SCIENTIFIC THOUGHTS IN TAMIL

CONTENTS:

UNIT -1- LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

1. INDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
2. DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES
3. MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS IN THIRUKKURAL
4. NAYANARS AND ALWARS
5. CONTRIBUTION OF BHARATHIYAR AND BHARATHIDASAN TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF TAMIL LITERATURE

UNIT-2-FROM ROCK PAINTINGS TO MODERN PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURES

1. TRIBALS AND THE HANDICRAFTS AND TOYS

2. THE ART OF CHARIOT MAKING AND FOLK DEITIES

3. THIRUVALLUR IDOL AT KUMARI NODE

4. THE ROLE OF TEMPLE IN THE SOCIAL LIFE OF TAMILS

UNIT-3- ARTS AND HEROIC SPORTS OF TAMIL NADU

1. THERUKOOTHU

2. KARAKATTAM

3. OYILATTAM

4. TRADITIONAL SPORTS OF TAMIL NADU

UNIT-4- DEPARTMENTAL DOCTRINES OF THE TAMILS

1. FLORA AND FAUNA OF TAMIL NADU

2. INTERNAL PRINCIPLES OF TOLKAPPIYAM AND SANGAM LITERATURE

3. LITERACY AND EDUCATION OF THE SANGAM PERIOD

4. PORTS AND CITIES

5. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

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UNIT-5- PARTICIPATION OF TAMILS FOR INDAIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT AND
INDAIN CULTURE

1. ROLE OF TAMILNADU IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT

2. SELF RESPECT MOVEMENT

3. ROLE IN MEDICINE AND SIDDHA MEDICINE

4. PRINTING HISTORY OF TAMIL NADU BOOKS

UNIT-1

1.1 .INDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY

1.2. DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES

Dravidian Group of Languages mainly consists of languages spoken in the southern part of
India. Around 25% of the population speak the languages classified in this group. Proto
Dravidian gave rise to 21 Dravidian languages. Telugu is the most prominent language,
whereas Malayalam is the least spoken and youngest among other Dravidians languages.

Contents:

1. Origin and Evolution

2. Features of the Dravidian group of languages
3. Types

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 4. Conclusion

Origin and Evolution

 The term 'Dravidian' was first used by Robert Caldwell as the name for families next to the
Indo-Aryan, a branch of the Indo-European language spoken in the Indian subcontinent.
 The Dravidian language family, which includes 80 varieties spoken by nearly 220 million
people in southern and central India, is thought to have originated around 4,500 years ago.
 Dravidians were present in northwestern India by the time the Aryans entered the country.
 Rigvedic Sanskrit had various words borrowed from Dravidian such as ulukhala meaning
mortar, Kunda meaning pit, khala meaning threshing floor, etc.
 The introduction of consonants produced by the tongue-tip raised against the middle of the
hard palate is due to the contact of Sanskrit speakers with Dravidian languages.
 Of all the Dravidian languages, only four have recorded history starting from pre-CE to the
eleventh century.
 A 14th-century text Lilatilakam written in Sanskrit states that the languages are spoken in
Kerala and Tamil Nadu were similar and were known as Dramida.
 They were initially discovered during the 2nd century BCE as Tamil Brahmi script on the
cave walls in Tamil Nadu.
 The earliest known work of Tamil includes Tolkappiyam, a treatise on grammar belonging to
the early pre-Christian era.
 Among these 21 Dravidian Group languages, the four major Dravidian Group languages
are:
o Telugu (numerically the largest of all Dravidian languages)
o Tamil (the oldest and purest form of language)
o Kannada
o Malayalam (the smallest and youngest of the Dravidian languages).

Features of the Dravidian Group of Languages

 Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu, the four largest languages of the Dravidian
language family, have literary traditions that date back centuries, with Tamil being the oldest.
 Tamil, like Sanskrit, is a classical language, but unlike Sanskrit, there is continuity between
its classical and modern forms, as evidenced by inscriptions, poems, secular and religious
texts, and songs.
 The study of Dravidian languages is critical for understanding prehistory in Eurasia because
they influenced other language groups.
 The research community agrees that the Dravidians are natives of the Indian subcontinent
and were present before the Indo-Aryans(Indo-European speakers) arrived in India
around 3,500 years ago.
 The Dravidian languages were most likely much more widespread in the west in the past than
they are today.
 These groups of languages have kinship organizations.
 Separate labels are used for older and younger individuals in a generation.
 There is the absence of reconstructible words for caste or caste names.
 There is the presence of basic numerals from ten to one hundred.
 They are spoken in southern India, parts of Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, etc.
 There are around 21 known Dravidian languages.
 There is the presence of five short and five long vowels.
 There is the absence of phonemic stress from the Dravidian languages.

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Types of Dravidian Languages
Dravidian Group of Languages can be further divided into:

 Northern Group
 Central Group
 Southern Group

Northern Group

 It is made up of three languages: Brahui, Malto, and Kurukh.

 Brahui is spoken in Baluchistan, Malto in Bengal and Odisha's tribal areas, and Kurukh in
Bengal, Odisha, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh.

Central Group

1. It is made up of eleven different languages: Gondi, Khond, Kui, Manda, Parji, Gadaba,
Kolami, Pengo, Naiki, Kuvi, and Telugu.
2. Only Telugu has evolved into a civilized language and is spoken in the states of Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana, while the others are tribal languages.

Southern Group

 This category includes seven languages.

 Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Tulu, Kodagu, Toda, and Kota are among them.
 Tamil is the oldest of these.

Conclusion

There have been various Dravidian elements that are borrowed into Sanskrit and Prakrits during the
Middle Indic period most of which are related to concepts about native Dravidian. The Dravidian
group of languages is also popular in various parts of the world due to immigrant and expatriate
communities.

1.3.MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS IN THIRUKKURAL

The Thirukkural, written by Thiruvalluvar, is a compendium of timeless ancient Tamil wisdom in as

much as 140 words, which makes Thiruvalluvar the first Tweeter in the world. One of the most
prominent literary works in Tamil, the Thirukkural has 1330 couplets and 133 chapters in total in
almost every virtue of life.

Basically there are five main concepts in Thirukkural as follow,

1. Business Ethics

2. Communication

3. Goal Setting

4. Social Responsibility of Business

5. Personnel Selection

BUSINESS ETHICS

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Business ethics is the study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially
controversial issues such as corporate governance, insider trading, bribery, discrimination, corporate
social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. Law often guides business ethics, while other times
business ethics provide a basic framework that businesses may follow to gain public acceptance.

BUSINESS ETHICS ARE AS FOLLOWS

1. To give fair and equitable treatment to the employees.

2. To change fair prices from the customers.

3. To use fair weights for measurement of commodities.

4. To pay taxes government honestly.

5. To earn reasonable profit.

6. To become a good corporate citizen.

7. Improve customer confidence

8. Safeguard consumer rights

9. Develop good relations

10. Create good image

11. Develop consumer satisfaction

PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS ETHICS

The principles of business ethics are related to social groups that comprise of consumers, employees,
investors, and the local community. The important rules or principles of business ethics are as
follows; Avoid Exploitation of Consumers; Do not cheat and exploit consumer with measures such as
artificial price rise and adulteration.

Follow Woodrow Wilson's rules: There are four important principles of business ethics.

