INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION

This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart
of the society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by
science and technology.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when
and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven
with the society. So, how can science be defined?

1. SCIENCE AS AN IDEA It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic

explanations and observations about the natural and physical world.

2. SCIENCE AS AN INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITY It encompasses a systematic and

practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves
systematic observation and experimentation.

3. SCIENCE AS A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE It is a subject or a discipline, a field of

study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural
and physical world. This is what we refer to as school science.

4. SCIENCE AS A PERSONAL AND SOCIAL ACTIVITY This explains that science is

both knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of
the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is
interwoven with people’s lives.

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand
everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and physical
world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble
ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain
phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.

The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16 th century up to
the 18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing
machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various places of learning, and the
growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests. This does not mean, however,
that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can examine
the history of science, technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great civilizations

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of the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these
disciplines.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

 It was the period of enlightment when the developments in the fields of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society about
nature.

 It explained the emergence or birth of modern science as a result of these developments

from the disciplines mentioned.
 The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and re-
examine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited vast human
interests to rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.
 It was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a
deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or
condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion,
and theological views.
 Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of scientists.
But these did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the natural
and physical world.

SCIENCE IDEAS

SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTIONS

HUMANS SOCIETY

Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

Scientific Revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,

transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved
the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution
also led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a
strong foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific revolution transformed the
natural world and the world of ideas.

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SOME INTELLECTUALS AND REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is

important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the
dominant theories and ideas during this period—the truths of their time. Scientists in all periods
of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and
natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people
doing extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were
sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the church during their time. In spite of all
the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing,
and discovering new knowledge and ideas.

In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there were many
scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is important to note that
these men, particularly through their ideas had shaken the world.

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS

One of the Renaissance men particularly in

the field of science. He had knowledge about the
nature of the universe and had been essentially
unchanged since the great days of Ancient Greece,
some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the
scene (Gribbin, 2003). This continued up to the
Renaissance period. In one important way,
Copernicus resembled the Greek Ancient
philosophers or thinkers.

 He did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to
test his ideas.

 His ideas were an example of what is called as a thought experiment.

 He had been appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a
canon, he had a plenty of time to sustain his interest in astronomy.

 He was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a German

Author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller’s observations of the heavens and
some commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.

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  Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long
after that he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript
called Commentariolus (Little Commentary).

 Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to
formally publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his
book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)
in 1543 is often cited as the start of the scientific revolution.

CHARLES DARWIN

 He was famous for his theory of

evolution.

 He changed our concept of the

world’s creation and its revolution.
Johnson (2012) described Darwin as
a genius who came from a line of
intellectually gifted and wealthy
family.

 He developed his interest in natural

history during his time as a student at
Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his
surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over books in his father’s library.

 According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a
mediocre student.

 He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him.

 Darwin’s life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-
year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

 He published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one
of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant
materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented
evidence on how species evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that
differentiate species.

 Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the
realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans.

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  His book The Descent of Man was so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced
the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under the realm of evolutionary
thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical design that places
human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin’s theory of
evolution scientifically questioned this view

SIGMUND FREUD

 He is a famous figure in the Field of

psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also
described him as towering literary
figure and a very talented
communicator who did his share to
raise the consciousness of the civilized
world in psychological matters.

He also made a significant contribution

in the scientific world through the
development of an important
observational method to gather reliable
data to study human’s inner life. This
method is popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis.

 The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental version of

this method. For Freud this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the
human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works
that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great
impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature.

 Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of

psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological
conditions that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was
unorthodox – focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed
immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they
found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.

 Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his
contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene,
including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more
of a psychologist or a scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian

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 ideas and theories are still considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine
human mind and behaviour in a more scientifically accepted way.

CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the
border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and
knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

 The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately
2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated
their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious
structures.
 This allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation. For example, the
pyramid at Chicken Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the spring
and fall equinoxes.
 Mayan Knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time,
as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in
planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two
complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very useful for their life especially
in planning their activities and in observing their religious rituals and cultural
celebrations
 The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building
elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.
 The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made
from mineral called mica.
 They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000
years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
 The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a
writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics.
 They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral
20. Moreover they independently developed the concept of zero and positional value.
 The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific
ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific
ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life.
1. Roads paved with stones;

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 2. Stone buidings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;
3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
land;
4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season;
5. The first suspension bridge;
6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and
7. Inca textiles since cloth were one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to
science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the
following:

1. Mandatory education – the Aztec put value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early
form of their universal or inclusive education.
2. Chocolates – the Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan
culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as
part of their tribute to their gods.
3. Chinampa – It is a form of Aztec technology for Agricultural farming in which the land
was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
4. Aztec calendar – This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
5. Invention of the canoe – A light narrow boat used for travelling in water systems.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is
a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of
science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the
Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions
to the development of knowledge during their time.

INDIA

 It is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains
in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies
useful in their everyday lives. They are known for manufacturing Iron and in
metallurgical works. Their iron steel is considered to be the best and held with high
regard in the whole of Roman Empire.
 India is also famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional
medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of
alternative medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them

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 to develop medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts, like the Susruta
Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in Ancient
India.
 Ancient India is also notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the
configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360
days with equal parts of 30 days each.
 Sama (2008) noted that their interest in astronomy was also evident in the first 12
chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written in the 12th century. According to Sama
(2008), this ancient text covered topics such as: mean longitudes of the plantes; true
longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses;
solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon’s crescent;
conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed
stars: and the paths of the Sun and Moon.
 Ancient India is also known for their mathematics. Bisht (1982) noted that the earliest
traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appeared in the Indus
Valley Civilization. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982) tried to
standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the
Mohenjo-daro ruler.
 Clifford (2008) and Bose (1998) pointed out that Indian astronomer and mathematician
Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya, introduced a number of trigonometric
functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.
 In 628 AD, another Indian, Brahmagupta also suggested that gravity was a force of
attraction, and lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit,
along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world.
 Another Indian named Madhava of Sangamagrama is also considered as the founder of
mathematical analysis.

CHINA

 It is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life
like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music.
 Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea,
Japan, Phillipines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar and other countries that
belong to the old Silk Road.
 Chinese are known for Traditional medicines, they discovered various medical properties
and uses of different plants and animals to cure Human illness. An example is the
practice of Acupuncture.

Among the famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were;

1. Compass

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 2. Papermaking
3. Gunpowder
4. And Printing tools

They also invented other tools like;

a. iron plough
b. wheelbarrow
c. propeller
d. Among others, they developed a design of different models of bridges.

 Zhongguo ke xue yuan, 1983 invented the first seismological detector, and developed a
dry dock facility.
 In the field, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar
eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better
the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world. They observed heavenly bodies to
understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily activities.
 They used lunar calendars too.
 Chinese are also known in seismology. This made them more prepared in times of natural
calamities.

MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES

 The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims, with the spread of Islam
in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden
Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.
 The common language of Arabic, access to Greek Texts from the Byzantine Empire, and
their proximity to India were contributory to the Intellectualization of the Muslims and
provided their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas.
 Muslim Scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather that plain-thought
experiments.
 A Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the Father of Optics,
especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.
 In Mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa al- Khwarizmi gave his name
to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the
beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic
Numeral System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make
several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point
notation.

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  Muslim Chemists and alchemists also played an important role in the foundation of
modern chemistry. In particular, some scholars considered Jabir Ibn Hayyan to be the
“Father of Chemistry”.
 In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and
was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine;

a. The book of healing

b. The canon of medicine.

 They were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe
during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the discovery of the
contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

THE CONCEPT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

It focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science. Teaching science involves

developing ways on how to effectively teach science.

It is exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific

concepts and processes effectively.

Learning science, on the other hand, includes both pedagogy and the most interesting
aspect, which is helping students understand and love science.

Understanding scince implies developing and applying science- process skills and using
science literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.

JOHN DEWEY (2001) –stressed the importance of utilizing the natural environment to
teach students. Accordingly, nature must indeed furnish its physical stimuli to provide wealth of
meaning through social activities and thinking.

MARX – opines that science is going to be one of the most important school subjects in
the future.

SCIENCE EDUCATION is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge

developed in this area that prepares citizens in a scientifically and technologically driven world.
It provides skills and knowledge that are necessary for a person to live in what KNIGHT (1986)
describes as the age of science and to develop a citizenry that will meet the goals of science in
the society. Developing a science culture is therefore an immense responsibility for schools.

