thought of as an

Application layer-based hat added over the network layer. However, the scope of IoT

Applications is much broader; IoT also which includes non-IP-based systems that are

Not accessible through the web.