THESE FOUR RULES ARE AS FOLLOWS

Rule of publicity: According to this principle, the business must tell the people clearly, what it tends
to do.

Rule of equivalent price: The customer should get proper value for their money. Below standard,
outdated and inferior goods should not be sold at high prices.

Rule of conscience in business: The businesspersons must have conscience while doing business, i.e.
a morale sense of judging what is right and what is wrong.

Rule of spirit of service: The business must give importance to the service motive.

THE ETHICAL CHALLENGES FOR BUSINESS

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  Labor Standards

 Human Rights

 Climate Change

 Marketplace Integrity

 The Digital World

BUSINESS ETHICS,

ACCORDING TO THIRUVALLUVAR IN THIRUKURAL

Transliteration(Tamil to English):in verse 113

 “Nanre tharinum natuvikantam akkattai Anre oliya vital”

 English Couplet 113 :Though only good it seem to give, yet gain By wrong acquired, not
e'en one day retain

Meaning: Even if it can be put to good use, wealth acquired by unfair means is best renounced all at
once. Forsake in the very moment (of acquisition) that gain which, though it should bring advantage,
is without equity. Only the wealth earned by fair means will be productive all other wealth, which one
comes by through questionable means can only produce evil.

COMMUNICATION:

“Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another person. It is a way of
reaching others by transmitting ideas, facts thoughts, feelings and values” Communication process
model Sender->message->encoding->channel- >receiver->decoding->feedback

Sender: The person’s who contacts other person with the objective or passing message.

Message: Message is the subject matter of the communication which is intended to the receiver from
sender. It may in the form of ideas, opinions, feelings, views, suggestions, etc.

Encoding: The object which cannot be heard seen or touched the transmission requires the use of
certain symbols such as words, pictures, gestures and other body language.

Channel: Message converted into symbols is transmitted by the sender through a channel like written
words in the forms of letter or electronic mail.

Receiver: The person to who message is sent.

Decoding: Decoding is reverse of encoding the receiver communicates the communication symbols
transmitted by the sender into message.

Feedback: Feedback in communication is required to ensure that the receiver has received the
message and understood it in the same sense as the receiver intended.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

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  Information function

 Command and instructive function

 Influence and persuasive function

 Integrative function

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1. Oral communication

Merits

 Easy communication

 Effective

 Instant feedback

 Facility for informal communication

Demerits

 Lack of proof

 Time consuming

2. Written communication:

Merits

 Proof for future reference

 Communication to distance places

Demerits

 Costly

 Over emphasis on formalization

 Lack of secrecy

3. Pictorial communication

Oral or written form, message can be transmitted without using words such methods may be
either non-verbal in the form of gestures or pictures including graphs and diagrams. For example:
in news telecast meant for deals, the news reader does not use words but communication.

GOAL SETTING

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Goal setting is the process of deciding what we want to accomplish and devising a plan to achieve
the result you desire. For effective goal setting, need to do more than just decide what we want to
do; we have to work at accomplishing whatever goal we have set. So for successful goal setting,
the first thing we have to do is close the gap between the end result to want and where we are now
with a plan.

Definition:

A managerial objective is the intended goal, that prescribe definite scope and suggests direction
to the planning efforts of a manager- Terry franklin. According ackoff “Desired states or
outcomes are objectives. Goal is objectives that are scheduled for attainment during planned
period”.

GUIDELINES FOR GOAL SETTING

Objectives must be clearly specified Goal must be set taking into account the various factors
affecting their achievement.

 It should be consistent with organisational mission

 It should be rational and realistic rather than idealistic.

 It should be achievable but must provide challenge to those responsible for achievement.

 It should yield specific results when achieved

 It should be desirable

 It should be start with the word „to‟ and followed by an action verb.

 It should be periodically reviewed.

GOAL SETTING ACCORDING TO THIRUVALLUVAR

Energy verse 596

Transliteration(Tamil to English) uLLuva thellaam uyarvuLLal matradhu thaLLinunh

thaLLaamai neerththu

English Couplet 596 Whate'er you ponder, let your aim be loftly still, Fate cannot hinder
always, thwart you as it will.

Couplet Explanation: In all that a king thinks of, let him think of his greatness; and if it
should be thrust from him (by fate), it will have the nature of not being thrust from
him.Think ever of rising higher. Let it be you‟re only thought. Even if your object be not
attained the thought itself will have raised you. It is said that a man‟s ultimate
performance is proportionate to the consistence of his aspirations. The well known
expression of “hitching your waggon to the stars has special meaning it will involve in
effort and the process has certainty served and elevates and enriches the individual.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF BUSINESS

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 Social responsibility in business or corporate social responsibility (CSR) pertains to
people and organizations behaving and conducting business ethically and with sensitivity
towards social, cultural, economic, and environmental issues. Social responsibility in
business or corporate social responsibility (CSR) pertains to people and organizations
behaving and conducting business ethically and with sensitivity towards social, cultural,
economic, and environmental issues.

Importance of social responsibility:

Social responsibility has become increasingly important to companies over the last
several years. Whether it's by empowering women, helping the environment, or trying to
end poverty, more and more companies are incorporating social responsibility into their
overall business strategy. The social issues may be local, national, or global, but a
concern for the health and wellness of others that do not involve sales can be seen as
commendable. There are many reasons why a company might engage in social
responsibility, and in this article, we'll outline a few of them.

Improving the Company's Brand :

Being a socially responsible company can bolster a company's image and build its brand.
The public perception of a company is critical to customer and shareholder confidence in
the company. By projecting a positive image, a company can make a name for itself for
not only being financially profitable, but socially conscious as well. Also, by being active
in the community, a company's employees are engaging with potential customers and in
doing so, indirectly marketing the company in the process.

Engaging Customers:

Building relationships with customers is the cornerstone of a successful company and

having a social responsibility policy can impact the buying decisions of customers. Some
customers are willing to pay more for a product if they know a portion of the profit is
going to worthy cause. Also, if a company is active in the local community–for example,
a bank that offers loans to low-income families – the company will be viewed positively
by the community and perhaps boost the company's sales as a result. In short, building a
positive relationship with customers and their communities can lead to increased sales
and rising profits.

PERSONNEL SELECTION

Personnel selection is a process of decision making, and its main objective is to predict
the future performance of potential employees. Recruitment and Selection Process
Recruitment and Selection process is defined as the process through which the best
individuals are selected among a pool of applicants for particular positions of job. Mostly
managers consider selection process as one of their critical decision functions in the
organization. In selection process, the managers actually try to match knowledge, skills &
abilities of the applicants with the requirements of the jobs. There is no single selection
process that can be considered as standard one for all the organizations. Rather the steps
& procedure of selection process varies from organization to organization.

FACTORS EFFECTING RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PROCESS

Recruitment and Selection Process is supported by a standard & permanent process of

screening. However in some cases the screening process cannot simplify the selection
process because there are certain other factors that influence the selection process.

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These factors are the environmental factors & are as follow.

