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1. What is a unit cell? Explain BCC, FCC, and HCP • Interstitial defect: Extra atom occupies space
structures. between lattice points

A unit cell is the smallest repeating structural unit • Substitutional defect: Foreign atom replaces
of a crystal lattice that, when repeated in host atom
three dimensions, forms the entire crystal. These defects influence electrical and mechanical
• BCC (Body-Centered Cubic) has atoms at the properties.
corners and one in the center.

• FCC (Face-Centered Cubic) has atoms at the 4. Define line defects. Explain edge and screw
corners and centers of each dislocations.
face. Line defects or dislocations are one-dimensional
• HCP (Hexagonal Close Packed) has atoms imperfections in the crystal structure.
arranged in a hexagonal pattern • Edge dislocation: An extra half-plane of atoms
with a third layer fitting into the first. inserted in the crystal.

• Screw dislocation: Spiral arrangement of atoms

around a dislocation line.
2. Define atomic packing factor (APF). What are
the APFs of BCC, FCC, and HCP? These defects allow plastic deformation at lower
stress levels.
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) is the fraction of
volume in a crystal structure occupied by atoms.

• BCC: APF = 0.68 5. What is a Burgers vector? Explain its

significance.
• FCC: APF = 0.74
The Burgers vector represents the magnitude and
• HCP: APF ≈ 0.74 direction of lattice distortion caused by a
FCC and HCP are the most densely packed dislocation.
structures, indicating better ductility and
strength. It is crucial in characterizing dislocations:

• Edge dislocation: Burgers vector is

perpendicular to the dislocation line.
3. What are point defects? Explain their types
with examples. • Screw dislocation: Burgers vector is parallel.

Point defects are atomic-scale imperfections in a It determines the slip direction and mechanical
crystal structure involving one or a few behavior.

atoms. Types include:

• Vacancy defect: Missing atom (e.g., in pure 6. Explain dislocation strengthening

metals) mechanisms.
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Dislocation strengthening mechanisms increase a 9. Define coordination number. What is its value
material's yield strength by hindering for BCC and FCC?

dislocation movement. The coordination number is the number of

nearest neighboring atoms surrounding a given
Methods include:
atom in a crystal structure.
• Grain size reduction (Hall-Petch relation)
• BCC: Coordination number = 8
• Solid solution strengthening
• FCC: Coordination number = 12
• Strain hardening (work hardening)
Higher coordination means better atomic bonding
• Precipitation hardening
and greater packing efficiency.
By restricting dislocation motion, these
techniques improve strength and hardness of
10. What is critically resolved shear stress
materials.
(CRSS)? Derive its expression.

CRSS is the minimum shear stress required to

7. Describe slip and twinning. How do they initiate slip in a crystal. It is
contribute to deformation?
given by:
Slip is the movement of dislocations along specific
τ=σ⋅cos⁡(ϕ)⋅cos⁡(λ)\tau = \sigma \cdot
planes, causing plastic deformation.
\cos(\phi) \cdot
Twinning is a reorientation of the crystal structure
\cos(\lambda)τ=σ⋅cos(ϕ)⋅cos(λ)
across a mirror plane.
Where:
Both are mechanisms for plastic deformation,
with slip being more common. Twinning occurs • τ\tauτ: resolved shear stress

more in HCP metals due to limited slip systems. • σ\sigmaσ: applied tensile stress

• ϕ\phiϕ: angle between slip direction and force

8. What is a grain boundary? Discuss its effect on • λ\lambdaλ: angle between slip plane normal
properties. and force

A grain boundary is the interface between two Slip occurs when τ\tauτ exceeds CRSS.
crystals or grains of different orientations in a
1. Describe the tensile test and its significance.
polycrystalline material.
A tensile test is a basic mechanical test where a
It acts as a barrier to dislocation movement, sample is pulled apart until it breaks. It helps
thereby increasing strength (grain boundary
determine material properties like yield strength,
strengthening). However, it can also act as a site ultimate tensile strength, Young’s modulus,
for corrosion and crack initiation.
elongation, and fracture point. It is crucial in
quality control and material selection.
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Yield strength is the stress at which a material
begins to deform plastically. It is often
2. Define true stress and engineering stress.
What’s the difference? determined by the 0.2% offset method on a
stress-strain curve. This property is crucial in
Engineering stress is calculated using the original
cross-sectional area, while true stress uses defining safe limits for structural design.

the actual (instantaneous) area during

deformation.
6. What is ductility? How is it measured?
True stress is more accurate at high deformation
Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo
levels, especially after necking. For elastic
plastic deformation before fracture. It is
deformation, both values are nearly equal.
measured using:

• Percentage elongation: change in length

3. What is Young’s modulus? Explain its
• Percentage reduction in area
significance.
High ductility materials can absorb more energy
Young’s modulus (E) is the ratio of stress to strain
and are suitable for forming
in the elastic region of the stress-strain
processes.
curve.

