Content – course n°3 : optical elements

I. Plane mirrors
A. What a mirror is made of?
B. Image produced by a plane mirror
II. Spherical mirrors
A. Concave and convex mirrors
B. Reflection from a curved surface
C. Defining points for concave & convex mirrors
D. Images formed with spherical mirrors - Key rays used in ray tracing
E. Magnification of a mirror image
F. Mirror formulas for image location
III. Images formation with lenses
A. Thin and thick lenses
B. Convergent and divergent thin lenses
C. Convergent and divergent thin lenses focal points
D. Image location by ray tracing
E. Formulas for thin lenses
F. Power of a lens and of a doublet of lenses

1
Reflection of light from optical surfaces :
The role of glass in mirrors

Specular reflection Diffuse reflection

Only smooth surfaces give rise to specular (regular, geometric)

reflection and will be considered here

2
I)- Mirrors : metal coating on glass
• I-A) Plane mirror

Metal, aluminium,
silver,… causes the
reflection
Glass to keep the
metal flat

The light is made of Electric field and Magnetic field, when the light ray hits the mirror,
the little charges in the metal start to vibrate at the same frequency and another ray is
emitted at the same frequency too.
3
 BATHROOM TELESCOPE

In this case the glass METAL COATING

keep the metal from
oxidizing but some
refraction occurs GLASS Here, only
reflection can
be considered
4
I.B.) Image formation from a plane mirror
Dashed line : where the ray
seems to come from
observer r
N i

Optic axis

object mirror Virtual image

(where the two dashed lines intercept)

The virtual image of the object and the real object are equidistant from the mirror, each
one on their side.
5
Why does our brain believe that the image is
behind the mirror ?

Diverging rays come from a real point object

observer

Optic axis

object mirror Virtual image

(where the two dashed lines intercept)
 II. A.) Spherical mirrors
A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a piece cut out of a spherical
surface. There are two types of spherical mirrors : concave and convex

Concave mirror Convex mirror

Shaving and makeup mirrors. They magnify Passenger-side wing mirror of car.
objects placed close to them They have wider fields of view than
equivalent flat mirrors but objects
look smaller than they actually are

7
 II.B.) Reflection from a curved surface

The normal to point

P is the line drawn
from the center of
Normal
r the curved surface

v
to the point P
v i
Incident ray
Tangent surface
Center of the
Mirror surface curved surface
(spherical)

The reflecting surface is the external surface of the sphere

(convex mirror)
8
 II.C.) Defining points for concave and convex mirrors

Concave
mirror

Convex
mirror

Propagation of light axis

+
• Light will be incident on a mirror initially from the left
• The axis of symmetry normal to the mirror surface is its optical axis
• The point where the optical axis meets the mirror surface is the vertex V (the optical axis origin)
• For a concave mirror the center of curvature C and the focal point F are located to the left of V (the
reflecting surface is turned toward the center), then 𝑉𝐶 < 0
• For a convex mirror, C & F are located to the right of V, then, 𝑉𝐶 > 0
9
 Parallel rays and focal points

Concave mirror

Convex mirror

• a concave mirror has the reflecting surface that caves inwards

• convex mirror is a curved mirror for which the reflective surface bulges out towards the light source
• The law of reflection applied at each point on the mirror surface where a ray is incident, requires that the ray be
reflected so as to pass through a focal point F in front of the mirror or to be reflected so as to pass through a focal
point behind the mirror

10
 As long as the transverse dimension of the mirror is not too large, simple geometry
shows that the point F, for either mirror (concave & convex), is located at the
midpoint between V and C, so that the distance VF is one-half the radius of curvature
𝑅 = 𝑉𝐶
The distance 𝑉𝐹 is called the focal length and is commonly labeled as f.