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SCIENCE EDUCATION IN BASIC AND TERTIARY EDUCATION

In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts and facts
that are related to everyday life (Carale & Campo, 2003; Meador, 2005; Worth &Grollman,
2003) including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills, and life skills that
are needed in coping up with daily life activities.

SCIENCE EDUCATION also develops positive attitude such as: the love for knowledge,
passion for innovative things, curiosity to study about nature, and creativity.It will develop a
strong foundation for studying science and for considering science-related careers in the future.
It is an investment for the country to develop a scientifically cultured and literate citizenry.

In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding

and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. This is done through offering basic
science courses in the General Education curriculum. It also focuses on the preparation of
science teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science-related fields
such as engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences.

SCIENCE SCHOOLS IN THE PHILIPPINES

PHILIPPINE SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL SYSTEM (PSHSS)

 This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines.

 It is a service institute of the Department of Science and Technology(DOST) whose
mandate is to offer free scholarship basis for Secondary course with special emphasis on
subjects pertaining to the sciences, with the end –view of preparing its students for a
science career (RA No. 3661). The school maintains a dormitory for all its students.
 The PSHSS continues to pursue its vision to develop Filipino science scholars w/
scientific minds and passion for excellence.
 THE PSHSS students have proven to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for
the country. They have brought honor to the Philippines through their exemplary
achievements in various international competitions and research circles. When the
students graduate from the school, they expected to pursue degrees in science and
technology at various colleges and universities locally or abroad.

SPECIAL SCIENCE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (SSES) PROJECT

 The SSES Project is in pursuance to DepEd order No. 73 s. 2008, And DepEd order No.
51 s.2010.
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  It was started in June 2007 with 57 identified elementary schools that participated or were
identified as science elementary schools in the country. Since its inception, the number
have grown to more than 60 schools nationwide and this is now 6th year of
implementation.
 It aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:

a. Provide a learning environment t science-inclined children through a special curriculum

that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners;
b. Promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
c. Foster the holistic development of the learners.
The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1 w/ a longer time compared to other
subjects: 70 mns. for Grade 1 to 3 and 80 mns for Grade 4 to 6. The curriculum also
utilizes different instructional approaches that address the learning styles and needs of the
learners like the use of investigatory projects.

QUEZON CITY REGIONAL SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

 It was established on September 17, 1967 and originally it was named Quezon City
Science High school, and turned into a regional science high school for the National
Capital Region in 1999.
 It was a product of a dream to establish a special science school for talented students in
science and mathematics.
 The curriculum focuses on Science and Technology.
 It is still teach the basic education courses prescribed by the DepEd for secondary
education. However there are additional subjects in sciences and technology that students
should take.
 The school envisions serving as a venue in providing maximum opportunities for science-
gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity.
 It is well supported by the local government unit and by the Parents and Teachers
Association (PTA)
 The school is under the Department of Education.

MANILA SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

 It was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School (MSHS).
 It is the first science high school in the Philippines.
 The organization and curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and
mathematics.

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  It aims to produce scientists with soul. In order to do this, humanities courses and other
electives are included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in
various extracurricular activities. The school administers an entrance exam, The Manila
Science High School Admission Test (MSAT), for students who wish to enroll.
 The MSAT has five parts; aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-
solving test in science, problem-solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English.
 The school prides itself from producing outstanding alumni and for winning various
national competitions.

CENTRAL VISAYAN INSTITUTE FOUNDATION

 It is home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the Dynamic
Learning Program (DLP). The DLP is a synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical
theories adapted to foster the highest level of learning, creativity, and productivity.
 It takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP) established in 1992,
which organizes small international workshops to foster the informal but intense
exchange of ideas and perspectives on outstanding problems in physics and mathematics.

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

 It is embedded in the daily life experiences of young children as they grow up.
 They live and grow in a society where the members of the community prominently
practice indigenous knowledge.
 Their parents and older folks served as their first teachers and their methods of teaching
are very effective in transmitting cultural knowledge in their minds.
 The lessons they learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and environment.
 These lessons comprised of good values and life stories of people on their daily life
struggles. Their views about nature and their reflections on their experiences in daily life
are evident in their stories, poems, and songs.

