MODULE-2

Elasticity
When force acts on a body which is not free to move, the body may undergo a change in size or
shape or both. The change in size or shape or both is called deformation.
Elasticity: If a body regains its initial state (size or shape or both) completely after the removal
of force, it is called a perfectly elastic body. The property of a body due to which it regains its
original size or shape or both, after the removal of deforming forces is called elasticity. There are
no bodies which are perfectly elastic. However, it is possible to make bodies which are almost
close to the definition of perfectly elastic.
Stress: When an external force acts on a body, the molecules inside are displaced from their
positions. But the displaced molecules tend to come back to their original positions due to
intermolecular binding forces. The restoring tendency of the molecules appears as restoring
force, which counteracts the external force. This restoring force per unit area developed inside a
body is called stress. The magnitude of restoring force is equal to that of external force. Hence,
stress is also defined as the external force per unit area.
Strain: Due to the deformation produced in a body by external force, the body undergoes a
change in dimensions. The ratio of change in dimensions to original dimensions is called strain.
Depending on the deformations produced in a body Stress and strain are classified into 3
categories.
1 (a) Tensile stress (Longitudinal stress):

It is defined as tensile force acting per unit area. If F is the force applied normally to a cross-
sectional area a, then
F
Tensile stress =
a
1 (b) Linear strain (Tensile strain or longitudinal strain):
It is defined as the ratio of change in length to original length. If x is the change in length
produced in a body of original length L, then
x
Linear stain =
L

2 (a) Compressive stress (Volume stress):

It is defined as the force per unit area acting normally all over the body. When uniform force is
applied normally on a solid, it produces a change in volume without any change in shape. If F is
the force applied uniformly and normally on a surface area a, then
F
Compressive stress =
a

2 (b) Volume strain:

It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to original volume. If v is the change in volume
produced in a body of original volume V, then
v
Volume strain =
V

3 (a) Shear stress (Tangential stress):

It is defined as the tangential force acting per unit area on the surface of a body. In the above
diagram, F is the tangential force acting per unit area on the top most face ABPQ of the body
whose bottom face is fixed. The force F acting per unit area a of the surface ABPQ changes the
shape of the body and causes an angle of shear θ (shearing angle), then
F
Tangential stress =
a

3 (b) Shear strain:

 x 
The angle of shear θ is a measure of the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension  
 L 

in the case of shearing and hence the angle of shear θ itself is called shear strain.
Hooke’s law:
According to Hooke’s law stress is directly proportional to strain within the elastic limit.
Hooke’s law applicable only when the deformation is small.
It is to be noted that when the deformation is small the molecular displacement will not be too
large and hence the molecules can return to their previous positions once the external force is
removed.
Stress-Strain diagram:
The stress versus strain graph for a metallic wire is as shown in the below diagram. The line OP
in the diagram is the portion of linearity where stress is directly proportional to strain. Therefore
from point O to point P, Hooke’s law is applicable and the point P is called Proportional limit.
From point P to point Q, linear dependence between stress and strain is not observed indicating
that Hooke’s law is not applicable. But the body exhibits perfect elasticity and hence the point Q
is called Elastic limit (Yield point). So, when the applied force is removed the curve will be
retraced from the point Q to the point P and then to the point O. At any point between Q and S,
the body fails to regain its original length if the applied force is removed but traverses the dashed
line from R as shown in the diagram. The material is said to have acquired permanent set. Such a
deformation is called plastic deformation. The point X is called ultimate strength, which is a
measure of the limit upto which the material stays fit. The point S is called Fracture point. At S,
the deformation becomes so large that the molecules are pulled apart and the binding force
breaks. Beyond S the body is no more a single piece.
The force per unit area for which the wire breaks is called breaking stress. If a metal is brittle,
fracture occurs soon after the elastic limit. If the metal is ductile, it undergoes a large
deformation between elastic limit and fracture point.
Strain hardening and strain softening
Strain Hardening:
The process of increasing the yield point of certain materials that are plastically deformed earlier,
by stressing them again is called strain hardening. Strain hardening makes a metal harder by
plastic deformation. It is also called work hardening or cold working.
Strain hardening reduces ductility and increases brittleness. A material that does not show any
strain hardening is said to be perfectly plastic. The strain hardening exponent (coefficient) is
given by the expression σ = K ε n
σ is the applied stress
ε is strain
n is the strain hardening coefficient
K is the strength coefficient (elasticity). It is a measure of the ability of a metal to strain harden.
The value of ‘n’ lies between 0.1 and 0.5 for most metals.
A material with a higher value of ‘n’ has a greater elasticity than a material with a low value of
‘n’.
Cause of strain hardening:
Crystal structures normally have irregularity inside. The irregularity in a crystal lattice is called
dislocation (lattice distortion). An ordinary metal has plenty of such dislocations. During plastic
deformation, when an external stress acts, the dislocations move. If one of the dislocations is
stopped by an obstacle, then the entire queue behind is halted, resulting in increased yield stress.
This makes the metal harder.
Stain softening
In certain materials such as soil, concrete, fiber reinforced composites etc, the stress strain graph
has negative slope soon after the elastic region, due to brittleness and heterogeneity of the
material. It causes deterioration of material strength with increasing strain. This kind of behavior
in which stress in a material decreases with increase in strain, resulting in softening effect of the
material is called strain softening.