Spherical mirror vs parabolic mirror

The liquid and its container are rotated at a constant

speed around a vertical axis, which causes the
surface of the liquid to assume a paraboloidal shape,
suitable for use as the primary mirror of a reflecting
telescope
11
 To limit spherical aberrations and to get a sharp focal
point, paraxial approximation is used (small angles), that
is Gaussian optics

1 ±𝑅
𝑉𝐹 = 𝑉𝐶 =
2 2
 II.D.) Images formed with spherical mirrors
Key rays used in ray tracing
From the tip P of the object, three key rays are used to locate the image point P’

1 : The ray from P parallel to the axis, reflects from the mirror
and passes through the focal point F

P 1
2 : The ray from P passing

V
through the center of
2 3 Concave
curvature C, reflects back F V
along itself C mirror
Object

V
P’ 3’
Real
3 : The ray from P passing through 1’
image 2’
F, reflects from the mirror as a ray
parallel to the axis

Reflected rays 1’, 2’ and 3’ converge to locate point P’ on the image

13
 1 : The ray from object point P, parallel
to the axis, reflects from the mirror as
if to come from the focal point F
behind the mirror

Convex mirror
2 : The ray from P headed toward the
center of curvature C behind the
mirror reflects back along itself

3 : The ray from P headed toward the focal point F behind

the mirror, reflects from the mirror in a direction parallel to
the optical axis

Rays 1’, 2’ and 3’ diverge after reflection. A person looking toward the mirror intercepts the diverging rays and sees
them appearing to come from their common intersection point P’, behind the mirror. The image is virtual since it
cannot be formed on a screen placed there.
14
 II.E.) Magnification of a mirror image

The magnification is the ratio of image height to object height.

Since angles 𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃 have the same measure it follows that triangles VAB and VA’B’ are similar, thus the sides
of the two triangles are proportional

ℎ𝑖 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑉𝐴′
B 𝑚= = =−
ℎ𝑂 𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴
hO
B’
i V hi C

A A’
r

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴′
If m > 0 , the image is erect.
If m < 0, the image is inverted

15
 II.F.) Mirror formulas for image location

A diagram can be linked to the previous figure related

to concave mirror and show particular triangles
derived from ray 1

V
1

Then, from the definition of the

magnification, and the intercept theorem,
one can find the mirror formula

16
 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹𝐴′ 𝐹𝑉+𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐴′
From the diagram : = = =1+ (1)
𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉 𝐹𝑉
V

𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑉𝐴′
From the definition of the magnification : = − (2)
𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴

−𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐴′ 1 1 −1
1 & 2 ⇒ = 1+ ⇒− − =
𝑉𝐴 𝐹𝑉 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐹

1 1 1
+ =
𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐹
𝑉𝐹 < 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑉𝐹 > 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟

17
Mirror formulas for image location (another demonstration)

h
A
A’

18
 An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle
formed by one side of the triangle and the
N extension of an adjacent side of the triangle

The measure of an exterior angle of a

triangle is equal to the sum of the measures
of the two non-adjacent interior angles

h
A
A’

in APC : 𝜃 = 𝛼 + 𝜑 ; 2θ = 2𝛼 + 2𝜑
in APA’ : 2𝜃 = 𝛼 + 𝛼′

So : 2𝛼 + 2𝜑 = 𝛼 + 𝛼′
by combining these two equations, we obtain : 𝛼 − 𝛼 ′ = −2𝜑
 sin 𝜑 ≅ 𝜑 ≅ tan 𝜑
Using the small-angle approximation : ቊ
cos 𝜑 ≅ 1
These relations are accurate to 1% or less if the angle is 10° or smaller, leading to first-order (or
Gaussian) optics

ℎ
𝛼≅
𝐴𝑉+𝑉𝑄
ℎ
𝛼′ ≅
𝑉𝐴′−𝑉𝑄
the axial distance VQ is neglected because it’s small when  is small
ℎ
𝜑 ≅ 𝑉𝐶−𝑉𝑄

simplifying by h, we get :
−1 1 −2 1 1 1 𝑉𝐶
− = ⇒ + = with 𝑉𝐹 =
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐹 2

20
Sign convention :
• The light is directed from the left to the right

• Object and image distances 𝑉𝐴 & 𝑉𝐴′, relative to V, are both positive when
located to the right of the vertex and both negative when located to the left