 Legal Considerations

 Speed of Decision Making

 Organizational Hierarch

 Applicant Pool

Types of Organization

 Probationary Period

 Selection Criteria

Legal Considerations Human Resource Management is influenced by the court decisions,

executive orders & legislation. The management of the organization should use the
legally defensive selection tools in the selection process Speed.The recruitment and
selection process is directly influenced by the available time to make the decision of
selection. In general cases the selection process is followed by the specified policies &
procedures to protect the organization from legal issues. But in certain situations there is
much pressure on the organization that leads the management to follow the exceptional
selection process. Organizational Hierarchy Recruitment and selection process varies
according to the filling posts of different levels of hierarchy in the organizational
structure. Applicant Pool The recruitment and selection process is also influenced by the
number of applicants for a particular job. In case of many qualified applicants for a
particular post, the selection process becomes selective. For this purpose, selection ratio is
ascertained by comparing the number of selected applicants to the number of applicants
in a pool.

Type of Organization

The type of the organization like government organization, private or non-profit

organization etc, also affects the selection process for the hiring individuals. Probationary
Period Certain organization adopts the procedure of probation period in the selection
process to check the potential of the individual on the basis of his performance. This may
take the form of either validity check on the selection process or as a substitute of some
steps of the selection process.

Selection Criteria

In most of the cases the applicants are selected on the basis of following factors or
criterion. Education

 Competence

 Experience

 Skills

 Ability

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  Personal Characteristics

In way the applicant that best fits the above criterion is selected rather than the one that
has extraordinary skills or over as well as under qualified because in such case the later
selected person would not properly adjust in the organization.

1.4.ALVARS AND NAYANARS

Significance of the Nayanars and the Alvars:

ALWARS

63 NAYANMARS

The Bhakti Movement began in Tamil in the seventh century in South India, where it is
now recognized as sections of Kerala and Tamilnadu and moved northwards. From the 15th century,
this spread across east and north India, peaking during the 15th to 17th centuries.

The Alvars were the devotees of Vishnu on the other hand the Nayanars leaders were the
Shiva worshipers. Both of them started a protest movement against the system of caste and the
Brahmana domination and made an attempt to modify it. This is confirmed by the fact that bhaktas, or

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disciples, came from a wide range of social backgrounds, including Brahmanas, artisans, and
cultivators, as well as “untouchable” castes.

The Nayanars, also called Hounds of Lord Shiva and subsequently the Teachers of
Shiva were a body of sixty-three saints whose primary goal was the devotion to Lord Shiva. They
then put all of their efforts into it. They were also vital for inspiring the Bhakti movement in the
Southern region of India, which began in the early Middle Ages. Furthermore, Sundarar is credited for
compiling the name of Nayanars.

On the other hand, Alvars, also termed Alvarkal, were Tamil poet-saints who resided in
the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. There, they worshipped the almighty Lord Vishnu or Lord
Krishna, who was Lord Vishnu’s avatar. Then they dedicated their entire lives to the worship of these
gods. They sang songs of ecstasy, longing, and their service to the gods to convey their devotion.
They lived from the span of 5th to 10th Century CE. During the medieval period, the Alvars’ spiritual
outpourings aided in the revival of the Bhakti Movement. Moreover, the group hymns of adoration for
Lord Krishna and Lord Vishnu saved the bhakti movement.

Difference between Nayanars and Alvars:

The almighty Shiva and his avatars were worshipped and devoted by Nayanars whereas
on the other hand Vishnu and his avatars, like Lord Krishna, were worshipped and devoted by Alvars.

The Nayanars lived between the sixth and eighth centuries AD whereas modern
researchers assume the Alvars existed between the 5th to 10th centuries AD, although other research
suggests that they lived between the period of 4200 to 2700 before the common era.

The hymns were converted into a sequence of booklets named as Tirumurai by Raja
Raja Chola I’s chief priest, Nambiyandar Nambi whereas on the other hand the Alvars‘ hymns were
compiled into Divya Prabandha, a single volume which included all of their hymns.

The Nayanars were Brahmins, Harijans, and Nobles from varied origins and they were
regarded as the most significant saints of Hindu from Southern India, alongside the Alvars whereas
the Alvars developed Bhakti literature, that assisted to the establishment and preservation of a distinct
culture distinct from the ritual-oriented Vedic religion. They were deeply immersed in devotion,
besides that, they saw it as the only method to salvation.

Some of the important scholars of Nayanars are,

 Tiru Neelakanta

 Viralminda

 Meiporul

 Amaraneedi

 Eripathar

 Yenathinathar

Some of the important scholars of Alvars are,

 Sri Andal

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  Thiruppan Alvar

 Nammalwar

 Thirumazhisai Alvar

 Kulasekara Alwar

Significance of the Nayanars and the Alvars:

These two travelled from one location to another singing Tamil hymns in praise of
their lords. Both the groups, the Alvars and the Nayanars, began a protest campaign against the caste
system, which was a major flaw at the time, as well as the domination or authority of Brahmanas, or
at the very least strove to modify the system. This is substantiated by the notion that bhaktas, or
disciples, came from a wide range of social backgrounds, including Brahmanas, artisans, cultivators,
and even ‘untouchable’ castes.

Conclusion

Around the sixth century, the Nayanars as well as the Alvars started some of the first
bhakti movements. The movement sparked the growth of regional languages like Tamil, Kannada,
Bengali, Hindi, Marathi and others, and the lower classes gained prominence. Furthermore, the
movement valued men and women equally, emphasizing the importance of women in society.

1.5.CONTRIBUTION OF BHARATHIYAR AND BHARATHIDASAN TO THE

DEVELOPMENT OF TAMIL LITERATURE

C.SUBRAMANIYA BHARATHIYAR

C. Subramaniya Bharathiyar was a poet, freedom fighter and social reformer from Tamil
Nadu. He was known as Mahakavi Bharathiyar and the laudatory epithet Mahakavi means a great
poet. He is considered as one of India’s greatest poets. His songs on nationalism and freedom of India
helped to rally the masses to support the Indian Independence Movement in Tamil Nadu.

Subramaniya Bharathiyar was born on 11th December 1882, in a village called Ettayapuram in
Tirunelveli District in Tamil Nadu and his childhood name was Subbiah. His father was
Chinnaswamy Iyer and his mother was Lakshmi Ammal.

At the age of seven, Subbiah started writing poems in Tamil. When he was eleven, he wrote
in such a way that even learned men praised him for his great knowledge and skill. In the eleventh
year, Subbiah felt that he had to establish his credentials. He threw a challenge to the eminent men in
the assembly of scholars that they should have a contest with him in a debate on any subject without
any previous notice or preparation. The contest was held at a special sitting of the Ettayapuram
Durbar at which the Rajah (the ruler) himself was present. The subject chosen was “Education”.
Subbiah efficiently won the debate. This was a memorable moment in Subbiah’s life. The boy who
was till then referred to as “Ettayapuram Subbiah” came henceforth to be known as “Bharathi”, and

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later he was respectfully referred to as “Bharathiar” by nationalists and by millions of Tamil lovers
all over the globe.

In June 1897, Bharathi was hardly fifteen when his marriage took place, and his child-bride
was Chellammal. Bharathi left for Benaras which was also known as Kashi and Varanasi. He spent
there the next two years with his aunt Kuppammal and her husband Krishna Sivan. Speedily gaining a
fair knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindi and English, he duly passed with credit the Entrance Examination
of the Allahabad University. The Banaras stay brought about a tremendous change in Bharathi’s
personality. Outwardly, he sported a moustache and a Sikh turban and acquired a bold swing in his
walk.