Elastic moduli
1) Young’s Modulus (Y)
The ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain, within the elastic limits is called Young’s
modulus.
F
Longitudin al stress a FL
Young’s modulus (Y) = = =
Linear strain x ax
L

The SI unit of Y is N/m2.

2) Bulk Modulus (K)
The ratio of compressive stress to volume strain, within the elastic limits is called Bulk modulus.
F
Compressiv e stress a P PV
Bulk modulus (K) = = = =
Volume strain v v v
V V

where P is pressure. The SI unit of K is N/m2. Bulk modulus is defined even for liquids.
3) Rigidity modulus (n)
The ratio of tangential stress to shearing strain is called rigidity modulus.
F
tangential stress a FL
Rigidity modulus (n) = = =
shearing strain x ax
L
The SI unit of n is N/m2.
Longitudinal strain coefficient ():
The longitudinal strain produced per unit stress is called longitudinal strain coefficient.
x
x
 = L
= where T is the applied stress.
T TL

Lateral strain:
When a tensile force is applied on a body, the body along with linear deformation also undergoes
a deformation perpendicular to the direction of force. This perpendicular deformation is called
lateral deformation. If a deforming force acting on a wire of diameter D produces a change d in
its diameter, then
d
Lateral strain =
D

Poisson’s ratio (σ):

The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is a constant and is called Poisson’s ratio.
d
Ld
σ = D

x xD
L

Relation between elastic coefficients

1) Relation between Y, n and σ

Consider a face APSD of a cube of side L. The lower surface of the cube is fixed to a
rigid support as shown in the diagram. When a tangential force F is applied on the face AP, it
makes a small angle of shear θ. As a result of this, the diagonal AS of the cube is reduced to a
length A S and the diagonal PD is stretched to a length P D, perpendicular to A S. Let the
displacements A A  = P P  be equal to x.
Now, the shearing strain occurring along AP is equivalent to tensile elongation strain
along D P  and an equal tensile compression strain along A  S . But the lateral strain produced due
to compression strain A S , acts perpendicular to it i.e, along D P  .
 Total extension along DP = Extension produced for DP due to tensile stress
+ Extension produced for DP due to compression stress
 P X = T. DP. + T.DP. β …………..(1)
Where  and β are longitudinal and lateral strain coefficients respectively. T is unit stress and DP
is original dimension (length).
x
P X  P P  cos  P P X
o
But = x cos 45 =
2

And DP = 2L

 equation (1) can be written as

x
=T( 2L ) + T ( 2L )β
2

x
 =T 2L ( + β)
2

x
   
2 LT

1  x 
     
2T  L 

1    x
      1   But θ =
2T    L

1 
   1    because σ =
T  
2 
 

1
   1   
2n

1 1    1
 because Y 
2n Y 
  Y  2 n (1   )

2) Relation between K, Y and σ

Y  3 K (1  2  )

Limiting value of σ
The value of σ cannot exceed 0.5 and cannot be less than -1. These are called limiting values of
σ. However, the negative value of σ implies that a body undergoes elongation accompanied by a
lateral expansion, which is not observed in practice. Therefore the value of σ is taken between 0
and 0.5 in practice.

3) Relation between shearing strain, elongation strain and compression strain

x
In the above diagram, the shearing strain = θ = ……………….(1)
L

P X
Elongation strain =
PD

AY
and, compression strain =
AS


It can be shown that Elongation strain = ……………..(2)
2


and, compression strain = ………………(3)
2

From equations (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that the shear θ is equivalent to compression and
extension strains at right angles to each other.
 
Also, compression strain + elongation strain = + = θ, the shearing strain.
2 2

BENDING OF BEAMS

A homogeneous body of uniform cross section whose length is large compared to its other
dimensions is called a beam.
A beam whose one end is fixed is called a single cantilever.
Types of Beams

There are four types of beams namely

(1) Simple beam
(2) Continuous beam
(3) Cantilever beam
(4) Fixed beam
A simple beam is a beam resting upon supports at its ends.
A continuous beam is a beam resting upon more than two supports.
A cantilever beam is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free.
A beam fixed at both ends is called a fixed beam.