• The radius of curvature,𝑅 = 𝑉𝐶, is positive when the center of curvature C is to

the right of the vertex (convex mirror surface) and negative when C is to the left
(concave mirror surface)

• Negative object & image distances correspond to real objects & images, and
positive object & image distances correspond to virtual objects and images

• Vertical dimensions are positive above the optical axis and negative below.
the mirror equation, valid for both types of spherical mirrors :

1 1 2 1
+ = =
𝑉𝐴′ 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐹
21
 Exercices

Use two or three key rays to locate the image of an object at different distances in
front of a concave mirror :
• The object is beyond the distance 𝑉𝐶 = - 6 cm
• The object is located between C and F
• The object is between F and V

be aware of the sign convention

Is the image, real or virtual, larger or smaller the object, upright or upside-down ?

Check your diagram with the mirror formula and the magnification formula.

Do the same with convex mirror with 𝑉𝐶 = + 6 cm

 Some questions to think about

• Where is the image of an object placed right at the focal point ? (of a concave
and a convex mirror)

• Where is the image of an object placed right at the center of curvature ? (of a
concave and a convex mirror)
 Few applications of concave parabolic mirror

• To focus heat and energy • To illuminate the road

The light bulb is right at the focus point and

the emerging rays are parallel

The incoming parallel rays focus right at F

24
 III Image formation with lenses
Lenses are at the heart of many optical devices (cameras, microscopes, binoculars,
telescopes …). Snell’s law of refraction determines the imaging properties of the lenses.

A lens is made of transparent refracting medium, generally of some type of glass, with
spherically shaped surfaces on the front and back.

A ray incident on the lens refracts at the front surface (according to Snell’s law)
propagates through the lens, and refracts again at the rear surface :

Refraction of light rays by a rather thick lens

25
III.A.) Thin lenses : if the axial thickness of a lens is small compared
with the radii of curvature of its surfaces

Piece of glass curved in a convex manner, then the rays of light are bended except for
that who comes with an incidence angle of 0°

near the top of the lens each ray obeys Snell’s law

𝜃𝑖 = 0°

near the bottom side

26
 III.B.) Convergent and divergent thin lenses

(a) Bi convex; (b) plano convex; (d) Bi concave; (e) plano concave;
(c) meniscus; (f) meniscus

Any lens that is thicker Any lens that is thicker

at its center than at its at its edges than at its
edges center

27
 III.C.) Convergent and divergent thin lenses focal points
Converging lenses cause parallel rays passing through them to bend toward one another.
Such lenses give rise to positive focal lengths. Refraction of light brings it to focal point F’ (real image)

𝑓 ′ = 𝑂𝐹 ′ > 0

Diverging lenses cause parallel rays passing through them to spread as they leave the lens. Such lenses give rise
to negative focal lengths.
Refraction of light causes it to diverge as if it is coming from focal point F’ (virtual image)

𝑓 ′ = 𝑂𝐹 ′ < 0

28
 III.C.) Convergent and divergent thin lenses focal points

Just as for mirrors, the focal points of lenses are defined in terms of their effect on parallel light rays.
Recall that, for mirrors, there is but a single focal point for each mirror surface since light remains always on the same
side of the mirror. For thin lenses, there are two focal points, symmetrically located on each side of the lens (if the two
sides of the lens are in the same medium and have the same curvature), since light can approach from either side of the
lens.

Left focal point or object focal point F Right focal point or image focal point F’

Left focal point or image focal point F’ Right focal point or object focal point F
29
 III.C.) Convergent and divergent thin lenses focal points
• Positive lens (convergent lens)
If the rays enter the lens parallel to the principal axis when they get refracted they
will go through the focal point of the other side of the lens.
Then the rays going through the focal point will come out on the other side parallel.
It’s kind of a symmetric deal.

• Negative lens (divergent lens)

Rays coming parallel to the principal axis will diverge after the lens so that they look
like they’re coming from the left focus.
Rays converging through the right focus will be parallel to the principal axis after the
lens.