SOME EXAMPLES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE THAT ARE TAUGHT AND

PRACTICED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE ARE:

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  Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animal’s
behaviour and celestial bodies;
 Using herbal medicine
 Preserving foods;
 Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;
 Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
 Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
 Building local irrigation systems;
 Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
 Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and
 Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE

 It is a part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of people

and eraly civilizations.
 It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations that
guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the natural milieu:
agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for
coping with changing environments.
 PAWILEN, 2005 AND OGAWA 1995 claimed that it is collectively lived in and
experienced by the people of a given culture.
 CAJETE (2004) he said that indigenous science inclues everything from metaphysics to
philosophy and various practical technologies practiced by indigenous people both past
and present.
 IACCARINO (2006) elaborated this idea by explaining that science is a part of culture,
and how science is done largely depends on the cultural practices of the people.
 Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to
scientific attittudes as identified by JOHNSTON (2001) , namely
1. Motivating attitudes;
2. Cooperating attitudes;
3. Practical attitudes; and
4. Reflective attitudes

 Those cultural beliefs mentioned above therefore can be good foundation for developing
positive values toward learning and doing science and in bringing science in a personal
level.

PAWILEN(2005)

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 Explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse structures and
contents through the interplay between the society and the environment.

KUHN(1962)
According to him developmental stages of most sciences are characterized by continual
competition between a numberof distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all
roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific observation and method.

SIBISI(2004)
He also pointed out that indigenous science provides the basics of astronomy,
pharmacology, food technology, or mettalurgy, which were derived from traditional knowledge
and practices.

PAWILEN (2006)
Developed a simple framework for understanding indigenous science, accordingly
indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and
guided by community values and culture.

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE

USES GUIDED BY COMPOSED OF

COMMUNITY
SCIENCE
FIGURE PROCESS
6. THE CONCEPT OF INDIGENOUS SCIENCE TRADITIONAL
CULTURE AND
SKILLS KNOWLEDGE
VALUES
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 1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying,
measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting.
2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community valus such as the following:

i. The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.

ii. The earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as people.
iii. All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each
other.
iv. Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources. They
have a responsibility to preserve it.
v. Nature is a friend to human beings- it needs respect and proper care.

3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by people

and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous farming methods,
and folk astronomy.

Indigenous Science is important in the development of science and technology in the

Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, indigenous science gave birth to the development of
science and technology as a field and as a discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in
understanding the natural environment and in coping with everyday life. UNESCO’s declaration
on Science and the use of scientific knowledge (1999) recognized indigenous science as a
historical and valuable contribution to science and technology.

TECHNOLOGY AS WAY OF REVEALING

INTRODUCTION

Comparing the lives of the people before and now will make anyone realize the changes
that happened in society not just in terms of culture, language, or rights but more importantly,
changes in people’s way of lifedue to the existence of science and technology.

The term “generation gap” is attributed mainly to the changes brought about by
technology. Although the original ide is for technology to help everyone, it cannot be denied that
until today, not everyone is comfortable in using the different kinds of technologies. Mostly
those who belong to the older generation think that these technologies are too complicated to
operate. They have been used to the simple living in the past and these available

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technological devices, though very appealing, are a difficult puzzle them. However, this gap is
not something to be worried about. This does not in any way make technology a villain.

Instead, it is a challenge for people in the field of science and technology to make these
technological advancements more accessible and less confusing for people who are not as young
anymore. This is also a challenge for the younger generation to take the older generation to an
exciting journey in science and technology. In this way, everyone can experience what it is like
to live with ease and comfort because of the availability of modern technology.

Even before, people are already fascinated with science and technology. This fascination
led to numerous magnificent inventions that people in the present are able to enjoy and benefit
from. Through science and technology, people get to experience what it really means to live
because it helps people in more ways than one.

People who lived in the past and people who are living in the present all have different
views of what it means to flourish, primarily due to the kind of environment and the period one
is in. People’s ways of life and how the society works also affect how one construes the concept
of human flourishing. The environment needs to be assessed in order to know the possibility of
human flourishing and to what extent it is possible. Since there have been drastic changes in
people’s way of life, it can be inferred that there have been drastic changes not only in the
conception of human flourishing but to people’s actual human condition. These changes were
brought about by the interplay of different factors but essentially, it was brought about by science
and technology.