Bharathi: A poet and a Nationalist

Significantly, a new age in Tamil literature began with Subramaniya Bharathi. Most part of
his compositions are classifiable as short lyrical outpourings on patriotic, devotional and mystic
themes. Bharathi was essentially a lyrical poet. “Kannan Pattu” “Nilavum Vanminum Katrum”
“Panchali Sabatam” “Kuyil Pattu” are examples of Bharathi’s great poetic output.

Bharathi is considered as a national poet due to his number of poems of the patriotic flavour
through which he exhorted the people to join the independence struggle and work vigorously for the
liberation of the country. Instead of merely being proud of his country he also outlined his vision for a
free India. He published the sensational “Sudesa Geethangal” in 1908.

Bharathi as a Journalist

Many years of Bharathi’s life were spent in the field of journalism, Bharathi, as a young man
began his career as a journalist and as a sub-editor in “Swadesamitran” in November 1904.

“India” saw the light of the day in May, 1906. It declared as its motto the three slogans of the
French Revolution, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. It blazed a new trail in Tamil Journalism. In
order to proclaim its revolutionary ardour, Bharathi had the weekly printed in red paper. “India” was
the first paper in Tamil Nadu to publish political cartoons. He also published and edited a few other
journals like “Vijaya”.

It is not surprising therefore that soon a warrant was waiting at the door of the “India” office
for the arrest of the editor of the magazine. It was because of this worsening situation in 1908 that
Bharathi decided to go away to Pondicherry, a French territory at that time, and continue to publish
the “India” magazine. Bharathi resided in Pondicherry for sometime to escape the wrath of the
British imperialists.

During his exile, Bharathi had the opportunity to mingle with many leaders of the militant
wing of the independence movement such as Aurobindo, Lajpat Rai and V.V.S. Aiyar, who had also
sought asylum in the French, Pondicherry. The most profitable years of Bharathi’s life were the ten
years he spent in Pondicherry.

From Pondicherry, he guided the Tamil youth of Madras to tread in the path of nationalism.
This increased the anger of the British towards Bharathi’s writings as they felt that it was his writings
that induce and influence the patriotic spirit of the Tamil youth. Bharathi met Mahatma Gandhi in
1919 in Rajaji’s home at Madras. Bharathi entered British India near Cuddalore in November 1918
and was promptly arrested. Even in prison, he spent his time in writing poems on freedom,
nationalism and country’s welfare.

In his early days of youth he had good relations with Nationalist Tamil Leaders like
V.O.Chidambaram, Subramanya Siva, Mandayam Thirumalachariar and Srinivasachari. Along with
these leaders he used to discuss the problems facing the country due to British rule. Bharathi used to
attend the Annual sessions of Indian National Congress and discuss national issues with extremist
Indian National Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, B.G. Tilak and V.V.S. Iyer. His participation and

14
activities in Benaras Session (1905) and Surat Session (1907) of the Indian National Congress
impressed many national leaders about his patriotic fervour. Bharathi had maintained good relations
with some of the national leaders and shared his thoughts and views on the nation and offered his
suggestions to strengthen the nationalist movement. Undoubtedly, his wise suggestions and steadfast
support to the cause of nationalism rejuvenated many national leaders. Thus Bharathi played a pivotal
role in the freedom of India.

Bharthi as a social reformer

Bharathi was also against caste system. He declared that there were only two castes-men and
women and nothing more than that. Above all, he himself had removed his sacred thread. He had also
adorned many Dalits with sacred thread. He used to take tea sold in shops run by Muslims. He along
with his family members attended church on all festival occasions. He advocated temple entry of
Dalits. For all his reforms, he had to face opposition from his neighbours. But Bharathi was very clear
that unless Indians unite as children of Mother India, they could not achieve freedom. He believed in
women’s rights, gender equality and women emancipation. He opposed child marriage, dowry and
supported widow remarriage.

Bharathi died on 11th September 1921. Bharathi as a poet, journalist, freedom fighter
and social reformer had made a great impact not only on the Tamil society but also on the entire
human society. He followed what all he preached and it is here that his greatness is manifested. His
prophecy during the colonial period about the independence of India came true after two and half
decades after his demise. His vision about a glorious India has been taking a shape in the post-
Independence era. Bharathi did not live for himself but for the people and nation. That is why he is
respectfully called as Bharathiyar.

BHARATHIDASAN:

Bharathidasan (April 29, 1891 – April 21, 1964) was a famous poet born in Pondicherry. His
given name is ‘Kanakasuppurattinam’. He worked as a Tamil editor and changed his name to
‘Bharathidasan’ due to his attachment to Subramania Bharathiyar. Bharathidasan, by his uplifting
writings, is widely known as the Revolutionary Poet and Bavender. He ran a Monday magazine called
Quill (in poetic form).

He attended a French language school at an early age. However, the time spent studying in a
Tamil school was long. At the age of sixteen, he entered the Kalve College for the Tamil Scholarship
Examination. In the second year, he was selected as the first in the college due to his knowledge of the
Tamil language and his knowledge of Tamil. At the age of eighteen, he became a distinguished
politician and a Tamil teacher in a government college.

Music and goodwill were headlined to visualize the poetry in his soul. At an early age he
would write short songs, beautifully and tastefully and sing them to his comrades.

15
 At a friend’s wedding, after dinner, c. Subramania sang Bharathiar’s folk song. Bharatiyar
was also present at the party. But the poet does not know it. That song introduced him to Bharathiyar.
However, he had already met Bharathiyar in a series written by Bharathiyar himself called
Bharathidasan himself.

His first song was written by Bharathiyara himself and was written by ‘Kanaka
Suburattinam of Siri Subramania Kavitha Mandalam’ and sent to ‘Sudesamithiran’ magazine.

In the Tamil magazines published from Puduvai, he wrote under many pseudonyms such as,

 “Kandaluthuvon”,
 “Kirukkan”,
 “Kindalkaran”,
 “Bharathidasan”.

Father Periyar was also an ardent volunteer. He was also heavily involved in the Dravidian
movement. Because of that, God recorded denial, caste denial, religious opposition, etc. through his
songs.

Bharathidasan, a famous writer, film writer and great poet, also involved himself in politics.
Elected to Puducherry Assembly in 1954.On July 29, 1946, by the scholar Anna, the poet was hailed
as a “revolutionary” and was awarded Rs. 25,000.

Bharathidasan is full of sense of humor. In 1969, he received the Sahitya Akademi Award
for his play “Pisirantaiyar”. His works were made public by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 1990.

Debit on Bharatiyar

Bharathidasan, who was obsessed with the Tamil language, considered Subramania
Bharathiyar as his psychic guru. He sang his song during his friend’s wedding and met Bharathiyar in
person. Not only did he get compliments from Bharti, he also got his friendship. From that day on, he
changed his given name from Kanakasupurattinam to ‘Bharathidasan.