Engineering applications of beams:

1) They are usually set in horizontal position and are designed to support heavy loads.
2) They are used in buildings to support roofs.
3) They are used in bridges to support the load of vehicles passing over them.
4) They are used in fabrication of trolley ways, elevators etc.

Bending moment of a beam:

Consider a beam whose one end is fixed to a rigid support. A load is attached to the other end.
Due to the application of load, the beam bends a shown in the diagram. The layer A B  present
above the neutral layer CD is an elongated layer and the layer E F  present below the neutral
layer is a contracted layer. Let R be the radius of the circle to which neutral surface forms a part.
 CD = Rθ (because arc length = radius x θ)
Where θ is the common angle subtended by different layers at the common centre O of the
circles. Before the load was applied, the length of the layer A  B  was equal to AB and CD.
 CD = AB = Rθ
And A B  = (R + r) θ
Now the change in length of AB is A B  – AB
= (R + r) θ – Rθ
=rθ
Original length = AB = Rθ
r r
 Linear strain = 
R R

Longitudin al stress
Young’s modulus, Y =
Linear strain

 Longitudinal stress = Y x Linear strain

 r 
= Y 
 R 

F
But, stress = , where a is the area of the layer AB
a

F  r 
 =Y  
a  R 

Yar
 F 
R

Moment force about the neutral axis = Force on layer A B  x its distance from neutral axis
=Fxr
2
Yar
=
R
 2
Yar
 Moment of force acting on entire beam = 
R

Y

2
= ar
R

Y
 Moment of force = Ig
R

Y
or bending moment = Ig where Ig is geometric moment of inertia
R
3
bd
For a beam of rectangular cross section, Ig =
12

Y  bd 
3

 Bending moment of a beam of rectangular cross section = 




R  12 

where b and d are breadth and thickness of the beam respectively.

Y  
 
4
The bending moment for a beam of circular cross section = 
R  4 

where ρ is the radius of the beam.

CANTILEVER
A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is supported at only one
end. Typically it extends from a flat vertical surface such as a wall, to which it must be firmly
attached.

Fig (a) Simple cantilever

Fig (b) Bridge section

A good example of a cantilever beam is a balcony. A balcony is supported on one end only, the
rest of the beam extends over open space; there is nothing supporting it on the other side.
The cantilever beam is used in;
1. In buildings.
2. Cantilever bridges.
3. Overhanging projections and elements.
4. Balconies such as in Frank Lloyd Wright’s Falling Water.
5. Machinery and plants such as cranes.
6. Overhanging roofs like shelters and stadium roofs.
7. Shelving and Furniture.

PLATE GIRDER/I BEAM

I BEAM is a shape of structural steel used in buildings and it is also known as H, W, wide,
universal beam, or rolled joist. They are designed to play a key role as a support member in
structures. These beams have the capacity to withstand various types of loads. I beams are
designed to bend rather than buckle when under high load. The density of the beam is non-
uniform. Regions, where the axial fibers are located, have a higher density to counterbalance the
highest stress point. Beams having a small cross-section area are more ideal since less material is
needed without compromising the desired shape.

Applications
A plate girder is a steel beam that is widely used in bridge construction. Girder is required to
carry heavy loads on relatively long spans
It is a built up I-beam section, used to carry heavy loads which cannot be carried economically
by rolled I-sections. It is made by welding the steel plates in I-beam shape.
 Primarily used in bridges, plate girder is used when we need deeper sections having higher
stiffness to carry heavy loads.
I-section beams are especially important in civil constructions as they substitute for numerous
support structures which obviously help in saving both time and money.
The bridge in which girders are used for supporting its deck is called the girder bridge.