It measures the stiffness of a material. A higher

value indicates the material is less elastic and 7. Explain toughness and how it differs from
strength.
more rigid, important for structural applications.
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb
energy up to fracture, combining both strength
4. State and explain Generalized Hooke’s Law.
and ductility.
Generalized Hooke’s Law relates stress and strain
It is measured by the area under the stress-strain
for isotropic materials in 3D:
curve. A material can be strong but not tough
σ=E⋅ε\sigma = E \cdot \varepsilonσ=E⋅ε
if it’s brittle.
It applies separately to normal and shear stresses,
accounting for Poisson’s ratio. It’s used in
8. Describe any two hardness tests: Brinell and
stress analysis of materials under complex loading
Rockwell.
conditions.
• Brinell Hardness Test: A steel ball is pressed into
the material’s surface. The
5. Define yield strength and its measurement
diameter of the indentation determines hardness.
method.
• Rockwell Test: Measures depth of penetration
under load using a steel ball
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or cone. It’s quicker and gives direct reading. The Tresca yield criterion states that yielding
begins when the maximum shear stress in a

material reaches a critical value equal to the

9. What is elastic recovery and why is it
shear stress at yield in a simple tension test.
important?
It is more conservative than the von Mises
Elastic recovery is the ability of a material to
criterion, often used in safety-critical designs.
return to its original shape after the load is

removed.
3. Explain von Mises yield criterion.
It’s important in designing springs, fasteners, and
other components that experience repetitive The von Mises criterion predicts yielding of
ductile materials under complex loading. It states
loading without permanent deformation.
that yielding begins when the second deviatoric
stress invariant reaches a critical value.
10. What is the significance of the stress-strain
It is more accurate for metals and is widely used
curve?
in finite element analysis and plasticity
The stress-strain curve shows how a material
theories.
responds to applied force. It helps identify elastic

limit, yield strength, ultimate strength, ductility,

and toughness. Engineers use it to choose 4. Describe the Mohr-Coulomb failure theory.

suitable materials and predict behavior under The Mohr-Coulomb theory is used for brittle
mechanical loads. materials like concrete and soils. It states that

1. Differentiate between ductile and brittle failure occurs when the shear stress on a plane
fracture. reaches a critical value dependent on the

Ductile fracture involves significant plastic normal stress and material properties (cohesion
deformation before breaking and has a rough, and angle of internal friction).

fibrous surface.

Brittle fracture occurs suddenly with little or no 5. What is fatigue failure? Explain briefly.
plastic deformation and has a flat, shiny
Fatigue failure is the progressive and localized
surface. structural damage that occurs when a material

Ductile fracture absorbs more energy, while is subjected to cyclic loading.

brittle fracture is more dangerous and
It happens at stress levels lower than the yield
catastrophic. strength and develops microscopic cracks that

grow with each load cycle until fracture.

2. What is the Tresca yield criterion?

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6. Define and explain the S-N curve. 9. What is fracture toughness?

The S-N curve (Stress vs. Number of cycles) shows Fracture toughness is a material’s ability to resist
the relationship between stress amplitude crack propagation.

and the number of cycles to failure under fatigue It is quantified by parameters like KICK_{IC}KIC,
loading. which represents the critical stress intensity

It helps determine the endurance limit, i.e., the factor for crack growth. Materials with high
stress below which the material can withstand fracture toughness are more resistant to sudden

an infinite number of cycles without failure. failure.

7. What is endurance limit? 10. Explain Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) and its
purpose.
The endurance limit is the maximum cyclic stress
a material can withstand indefinitely without Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) refers to
techniques used to evaluate the properties of
failure.
materials or components without damaging
It is typically used for ferrous metals. Non-ferrous
them.
metals don’t have a true endurance limit but
Common NDT methods include ultrasonic testing,
follow a fatigue strength at a fixed number of
radiography, dye penetrant, and magnetic
cycles (e.g., 10⁶ cycles).
particle testing.

It is crucial for detecting internal flaws and

ensuring safety and reliability.

1. What is a phase diagram and why is it

important in materials science?