UNIT-2

FROM ROCK PAINTINGS TO MODERN PAINTINGS AND SCULPTURES

2.1.TRIBALS AND THE HANDICRAFTS AND TOYS

The word ‘Tribal’ denotes a social group, comprising of series of groups, families, clans or
generations, wherein their way of life still shows a particular deep-rooted inheritance and relation to
an ancient past1 and by ‘Tribal art’ we mean artifacts and objects which have been produced and
practiced directly by members of a specific tribal community. The name Adivasis is used in some of
the states to refer to some of the tribal people expressing the meaning that people who have lived here
from the beginning or from earliest times and in India there are millions of tribal people still living
and thriving in the states of Madhya Pradesh, eastward to Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa,
Assam, North-eastern states such as Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur, Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh.
There are some smaller groups of tribal people who live in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Kerala, Mysore, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Himachal Pradesh.Many of the tribal
people are descendents of chiefs and warriors, of artisans and builders, of dancers and musicians, of
priests, seers and healers. The Gonds of Madhya Pradesh are believed to be descendents of ancient
rulers who lorded it over the forest areas. Though the majority of tribals today are engaged in
agriculture and other pursuits such as creating a variety of crafts specific to their tribe and clan but

16
one of the outstanding traits noticeable among a large number of them is their clan cohesiveness and
traditions and there is a vocal approach in asserting their rights in continuation of their traditions
amongst themselves as a whole. The epicenter of their cultural uniqueness remained restricted to their
cluster of villages and habitats where the plank of their lifestyle was based on close-knit family and
clan living. A brief comparative account of the relationship between certain representative culture and
craft patterns and ornament in the ancient past, and that of tribal India, will reveal a distinct sustained
inheritance. This is of particular significance in other countries also, where tribal and clan groups have
carried on to a marked degree and unbroken saga of refinements and customs of their ancestors, who
lived in such far removed areas.

We find, for example, that all the world over, ancient civilizations have left to posterity many
examples of man’s creative achievements in the shape of his arts and crafts, scripts, ritualistic
emblems, religious codes and several implements. As these objects have been gradually excavated,
they have been the means through which the chronological stages in man’s cultural development have
been discovered. All this suggests that influenced by an unconscious remembrance of the past
aesthetic traditions, which have lingered through generations, the tribal peoples in India display a
special sense of imaginative thought and a guided approach to nature as whatever they practiced or
created seem to have come from the bounties of Nature and the environs where they lived. The love of
Nature appears to have become an inherent characteristic with the tribal peoples since time
immemorial.

Textiles

The rich assortment of tribal artifacts include masks, utensils, weapons, basketry, textiles, wood
carving, metal work sculptures, clay toys, floor and wall paintings, ornaments and headgears, musical
instruments and their specially designed hutments and daily use. In all the north-eastern states of
India, the tribal women are superb artists of the loom. Using various types of portable looms, they
sometimes introduce the style of using the needle to follow the warp weft in their flow, and thus
create the mode in which this added decoration appears as part of the weave. Motifs taken from
Nature and geometric forms are also to be seen frequently, specially the diamond shapes. In Assam
the old custom that every bride is expected to weave her own wedding garments is still prevalent till
today. Here is the beautifully patterned ‘Pag’ head-cloth for men and ‘Patani scarf’ for men and
women of Hajong group of Assam, the former with its heavy border of ornate geometrical patterns,
the latter having diamond shapes intricately conceived and offsetting the star designs on the main
body of the fabrics. Colour plays an important part in all these fabrics and their designs. Horses,
elephants, butterflies, peacock, tigers, fish, dolls and legendary figures appear to be frequently
employed in these textiles used for draperies, shawls, stoles and head-cloths as well as bags that form
together their costume ensembles.

Wood Carving

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As tribal people live for the most part in mountainous and forest regions, it is not surprising that they
have used wood for many purposes since past ages. Wood is perhaps the most wonderful gift to tribal
artisans for expressing their love of beauty, and imprint on it their clan history, animating it with their
own particular legendary motifs and figures. Their exploits, and the flora and fauna that are pertinent
to their way of life and environment are all pictographically expressed. The tribal people therefore
have a rich heritage in this very old craft of wood carving, and it has played a big part in their homes,
ritualistic symbols, marriage palanquins, musical instruments, tribal chiefs’ chairs, and many other
objects of daily utility. Fascinating geometric forms and themes from Nature and environment are also
favoured by the Juangs, Saoras and Khonds of Orissa for their doors. They use zigzags and entwined
circles on the sides of their panels, and human figures, animals and birds on the actual panels.
Santhals of Bihar depict their dances and environmental scenes which have features such as riders on
horseback, riders on elephants, men in fishing boats and among animals and birds, there are the deer,
peacock and small birds like sparrows, fish and frogs. Their wooden marriage palanquins (known as
‘rahi’) are decorated in this similar fashion. Each artifact created by them on wood defines their deep
love for Nature. In Arunachal Pradesh, fine wood carving is done amongst the Wanchos, Konyaks and
Phons. The carvings have warriors with guns, tigers sometimes twoheaded with tusks or horns,
elephants, monkeys, dogs, dancing couples, tigers or frog eating the Moon or warriors. The chief’s
headgear called ‘Morungs’ is designed in the shape of hornbills.

Basketry

Yet another raw material freely available to the tribals is bamboo and tall grass with natural fibers as
well as bark of certain trees has been used in many diverse ways since centuries. In Manipur,
especially tribal women weave pretty baskets from the date and palm leaves, grasses and reeds, with
attractive floral and geometrical patterns, motifs like checks, lines, spirals and circles. The shapes of
the baskets vary due to multi-purpose as they are an essential part of the home and household. Just as
fine wooden tobacco cases are made in Bastar, Madhya Pradesh, by Murias so in Orissa, the Kuttia
Khonds design slim tobacco cases from bamboo and these are decorated with grass weaves in
numerous geometrical forms. In Madhya Pradesh also the tribal craftsmen make finely woven hunting
baskets.

Mask Making

Mask making is a popular feature in many tribes in India. In tribal prevailing thought, the attitude of
destroying evil forces finds expression in the use of mask, which is commonly used in dance and
pantomime. It is often hung outside a house or is reproduced in paintings on the walls. The
psychological instinct to use every symbolic means possible to ward off evil spirits making something
so fearsome that it will drive away the evil forces who are strong and devilish. By this means a sense
of security and serenity is achieved. Most of the masks are made in garish and dull colours and full of
animated faces with large furious eyes and threatening jaws. Some masks have comical faces and

18
others are faces of calm mannerism. Amusing shapes of birds and animals are incorporated in these
masks. In Madhya Pradesh, tribals wear these masks while performing dances at festivals and make
comic gestures with elements of fun and satirical imitation telling legendary folk-tales. In north-
eastern states, masks created by Buddhists are fascinating and very expressive done in ornamental
styles. An important stimulus to artistic creation is found in the Sherdukpen, Khamba and Monpa
dances these masks are accompanied by elaborate dresses and ornaments.

Metal Work

The most interesting craft in votive imagery and theme among tribal peoples is perhaps the metal
work of the ‘Dokhras’ known generally as the ‘Dokhra’ metal work. It is done by the people living in
a belt from Madhya Pradesh eastwards to Bihar, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
These unique and delicately designed works of tribal art are done with long practiced cire perdu or
lost wax process. Besides symbolic animals and birds like the elephant, peacock and fish which have
ritualistic significance, the horse too is popular in all these regions. Similar designs are also found in
West Bengal and Bihar where Hindu deity Ganesha seated on a designed elephant is also very
common.