THE HUMAN CONDITION BEFORE COMMON ERA

Our early ancestors’ primal need to survive paved way for the invention of several
developments. Gifted with brains more advanced than other creatures, humans are able to utilize
abundant materials for their own ease and comfort. As it is difficult to pinpoint the particular
period where technology is said to have started, one can say that at the very least, the motivation
to make things easier has been around since humans are.

Homo erectus have been using fire to cook, through chipping one flint over the other to
produce a spark, all the while without realizing the laws of friction and heat. Tools from stone
and flints marked the era of the Stone Age, during the advent of our very own Homo sapiens, and
humans began to sharpen stones as one would a knife; an example of this is the simple machine
called wedge.

This particular period proved to be difficult for our ancestors, but in a remarkably distinct
way. There is no little to no written accounts except for several cave drawings and unearthed

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artifacts from various parts of the world that narrate how their culture came to be. It then proves
that there is little capacity for our ancestors to contemplate and perceive things outside
themselves in a more reflective manner. For instance, there are several excavations in different
parts of Europe of miniature statues prevalent during the Paleolithic period, the so-called
“Venus” figure. It depicts a rudimentary carving of a voluptuous woman out of ivory or stone.
The reason behind this is still unknown to archaeologists and antrophologists alike; they can only
infer that the humans of yesterday have a certain fixation on the female anatomy. What did this
fascination translate to? Lack of conclusive evidence hinders us from proceeding any further.

Soon enough, people discovered minerals and began forging metalwork. They realized
that these substances are more durable, malleable, and have more luster than the previous
material. On the other hand, there are some indicators that humans in the past share the same
concerns and interests, suggesting that these inclinations persist through multitudes of generation
over several millennia.

Fur clothing and animal skin are primarily used for comfort against harsh winds-our
ancestors are able to draw the connection between their being naked and vulnerable due to some
lack of fur or protective covering which would otherwise allow them to withstand extreme
weather conditions. They begin to cover themselves up out of necessity, and gradually, added
several more to their garments. Some of those found at excavation sites are reminiscent of early
accessories, suggesting that our ancestors have been deeply engaged in the concept of beauty.
Perhaps, they had taken a liking to a certain shiny stone, or a perfectly shaped bone, and wanted
to wear it as trophy. What does this tell of them and their philosophies? Were they perhaps proud
to show off their hunt and how good a hunter they were? Were they concerned with social
standing and stratification? How about the meaning of life? Were they also curious on finding
explanations to certain phenomena?

At least for the last question, it seems that they have found their answer in the person of
religion. Excavations on the latter half of the Stone Age include several figures thought to be
ceremonial, meaning, that perhaps people of the time had also painstakingly wrought and hewed
said figures in honor of some deity. This notion, as it was then and as it is now, is often people’s
resort to make sense of events happening outside their control. The initial roster of primitive
gods includes objects they encounter through their day-to-day lives, so it is not surprising that
different tribes may have different gods. Those who might have lived alongside majestic
creatures, such as elephants and mammoths, might have been awed by their size and worshipped
them as the owner of the land, asking for blessings in their hunting ground. On the contrary, they
might have hunted the mammoths for their woolly coat and meat, taking down the animal for the
entire community to eat. In windy places near mountains, they might have had a mountain god to
explain wind currents and ask for provisions. On the other hand, those who were near coastal
areas or bodies of water might have had water gods they referred to when asking for a good
catch. However, it might be also the case that people of prior civilizations shared several generic
gods, such as the sun.

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 Nevertheless, it can be positively inferred that like the people of today, our ancestors also
found the need to explain things in a way that makes sense to them. They quickly realized that
there are events outside of their control and attempted to justify things as being a work of
supernatural being. Throughout the course of history, religion remains to be the strongest
contender to science arguably due to its being the most easily grasped. Admittedly, once people
stop connecting the dots between cause and effect, they turn to something that could possibly
explain their inadequacies in making sense of the world. The people of yesterday appeared to
have acknowledged early on that they could only do and understand as much, that perhaps other
powers at play also existed alongside them. This notion effectively humbled and perhaps
grounded them, with their constant befuddlement serving as an early reminder that they were
way behind several larger, more powerful forces in nature in terms of order of things.