A phase diagram is a graphical representation

showing phases present at different
8. Explain the Modified Goodman Diagram.
temperatures, compositions, and pressures under
The Modified Goodman Diagram is used to
equilibrium.
predict fatigue failure under combined mean and
It is important because it helps in understanding
alternating stress.
alloy behavior, solidification, melting, phase
It is a graphical method to ensure the combined
transformations, and heat treatment processes
stress stays below the safe limit. The curve
like eutectic and eutectoid reactions.
considers the ultimate tensile strength and
adjusts for stress concentrations.
2. State and explain the Gibb’s phase rule.

The Gibbs phase rule is given by:

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F=C−P+2F = C - P + 2F=C−P+2 γ(austenite)→α(ferrite)+Fe3C(cementite)\gamma
(\text{austenite}) \rightarrow \alpha
Where F = degrees of freedom, C = components,
P = phases. (\text{ferrite}) + Fe_3C
(\text{cementite})γ(austenite)→α(ferrite)+Fe3C(c
It helps predict the number of phases that can
ementite)
coexist in equilibrium and determine the
In iron-carbon system, it occurs at 0.8% carbon
behavior of multicomponent systems.
and 723°C. This results in pearlite, a layered

microstructure.
3. What is a eutectic reaction? Give one
example.
6. Define and explain the lever rule.
A eutectic reaction is one in which a liquid
transforms into two solid phases simultaneously The lever rule is used to determine the
proportion of phases in a two-phase region of a
on cooling:
binary
L→α+βL \rightarrow \alpha + \betaL→α+β
phase diagram.
Example: Pb-Sn alloy system.
It uses the formula:
Eutectic alloys have a lower melting point and
Fraction of phase=opposite arm lengthtotal arm
solidify at a constant temperature, useful in
length\text{Fraction of phase} =
soldering applications.
\frac{\text{opposite arm length}}{\text{total arm

length}}Fraction of phase=total arm

4. Describe the Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe₃C) phase lengthopposite arm length
diagram.
It helps in understanding phase distribution
The Fe-Fe₃C phase diagram is a binary eutectoid during solidification.
diagram showing phases like austenite (γ),

ferrite (α), cementite (Fe₃C), and pearlite.

7. What are tie line and tie rule in phase
The eutectoid point occurs at 0.8% C and 723°C diagrams?
where austenite transforms into pearlite.
A tie line is a horizontal line drawn at a constant
It helps in heat treatment and alloy design. temperature across a two-phase region.

The tie rule uses this line to calculate phase

compositions using the intersection points with
5. What is eutectoid transformation? Explain
with iron-carbon example. phase boundaries.

A eutectoid transformation is a solid-state It is crucial in calculating phase percentages

reaction where one solid transforms into two new during cooling.

solid phases:
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8. Describe solid solutions and their types. properties like hardness and toughness.

A solid solution is a homogeneous crystalline

structure containing two or more elements.
1. What is heat treatment? Explain its objectives.
Types:
Heat treatment is a controlled process involving
• Substitutional: solute atoms replace host atoms heating and cooling of metals to alter their
(e.g., brass – Cu-Zn)
physical and mechanical properties without
• Interstitial: smaller atoms fit between host changing the chemical composition.
atoms (e.g., steel – Fe-C)
Objectives include improving hardness, strength,
Solid solutions improve strength and ductility. toughness, wear resistance, and relieving

internal stresses in materials like steel.

9. What are the microstructures found in steel?

Common microstructures in steel include: 2. Define and explain the annealing process.

• Ferrite: soft and ductile Annealing involves heating steel to a specific

temperature, holding it for a period, and then
• Cementite: hard and brittle
slowly cooling it.
• Pearlite: alternating layers of ferrite and
cementite It refines grain size, improves ductility, and
reduces hardness and internal stresses.
• Bainite: acicular structure, stronger than
pearlite Types: full annealing, process annealing, and
stress-relief annealing.
• Martensite: hardest, formed via rapid cooling
(quenching)

These affect hardness, strength, and ductility. 3. What is normalizing? How is it different from
annealing?

Normalizing involves heating steel above its

10. Differentiate between hypo-eutectoid and
critical temperature and then cooling in air.
hyper-eutectoid steels.
It results in a more uniform grain structure and
• Hypo-eutectoid steel: Contains less than 0.8%
higher strength than annealing.
carbon. Microstructure =
Unlike annealing (slow cooling), normalizing uses
ferrite + pearlite.
faster cooling, leading to harder
• Hyper-eutectoid steel: More than 0.8% carbon.
microstructures.
Microstructure = pearlite +

cementite.
4. Explain hardening and quenching in steels.
These classifications affect heat treatment
response and mechanical
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Hardening involves heating steel above the critical This gives components high wear resistance with
temperature followed by rapid cooling a tough core.