Clay Toys

Turning to clay some charming animals made in this raw material come from Madhya Pradesh, West
Bengal and parts of tribal areas in Bihar. In the early times these were created as symbolic sacrifice
animals and birds and were usually made by rural potters with specifications of tribal needs and
requirements particularly the bull, the goat, an elephant and a peacock. Most of the tribal clay objects
have some utility purpose behind it and as they are also used as storing urns, pots and pitchers for
water and harvested articles or they were also created for the sole purpose of worship and meditation.

Tribal Paintings

The most popular and engaging tribal art form comprises of many stylized and iconic versions of
paintings done by tribal artists, these are Gond paintings, Warli paintings, Saora paintings, Pithora
paintings, Bhil paintings and Muria paintings done on walls, floors and paper or parchments using
locally made Earth colours or colours made from flowers and leaves ground and mixed with rice paste
and gum Arabic as binding agents. To begin with, the subjects of these painting were confined to the
images of gods and goddesses, myths and folktales, birds and animals.

Gond Paintings

The Gond tribal community developed a unique style of painting using bright colours and simple
forms, decorated with dots and lines. Subsequently this style has come to be popularly known as
Gond paintings. Gond painting on paper was started by Jangarh Singh Shyam and Narmada Gond,
now this style is widely practiced even on canvas and Gonds are teaching their children to carry
forward the torch.15 The love of Nature is apparent in all their works and naturally their canvasses are
filled with magnificent depiction of deer, birds, animals, snakes, trees.

Warli Paintings

Warli paintings take their name from the Warli tribe of Maharashtra. Though spread out in parts of
Gujarat and Maharashtra, the Warlis are largely concentrated in the ‘Dahanu’ and ‘Talaseri Talukas’
of Thane district of Maharashtra. The region lies on the Sahyadri Hills north of Western Ghats. Warlis
relationship with Nature is of respectful exchange. The forces of Nature active in the various seasons

19
are defined in their pantheon, the central place being accorded to the Mother Goddess. As Warli
people have a tradition of being cultivators and gatherers growing in single crop, usually paddy for
their living or for gathering forest produce and domesticating livestock. Their lives are quite depended
on the vagaries of Nature. The paintings are executed inside the huts. Walls are first smeared with
cowdung. Red mud is then applied to provide the base texture. Pointed bamboo twigs and thin rice
paste are used to draw patterns. Traditionally the paintings have always been done by ‘Suvasinis’
(married women who are not widows). While the painting session is in progress the ‘Dhanaleris’
(married priestesses) sing alongside creating a festive atmosphere and thereby they also describe the
theme, rituals, folktales etc. and intricate decorative patterns are made in eye catching manner.

Saora Paintings

Saoras are one of the tribal people of Orissa whose work of art came to the knowledge of art lovers.
Traditionally the Saora paintings are made in honour of the dead, to avert disease, to promote fertility
and on the occasion of certain festivals. The “ittal” may be made by anyone ‘who knows how to paint’
and the artist need not be a priest but if he becomes adept he achieves a sort of dedicated position and
he is known as “Ittalmaran” or picture man. Many of the regular “shamans” the “Kuranmaran” of the
tribe also combine this art with regular professional duties.

Pithora Paintings

Fortunately Pithora paintings have come into focus after years of hibernation. Today it is once again
seen amongst the finest in tribal art. The Rathwa have a very colourful culture and they have come
forward to continue this tradition in contemporary form. Chilya Bhai Rathwa of Rangpur Gujarat had
emerged as Rathwa Pithora painter in 1980s. Traditionally, Pithora paintings are the ritual paintings of
Rathwa Naik tribes of Gujarat Pithora, as this form of decorative art is called has animated figures,

20
animals, horses, elephants, deer, peacock, dancing figures in bright lavish colours on light
backgrounds.

Bhil Paintings

The Bhils are considered as one of the most furious tribes but they have a very colourful culture.
During 1980s, Pema Fatya and Bhuri Bai of Alirajpur (Madhya Pradesh) emerged as talented Bhil
painters. Presently more than a dozen famous Bhil painters are earning their livelihood by selling their
paintings.Bhils live in deep forests and being hunters depict all sorts of Nature elements which
surround them in abundance.

Muria Paintings

The Bastar (Chhattisgarh) is renowned for its rich and varied culture of Maria and Muria Gonds. The
art and culture of Bastar span Hindu and local ethnic traditions and use amalgamated social and
religious expressions in tribal art of naïve imagination with an element of spontaneity that gives it an
enduring appeal.

2.2. THE ART OF CHARIOT MAKING AND FOLK DEITIES

Tamil mythology refers to the folklore and traditions that are a part of the wider Dravidian pantheon,
originating from the Tamil people. This body of mythology is a fusion of elements from Dravidian
culture and the parent Indus Valley culture, both of which have been syncretised with
mainstream Hinduism.
Tamil literature, in tandem with Sanskrit literature and the Sthala puranas of temples, form a major
source of information regarding Tamil mythology. The ancient epics of Tamilakam detail the origin of
various figures in Hindu scriptures, like Agathiyar, Iravan, and Patanjali. Ancient Tamil
literature contains mentions of nature-based indigenous deities like Perumal, Murugan, and Kotravai.
The Tolkappiyam hails Shiva as Brahman, Murugan as Seyyon (the red one), and Kotravai as the
goddess worshipped in the dry lands. By the eighth century BCE, Tamilakam became the springboard
of the Bhakti movement, invoking devotional poetry composed by the poet-saints called
the Alvars and the Nayanars,[ propagating popular worship of Vishnu and Shiva throughout the
subcontinent.
Perumal

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Perumal (Tamil: பெருமாள்), also Tirumal (Tamil: திருமால்), is the Hindu deity venerated in
the Sri Vaishnavism sect of Hinduism. Perumal is considered to be another name of Vishnu, and was
traditionally the deity associated with the forests.
Tamil Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Mayon or the "dark one," as the supreme
deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the mountains
of Tamilakam. The verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms.

Infire, you are the heat;

in blossoms, the fragrance;
among the stones, you are the diamond;
in speech, truth;
among virtues, you are love;
in valour—strength;
in the Veda, you are the secret;
among elements, the primordial;
in the burning sun, the light;
in moonshine, its sweetness;
you are all,
and you are the substance and meaning of all.
Nataraja

The story of Chidambaram begins with Shiva strolling into the Thillai Vanam (vanam meaning forest
and thillai trees – botanical name Exocoeria agallocha, a species of mangrove trees – which currently
grows in the Pichavaram wetlands near Chidambaram). In the Thillai forests resided a group of sages
or 'rishis' who believed in the supremacy of magic and that God can be controlled by rituals
and mantras or magical words.Shiva strolled in the forest with resplendent beauty and brilliance,
assuming the form of Bhikshatana, a simple mendicant seeking alms. He was followed by Vishnu,
as Mohini. The sages and their wives were enchanted by the brilliance and the beauty of the
handsome mendicant and his companion. On seeing their womenfolk enchanted, the rishis got
enraged and invoked scores of serpents (nāgas) by performing magical rituals. Shiva lifted the
serpents and donned them as ornaments on his matted locks, neck and waist. Further enraged, the
sages invoked a fierce tiger, whose skins and dons were used by Shiva as a shawl around his waist
and then followed by a fierce elephant, which was devoured and ripped to death by Shiva
(Gajasamharamurthy).
The rishis gathered all their spiritual strength and invoked a powerful demon Muyalakan – a symbol
of complete arrogance and ignorance. Shiva wore a gentle smile, stepped on the demon's back,