30
 III.D.) Image location by ray tracing
Converging lens

Ray 1, parallel to the optical axis,

passes through F’ after the lens
Ray 2 going straight through the lens at
its optical center O, is a consequence of
(1)
B assuming that the lens has zero

v
thickness
(2)
A O A’
F F’

(3)

v
B’
Ray 3 passing through the focal point F, is
refracted by the lens as a ray parallel to
the optical axis

31
 If the object AB is located at the focal plane that contains F, rays after L are parallel
to each other and the image is rejected to infinity

v
O
A
2F F F’

An emmetropic person means the image received by his eye projects exactly on
his retina. For an image rejected to infinity, the vision doesn’t require any
accommodation.
32
 Magnifying glass
The object AB is placed between F and O
L

B’
B

A’ A O
2F F F’ 2F’
The virtual image A’B’ is
erect and magnified

After L, the two rays from B diverge,

they are to be extended on the other
side of L to locate the virtual image

33
 Virtual objects (a real image given by a lens L1 can be used as a
virtual object for another lens L2)

L1 L2

B
F1 ’ O A1
2 A’
A F1 O1 F2 F’2
B’
B1

A1B1 is the real image of AB from L1

If L2 is then located on the left of A1B1, it becomes
a virtual object for L2
A’B’ is the final image, it’s real

34
 Diverging lens
Real object
L
V

Note that the positions of F and F’

are reversed
The rays diverge after L, and the
B crossing of the two extentions give B’

v
B’ A’B’ is a virtual image
O
A A’
F’ F

35
 Diverging lens
Virtual
L
object- virtual image
V

v
A’ O

A
F’ F

B’

36
 Diverging lens
Virtual object-real image
L
V
B’

v
O

A A’
F’ F

V
 III.E.) Formulas for thin lenses

v
 
A O   A’
F F’

B’
𝐴𝐵 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑂𝐴′
tan 𝛼 = = ⇒ =

}
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴′ 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴
𝑂𝐴′ 𝐹 ′ 𝐴′ 𝐹 ′ 𝑂 + 𝑂𝐴′ 𝑂𝐴′
= ′ = = 1 +
𝑂𝐴 𝐹𝑂 𝐹′𝑂 𝐹′𝑂
𝐴𝐵 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹′𝐴′
tan 𝛽 = ′ = ′ ⇒ = ′
𝐹 𝑂 𝐹 𝐴′ 𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝑂

38
𝑂𝐴′ 𝑂𝐴′ divide by 𝑂𝐴′ : 1 1 1
=1+ ′ = +
𝑂𝐴 𝐹𝑂 𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴′ 𝐹 ′ 𝑂

1 1 1
It’s the same that : − = Lens formulas
𝑂𝐴′ 𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐹′

𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑂𝐴′
And the magnification 𝛾= =
𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐴

39
 III.F.) Power of a thin lens
We have previously demonstrated
(end of the coursesn°2) the formula
1 1 1
for the focal length of a lens in the air : = 𝑛−1 +
𝑓′ 𝑅1 𝑅2

In the case a symmetrical convex lens :

𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅

1 2
= 𝑛−1
𝑓′ 𝑅
40
 III.F.) Power of a thin lens
The larger the focal lens the less the rays are bended

The power of a lens is given by : 𝑃 = 1ൗ𝑓′

So, the more powerful a lens is, the more it bends the rays of light

If the focal distance is measured in meters, the power of the lens is given
in diopters

1 1
𝑃 = 𝑛−1 +
𝑅1 𝑅2

• The larger is 𝑛, the more powerful is the lens

• The smaller is 𝑅, the more powerful is the lens

41
 III.E.) Power of a doublet (lenses close together)

1 1 1 𝑓′1 +𝑓′2
• 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑃𝐿1 + 𝑃𝐿2 or = + =
𝑓′𝐷 𝑓′1 𝑓′2 𝑓′1 𝑓′2

𝑓′1 𝑓′2
𝑓′𝐷 =
𝑓′1 +𝑓′2

two converging lenses : converging doublet

two diverging lenses : diverging doublet
one converging lens + one diverging lens : converging doublet if 𝑃− < 𝑃+
diverging doublet if 𝑃− > 𝑃+