(quenching) in water, oil, or air.

It forms martensite, a very hard structure. 7. What is the Time-Temperature-Transformation

(TTT) diagram?
Quenching increases hardness and wear
resistance but may introduce brittleness and A TTT diagram (isothermal transformation
residual diagram) shows how austenite transforms into

stresses. different phases like pearlite, bainite, or

martensite at different temperatures and times.

It is used in designing heat treatment processes

5. What is tempering? Why is it necessary after
like hardening, annealing, and austempering.
hardening?

Tempering is done after hardening to reduce

brittleness and improve toughness. 8. Differentiate between pearlite, bainite, and
martensite.
Steel is reheated to a temperature below the
critical point and then cooled. Pearlite: Alternating layers of ferrite and
cementite, formed by slow cooling.
It relieves internal stresses and slightly reduces
hardness while enhancing ductility and

toughness. Bainite: Needle-like structure formed at

intermediate cooling rates, stronger than pearlite.

6. Define case hardening. What are its types?

Martensite: Hard, brittle structure formed by
Case hardening is a surface hardening process
rapid cooling (quenching), body-centered
where only the outer surface is hardened,
tetragonal structure.
leaving the core ductile.

Types include:
9. What is austempering?

Austempering is a heat treatment process where

Carburizing (adding carbon)
steel is heated above the critical

temperature, quenched in a salt bath (not to

Nitriding (adding nitrogen) room temp), and held until bainite forms.

It improves toughness and reduces distortion

compared to conventional quenching.
Cyaniding (using carbon and nitrogen)
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10. What is martempering? Unlike annealing (slow cooling), normalizing uses
faster cooling, leading to harder
Martempering involves quenching steel from the
austenitizing temperature into a medium just microstructures.

above the martensite start temperature, holding

it until temperature equalizes, and then air
4. Explain hardening and quenching in steels.
cooling.
Hardening involves heating steel above the critical
This reduces internal stress and distortion while temperature followed by rapid cooling
still achieving martensitic transformation
(quenching) in water, oil, or air.
1. What is heat treatment? Explain its objectives.
It forms martensite, a very hard structure.
Heat treatment is a controlled process involving
Quenching increases hardness and wear
heating and cooling of metals to alter their
resistance but may introduce brittleness and
physical and mechanical properties without residual
changing the chemical composition.
stresses.
Objectives include improving hardness, strength,
toughness, wear resistance, and relieving
5. What is tempering? Why is it necessary after
internal stresses in materials like steel.
hardening?

Tempering is done after hardening to reduce

2. Define and explain the annealing process. brittleness and improve toughness.

Annealing involves heating steel to a specific Steel is reheated to a temperature below the
temperature, holding it for a period, and then critical point and then cooled.

slowly cooling it. It relieves internal stresses and slightly reduces

hardness while enhancing ductility and
It refines grain size, improves ductility, and
reduces hardness and internal stresses. toughness.

Types: full annealing, process annealing, and

stress-relief annealing.
6. Define case hardening. What are its types?

Case hardening is a surface hardening process

3. What is normalizing? How is it different from where only the outer surface is hardened,
annealing?
leaving the core ductile.
Normalizing involves heating steel above its
Types include:
critical temperature and then cooling in air.
• Carburizing (adding carbon)
It results in a more uniform grain structure and
higher strength than annealing. • Nitriding (adding nitrogen)
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• Cyaniding (using carbon and nitrogen) 10. What is martempering?

This gives components high wear resistance with Martempering involves quenching steel from the
a tough core. austenitizing temperature into a medium just

above the martensite start temperature, holding

it until temperature equalizes, and then air
7. What is the Time-Temperature-Transformation
(TTT) diagram? cooling.

A TTT diagram (isothermal transformation This reduces internal stress and distortion while
diagram) shows how austenite transforms into still achieving martensitic transformation.

different phases like pearlite, bainite, or

martensite at different temperatures and times.

It is used in designing heat treatment processes

like hardening, annealing, and austempering.

8. Differentiate between pearlite, bainite, and

martensite.

• Pearlite: Alternating layers of ferrite and

cementite, formed by slow cooling.

• Bainite: Needle-like structure formed at

intermediate cooling rates, stronger

than pearlite.

• Martensite: Hard, brittle structure formed by

rapid cooling (quenching),

body-centered tetragonal structure.

9. What is austempering?

Austempering is a heat treatment process where

steel is heated above the critical

temperature, quenched in a salt bath (not to

room temp), and held until bainite forms.

It improves toughness and reduces distortion

compared to conventional quenching.