22
immobilized him and performed the Ánanda Tandava (the dance of eternal bliss) and disclosed his
true form. The sages surrender, realizing that Shiva was beyond magic and rituals.
Meenakshi
Once Indra killed a demon, even though the demon did not harm anyone. This act brought a curse
upon Indra that forced him to continue wandering until he was walking around looking for a way
where no one would tell him which way to go will redeem him from his sin. After much wandering,
Indra was freed from his suffering through the power of a Shivalingam in a forest, and so he built a
small temple at that site.
It so happened that at that time in South India there was a Pandyan king called Malayadhwaja
Pandiyan ruling a small city by the name Manavur, which was quite near to this Shivalinga. He was
the son of Kulashekara Pandyan. He learned about the Shivalinga and decided to build a huge temple
for Shiva in the forest Kadambavanam (vanam means forest). He also developed the region into a fine
princely state called Madurai.
The king was childless and sought an heir for the kingdom. Shiva granted him his prayers through
an Ayonija child (one born not from the womb). This child was three years old and actually the
incarnation of goddess Parvati the consort of Shiva. She was born with fish-shaped eyes. It was said
that the extra breast would disappear when she met her future husband. She was named Mīnakshi,
(meaning fish eyed) from the words mīna (meaning fish) and akṣi (meaning eyes). Mīnakshi also
means "the one who has eyes like that of a fish". Fishes are said to feed their younger ones with their
eyes, similarly goddess looks after her devotees. Just by her sight our miseries disappear.
She grew up to be a Shiva-Shakti personification. After the death of the king, she ruled the kingdom
with skillful administration.
In one of her expeditions she went to the Himalayas and there, on seeing Shiva, her extra breast
disappeared. Many of the gods and goddesses came to witness their marriage.
At the wedding celebrations the gods refused to have the served food unless Shiva performed a
majestic dance for everybody gathered at the place. At this there was the dance of Chidambaram,
the cosmic dance in front of his wife Minakshi. It epitomised and merged all life force and beauty into
one whole. In the end Minakshi was merged with the shivalingam and became the representation of
life and beauty.
Kannagi
Kannagi (Kannaki), a legendary Tamil woman, is the central character of the South
Indian epic Cilappatikaram (100–300 CE). The story relates how Kannagi took revenge on the early
Pandyan King of Madurai, for a mistaken death penalty imposed on her husband Kovalan, by cursing
the city with disaster.
Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple was built to commemorate the martyrdom of Kannagi. It is said that
sixth avatar of Vishnu, Sage Parasurama built this temple for the prosperity of the people. According
to the old chronicles, this Bhagavathi temple was created in the heart of the town many centuries ago
to serve a special purpose.

Deity of Kodungallur Bhagavathy in the temple

Legend says that, after the creation of Kerala by Parasurama, he was harassed by a demon called
Daruka. To kill this evil demon, Parashurama prayed to Shiva for help. As advised by Shiva,
Parasurama constructed the shrine and installed the Shakti Devi as Bhagavathi. The deity in the
temple, it is believed, is Parashakthi herself. According to legends, it was Bhadrakali who killed the
demon Daruka. She is worshipped as goddess Pattini in Sri Lanka by the Sinhalese Buddhists,
Kannaki Amman by the Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus (See Hinduism in Sri Lanka) and as Kodungallur
Bhagavathy and Attukal Bhagavathy in the South Indian state of Kerala.
Kannagi is also viewed as a brave woman who could demand justice directly from the King and even
dared to call him "unenlightened king" in the Cilappatikaram.

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Mariamman
Mariamman is a Hindu goddess of rain, predominant in the rural areas of South India. Mariamman's
worship originated in the traditions of Dravidian folk religion, the faith practised by the inhabitants of
the south before its syncretism with Vedic Hinduism. She is the main Tamil mother goddess,
predominant in the rural areas of South India. Mariamman is usually pictured as a beautiful young
woman with a red-hued face, wearing a red dress. Sometimes, she is portrayed with many arms—
representing her many powers—but in most representations she has only two or four.
Mariamman is generally portrayed in the sitting or standing position, often holding a trident (trishula)
in one hand and a bowl (kapala) in the other. One of her hands may display a mudra, usually
the abhaya mudra, to ward off fear. She may be represented with two demeanours—one displaying
her pleasant nature, and the other her terrifying aspect, with fangs and a wild mane of hair.
Other deities
Other deities that fall under the scope of the Tamil pantheon include:

 Angala
 Ayyanar
 Madurai Veeran
 Karuppu Sami
 Muniandi
 Sudalai Madan
 Isakki
 Devi Kanya Kumari
 Periyachi
 Kadalon
 Vendhan
 Kottravai
 Virabahu
 Masani Amman
 Kateri Amman
 Pavadairayan
 Iravan
 Chenjiamman
 Devasena
 Valli
 Niladevi
 Pidari
 Kathiravan
Variations
Tamil mythology, while heavily influenced by mainstream Hindu mythology, offers a number of
variations in the existence of regional deities, divergences in legends, and relationships in the overall
pantheon.

 Parvati is regarded to be the sister of Vishnu.Vishnu is sometimes referred to as the ceremonial

sister of the goddess in Shaivism.
 Vishnu is featured with three consorts: Sridevi, Bhudevi, and Niladevi, all of them manifestations
of Lakshmi. While Bhudevi is sometimes regarded to be a consort of Vishnu, Niladevi is widely
excluded in mainstream Hinduism.
 Murugan is regarded to be the younger brother of Ganesha. The deity is the elder brother of
Ganesha in the Puranas.

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 Murugan is regarded to have two consorts, Valli and Devayanai, the daughters of Vishnu.He is
celibate in the Puranas.
 Murugan is hailed for his victory over Surapadman in the Kanda Puranam. In the Skanda Purana,
his antagonist is Tarakasura.
 Balarama is featured in the Dashavatara. In various Puranas, Balarama is often substituted with
the Buddha.

Alvars
The Alvars (Tamil: ஆழ்வார், romanized: Āḻvār, lit. 'The Immersed') were Tamil poet-saints
of South India who espoused bhakti (devotion) to the Hindu god Vishnu in their songs of longing,
ecstasy, and service. They are venerated in Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Ultimate
Reality.
The devotional outpourings of the Alvars, composed during the early medieval period of Tamil
history, were the catalysts behind the Bhakti movement through their hymns of worship to Vishnu and
his avatars. They praised the Divya Desams, the 108 divine realms of deities affiliated to
Vaishnavism. The poetry of the Alvars echoes bhakti to God through love, and in the ecstasy of such
devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and the felicity of
expressions. The collection of their hymns is known as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham.
The bhakti literature that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a
culture that deviated from the Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for
salvation. In addition, they contributed to Tamil devotional verses independent of a knowledge
of Sanskrit. As a part of the legacy of the alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions
(sampradayas) developed over a period of time.