THE HUMAN CONDITION IN THE COMMON ERA

For a long time, humans were content with their relationship with nature. Earliest case of
man-made extinction occurred over 12,000 years ago, possibly brought upon by hunting and
territorial disputes. The Holocene extinction, also called the 6th extincton or more aptly
Anthropocene extinction, occurred from as early as between 100,000 to 200,000 years up to the
present. It pertains to the ongoing extinction of several species—both flora and fauna—due to
human activity.

Driven by their primal need to survive and gaining the upper hand in terms of
development and adaptability, humans were quick to find ways to drive off other megafaunas
threatening a prospective hunting spot and eventually, settling grounds.

Growing population also necessitated finding additional resources, leading to overhunting

and overfishing common prey, some of which were endemic to the area. Hunting, coupled with a
changing terrain that the humans began cultivating when agriculture emerged some 9,000 years
ago, cause several species to lose competition in territory and food resources.

Formation of communities caused humans to expand more in terrirtory and more people
to feed; large, separate communities hailing from the same ancestors and residing in the same
large community paved way for civilizations.

Even as a community, the people realized that though they were at most self-sufficient,
they were in constant need of resources.

Albeit waging wars with other tribes seemed to be early solution, they were able to find
out some 5,000 years ago that engaging in a peaceful negotiation was also a possible and less
bloody method.

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 They realized that they could get hold of things not present in their towns by offering
something of same value present in theirs.

It is in the process that trade emerged, leading to cross-town and eventually cross-cultural
interaction as more products were exchanged and the initial needs extended to wants.

People then had a new objective—gather as much products as possible. They have turned
to wealth as one of their goals as humans and ultimately as civilizations, for they perceived that
those who have many, live comfortably and thus are generally happier than those who do not
have sufficient wealth.

THE GOOD LIFE

In Ancient Greece, long before the word “science” has been coined, the need to
understand the world and reality was bound with the need to understand the self and the good
life. For Plato, the task of understanding the things in the world runs parallel with the job of truly
getting into what will make the soul flourish. In an attempt to understand reality and the external
world, man must seek to understand himself, too.

It was Aristotle who gave a definitive distinction between theoretical and practical
sciences. Among the theoretical disciplines, Aristotle included logic, biology, physics, and
metaphysics, among the practical ones Aristotle counted ethics and politics.

Whereas “truth” is the aim of theoretical sciences, and “good” is the end goal of the
practical ones.

ARISTOTLE AND HOW WE ALL ASPIRE FOR A GOOD LIFE

It is interesting to note that the first Philosopher, who approached the problem of reality
from a “scientific” lens as we know now, is also the first thinker who dabbled into the complex
problematization of the end goal of life: happiness. This man is none other than Aristotle.

Compared to his teacher and predecessor, Plato, Aristotle embarked on a different approach in
figuring out reality. In contrast to Plato who thought that things in this world are not real and are
only copies of the real in the world of forms, Aristotle puts everything back to the ground in
claiming that this world is all there is to it and that this world is the only reality we can all access.

For Plato, change is so perplexing that it can only make sense if there are two realities: the world
of forms and the world of matter.

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 Consider the human person, when you try to see yourself in front of the mirror, you
normally say and think that you are looking at yourself-that is you are the person who slept last
night and you are the same person looking at yourself now, despite the occasional changes like a
new pimple that grows on your nose. The same is true for a seed that you threw out of the garden
last month. When you peek into the same patch of the land where the seed ingrained itself into,
you may be surprised to see a little plant showing itself to you and to the sun. Plato recognized
change as a process and as a phenomenom that happens in the world, that in fact, it is constant.
However, Plato also claims that despite the reality of change, things remain and they retain their
ultimate “whatness”: that you remain to be you despite the pimple that now sits on top of your
nose. Plato was convinced that reality is full of these seemingly contrasting manifestations of
change and permanence. For Plato this can only be explained by postulating two aspects of
reality

1. The world of matter, things are changing and impermanent.

2. The worlds of forms, the entities are only copies of the ideal and the models, and the forms are
the only real entities.

Aristotle, for his part disagreed with his teacher’s position and forwarded the idea that
there is no reality over and above what the senses can perceive. As such it is only by observation
of the external world that one can truly understand what reality is all about. Change is a process
that is inherent in things. We, along with all other entities in the world, start as potentialities and
move toward actualities. The movement entails change. Consider a seed that eventually
germinates and grows into a plant. The seed that turned to become the plant underwent change
from the potential plant that is seed to its full actuality, the plant.