ELASTIC MATERIALS:
Any body which is free to move, when acted upon by a suitable force, under goes a change in the
form is called deformation. The change could be either in shape, or in size, or even both. But the
elastic nature of the body is revealed after the force is removed. If the body comes back to its
initial state completely, it is perfect elastic. On the other hand if the body does not show any
tendency of returning to its initial state and stays in the changed form, it is said to be perfectly
plastic.
Thus elasticity is defined as; it is that property of a body which it regains its original shape
and size when the deforming force is removed.
There are no bodies in nature which are perfectly elastic. However, there is a material formed by
adding 0.5% of phosphor to bronze to increase its stiffness and wear resistance. This alloy is
called phosphor – bronze. It comes very close to the definition of a perfectly elastic body. Also,
it is possible to make filaments of quartz by exposing quartz in the form of rods to oxyhydrogen
flame. These quartz fibers can also be considered under a perfectly elastic body. However in our
common use, those which are well known as elastic materials are the elastomers.
Elastomers are the polymers with high elastic nature. Natural rubber, synthetic rubber, silicone
rubber etc are all elastomers. They can be extended many more times their original size. After
releasing from the stretching force, they manage to return to a size almost the same as the
original size (though, over number cycles, they gradually lose this ability). Yet against the
common sense, technically, Rubber is considered less elastic than steel. It is because, steel
returns very quickly to its original form whereas, rubber takes considerably longer time for
reinstatement. On this account, steel scores over rubber as more elastic.
If a body deformed under stress, retains its deformed shape and size even when the stress is
decreased or removed, it is called a plastic body. Plastic, nylon, polystyrene acrylic, resin,
Bakelite, Wax and Putty is the common example for plastic body.
Failures of engineering materials: Important failure of elastic materials is fracture. The fracture
can be defined as the separation of the material into two or more parts. Failure of material can
involve any of the two mechanisms; ductile fracture or brittle fracture. Both these fracture
mechanisms in metal are distinct and different from each other.
1. Brittle fracture:
Brittle fracture is the sudden and rapid metal failure in which the material shows little or no
plastic strain. This is characterized by quick failure without any warning. The generated cracks
propagate rapidly and the material collapses all of a sudden.
Brittle Fracture is a condition that occurs when a material is subjected to temperatures that make
it less elastic, and therefore more brittle. The potential for material to become brittle depends on
the type of material that is subjected to these low temperatures. Some materials, such as carbon
and low alloy steels will become brittle at low temperatures and therefore susceptible to damage
ranging from cracking to shattering or disintegration of equipment.
When a material becomes brittle, the consequences can be very serious. If the brittle material is
subjected to an impact or an equivalent shock (ex. rapid pressurization) the combination could
potentially lead to a disastrous failure under certain conditions.
2. Ductile fracture
Ductile fracture is the material failure that exhibits substantial plastic deformation prior to
fracture. The ductile fracture process is slow and gives enough warnings before final separation.
Normally, a large amount of the plastic flow is concentrated near the fracture faces.
Ductile fracture occurs over a period of time and normally occurs after yield stress, where as
brittle fracture is fast and can occur at lower stress levels than a ductile fracture. That is why
Ductile fracture is considered better than brittle fracture.
Refer to Fig. that explains both the fracture mechanisms. The area under the stress strain curve
represents the absorbed energy before failure. Clearly, the required energy in brittle failure is
quite less than the ductile failure.
Stress concentration:
Stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser) is a location in an object where
the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations occur when
there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that cause an
interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes, grooves, notches and
fillets. Stress concentrations may also occur from accidental damage such as nicks and scratches.
The sharp corner at the brick has acted as a stress concentrator within the concrete causing it to
crack
Fatigue:
Fatigue is weakening of material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is progressive and
localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading.
Characteristics:
1. Fatigue failures occur when metal is subjected to a repetitive fluctuating stress and will fail at
a stress much lower than its tensile strength.
2. Fatigue will occur without any plastic deformation ( no warning)
3. Fatigue surface appears as smooth region, showing beach marker origin of fatigue crack.

Basically two types:

1) External factors 2) Internal factors
1) External factors:
External factors include the shape and size of parts, surface finish and service conditions.
The influence of size factor: Due to the inhomogeneity of the material structure and the
existence of internal defects, the increase of the size will increase the failure probability of the
material, thus reducing the fatigue limit of the material.
Influence of surface processing state: There are always uneven machining marks on the
machined surface, which are equivalent to tiny gaps, causing stress concentration on the material
surface, thus reducing the fatigue strength of the material.
The impact of loading experience: The overload damage means that the fatigue limit of the
material will decrease after the material runs for a certain number of cycles under the load higher
than the fatigue limit.
2) Internal factors: The internal factors include the composition, microstructure, purity and
residual stress of the material.
Effect of heat treatment on Microstructure: Although the same static strength can be obtained
for materials of the same composition due to different heat treatments, the fatigue strength can
vary in a considerable range due to different microstructures.
Influence of inclusions: The inclusion itself or the hole produced by it is equivalent to a tiny
notch, which will produce stress concentration and strain concentration under the action of
alternating load, and become the crack source of fatigue fracture, which has adverse effect on the
fatigue performance of materials. The influence of inclusions on fatigue strength depends not
only on the type, nature, shape, size, quantity and distribution of inclusions, but also on the
strength level of materials and the level and state of applied stress.
Influence of surface property change and residual stress: In addition to the surface finish
mentioned before, the influence of surface state also includes the change of surface mechanical
properties and the influence of residual stress on fatigue strength. The change of mechanical
properties of the surface layer can be caused by different chemical composition and
microstructure of the surface layer, or by deformation strengthening of the surface layer.