Aristotle extends this analysis from the external world into the province of the human
person and declares that even human beings are potentialities who aspire for their actuality.
Every human being moves according to some end. Every action that emanates from a human
person is a function of the purpose (telos) that the person has.

 e.g. “when a girl tries to finish her degree in the university, despite the initial failures she
may have had, she definitely is being propelled by a higher purpose that to just graduate.
She wants something more, maybe to have a license and land a promising job in the
future. Every human person according to Aristotle aspires for an end. This end we have
learned is what we called from the previous chapters human flourishing.

Aristotle claims that happiness is the be all and end all of everything that we do. We may
not realize it but the end goal of everything that we do is happiness.

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 If you ask one person why he is doing what he is doing, he may not readily say that it is
happiness that motivates him. Hard-pressed to explain why he is motivated by what motivates
him will reveal that happiness is the grand, motivating force in everything that he does. When
Aristotle claims that we want to be happy, he does not necessarily mean that everyday
happiness that we obtain when we win a competition or we eat our favourite dish in a restaurant.
What Aristotle actually means is human flourishing; a kind of contentment in knowing that one
is getting the best out of life. A kind of feeling that one has maxed out his potentials in the world,
that he has attained the crux of his humanity.

HAPPINESS AS THE GOAL OF A GOOD LIFE

In the eighteenth century, John Stuart Mill declared the greatest happiness principle by
saying that an action is right as far as it maximizes the attainment of happiness for the greatest
number of people. At a time when people were skeptical about claims on the metaphysical,
people could not make sense of the human flourishing that Aristotle talked about in the days of
old. Mill said that individual happiness of each individual should be prioritized and collectively
dictates the kind of action that should be endorsed.

The ethical is, of course meant to lead us to the good and happy life. Through the ages as
has been expounded in the previous chapters, man has constantly struggled with the external
world in order to reach human flourishing. History has given birth to different schools of
thought, all of which aim for the good and happy life.

1) MATERIALISM – the first materialists were the atomists in Ancient Greece.

Democritus and Leucippus led a school whose primary belief is that the world is made up
of and is controlled by the tiny indivisible units in the world called atomos or seeds. For
Democritus and his desciples, the world, including human beings, is made up of matter.
There is no need to posit immaterial entities as sources of purpose. Atomos simply comes
together randomly to form the things in the world. As such only material entities matter.
In terms of human flourishing, matter is what makes us attain happiness. We see this at
work with most people who are clinging on to material wealth as the primary source of
the meaning of their existence.

2) HEDONISM- the hedonists, for their part see the end goal of life in acquiring pleasure.
Pleasure has always been the priority of hedonists. For them, life is all about obtaining
and indulging in pleasure because life is limited. The mantra of this school of thought is
the famous “Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow we die.” Led by Epicurus, this school
of thought also does not buy any notion of afterlife just like the materialists.

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 3) STOICISM- another school of thought led by Epicurus, the stoics espoused the idea that
to generate happiness, one must learn to distance oneself and be apathetic. The original
term, apatheia, precisely means to be indifferent. For the stoics, happiness can only be
attained by a careful practice of apathy. We should, in this worldview, adopt the fact that
some things are not within our control. The sooner we realize this, the happier we can
become.

4) THEISM – most people find the meaning of their lives using. God as a fulcrum of their
existence. The Philippines, as a predominantly Catholic country, is witness to how people
base their life goals on beliefs that hinged on some form of supernatural reality called
heaven. The ultimate basis of happiness for theists is communion with God. The world
where wre are in is only juat a temporary reality where we have to maneuver around
while waiting for the ultimate return to the hands of God.

5) HUMANISM - humanism as another school of thought espouses the freedom of man to

carve his own destiny and to legislate his own laws, free from the shackles of a God that
monitors and controls. For Humanists, man is literally the captain of his own ship.
Inspired by the enlightenment in 17th century, humanist sees themselves not merely as
stewards of the creation but as individuals who are in control of themselves and the world
outside them. This is the spirit of most scientists who thought that the world is a place
and space for freely unearthing the world in seeking for ways on how to improve the lives
of its inhabitants.

***END***

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