Siddhars
Siddhars (Tamil: சித்தர்) are saints in India, mostly affiliated with the Shaiva denomination
in Tamil Nadu, who professed and practised an unorthodox type of Sadhana, or spiritual practice, to
attain liberation. Yogic powers referred to as Siddhis are believed to be acquired by constant practice
of certain yogic disciplines. Those who acquire these Siddhis are called Siddhas.These Siddhars can
be compared to mystics of the western civilization. Siddhars are people who are believed to control
and transcend the barriers of time and space by meditation (yoga), after the use of substances
called rasayanas that transform the body to make it potentially deathless, and a particular breathing-
practice, a type of Pranayama. Through their practices, they are believed to have reached stages of
insight which enabled them to tune into the powers hidden in various material substances and
practices, useful for the suffering and ignorant mankind. Typically, Siddhars were saints, doctors,
alchemists, and mystics all at once. They wrote their findings in the form of poems in Tamil language,
on palm leaves that are collected and stored in what are known today as the palm leaf manuscript,
today still owned by private families in Tamil Nadu and handed down through the generations, as well
as public institutions such in universities all over the world (India, Germany, Great Britain, U.S.).
In this way, Siddhars developed, among other branches of a vast knowledge-system, what is now
known as Siddha medicine, practised mainly in Tamil Nadu as traditional native medicine. A rustic
form of healing that is similar to Siddha medicine has since been practised by experienced elderly in
the villages of Tamil Nadu. (This has been misunderstood as Paatti Vaitthiyam, Naattu
marunthu and Mooligai marutthuvam. While paati vaitthiyam or naatu marunthu is traditional Tamil
medicine and mooligai marutthuvam is ayurvedic medicine.) They are also founders of Varmam – a
martial art for self-defence and medical treatment at the same time. Varmam are specific points
located in the human body which when pressed in different ways can give various results, such as
disabling an attacker in self-defence, or balancing a physical condition as an easy first-aid medical
treatment.
Tamil Siddhars were the first to develop pulse-reading ("naadi paarththal" in Tamil) to identify the
origin of diseases. This method was later copied and used in ayurvedha.

25
Siddhars have also written many religious poems. It is believed that most of them have lived for ages,
in a mystic mountain called Sathuragiri, near Thanipparai village in Tamil Nadu.
One of the best-known Siddhars was Agastya, who is believed to be the founding father of Siddha
culture.
Abithana Chintamani states Siddhars are either of the 9 or 18 persons enlisted, but sage Agastya states
that there are many who precede these and follow 9 or 18 persons. Many of the great Siddhars are
regarded to have powers magical and spiritual.
There are 18 Siddhars in the Tamil Siddha tradition:

1. Nandeeswarar
2. Tirumular
3. Agastya
4. Kamalamuni
5. Patanjali
6. Korakkar
7. Sundaranandar
8. Konganar
9. Sattamuni
10. Vanmeegar
11. Ramadevar
12. Dhanvanthri
13. Idaikkadar
14. Machamuni
15. Karuvoorar
16. Bogar
17. Pambatti Siddhar
18. Kuthambai

2.3.THIRUVALLUVAR IDOL AT KUMARI NODE

The waves around remind the words of his poems; high and low tides full of varied emotions, so
profound and elegant. The Thiruvalluvar Statue in Kanniyakumari is not just a splendid work of art, it
is a masterpiece for generations.

It’s a sight to behold – the majesty of the Thiruvalluvar Statue that can be seen from a long distance. It
stands tall at 41 metres, with the deep blue sky and resplendent sea in the backdrop. Located on a

26
rock, right next to the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanniyakumari, the breathtaking statue of
Thiruvalluvar was created by the Indian sculptor V. Ganapathi Sthapathi and was dedicated to the
people of Tamil Nadu on January 1, 2000 by the then Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M. Karunanidhi.

Thiruvalluvar was a celebrated Tamil poet and scholar and is best known as the author of
‘Tirukkural’, a collection of couplets on matters like ethics, politics, economics and love. Tirukkural
is considered one of the greatest works in Tamil literature. The total height of the statue and the
pedestal combined is 133 feet (41 metres). It denotes the 133 chapters of the Tirukkural. The sculpture
of Thiruvalluvar is 95 feet (29 metres) and it stands on a 38 feet (12 metres) pedestal that represents
the 38 chapters of virtue, the first of three books of the Kural text. The second and third books –
wealth and love respectively – are represented by the statue itself. The statue weighs 7000 tonnes in
total. The statue is built as per Indian architectural styles, and is hollow inside. However, tourists are
allowed to climb only up to the foot of the statue.

Along with the Vivekananda Rock Memorial, the statue attracts millions of tourists annually and is
one of the must-visit spots in your trip to Tamil Nadu.

2.4.THE ROLE OF TEMPLE IN THE SOCIAL LIFE OF TAMILS

Ancient Tamil Nadu had lot of Temples. Though Sangam literature mentioned about temples, images,
painting of Gods etc. we did not have any archaeological evidence for temples. The reason is that all
he old temples were constructed with bricks, wood and mortar. They could not have withstood the
onslaught of time and weather. Only from the Pallava period we have temples built of stones. Today,
Tamil Nadu can boast of 38,000 temples, big and small. Most of them belong to the later Chozas and
later Pandyas.
Tamil epic Silappadikaram gives a better picture of temples that existed in second century CE in three
major towns Pukar, Madurai and Vanji. It also mentioned other temples at Srirangam, Alagar koil,
Lord Skanda shrines and Tirupati. It is very interesting to get all the information from one book.
Ilango, author of the epic gives the lists at least in four places. Some of the temples have disappeared.
Some of the worships (such as Balarama,Vajra,Indra) are also gone into history books! Nowhere
Ilango mentioned the temple or worship of Lord Ganesh. It shows the antiquity of the epic.
Silappadikaram is an encyclopaedia of Hinduism. It gives details about Vahanas of gods (mounts of
Gods), flags of gods, folk dances of gods and goddesses, Punya Theerthas/holy waters and the
methods of worship.

UNIT-3

ARTS AND HEROIC SPORTS OF TAMIL NADU

3.1.THERUKOOTHU

A street theatre art form is Therukoothu enacted in almost all villages of Tamil Nadu. An art
which includes mime, dialogues, songs, music and instruments, all at one stage is something unique
attracting large number of audience whenever played prior to any religious, social or political events
happening in the concerned regions.Therukkothu involves enacting of scenes from the great Indian
epics of Ramayana and Mahabharatha with suitable themes and costumes. The director of the entire
show is called Kattiyakara and he leads the show from scene by scene.The classical lokadharmi, the
realistic theatre art form relating to worldly behaviours of human beings with natural presentations, is
used in Therukoothu which is indeed an interesting vertical to explore further.

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 The musical notes involved in the shows uses popular Carnatic Ragas and various instruments
like drums, cymbals and pipes are used during the show.The headgears, mask, ornaments, jackets,
lower garments all are with vivid colors depicting the uniqueness. Komali a peculiar character in this
Therukoothu form who enacts the role of a comedian and most of the times, the character satirically
expresses the socio, economical, and political issues along with the usual dialogues, which are most of
the times extempore.Cultural history of Tamil country since ancient times is unfolding in front of your
eyes layer by layer when the artistes conduct Therukoothu, taking you through the historic periods of
Mahabharatha and its interesting scenes.Normally, a group of 15 to 20 people constitute a session on
Therukoothu. Kattiakkaran, the lead of the session announces the commencement and an elephant
masked dancer performs with religious rituals offered to Lord Ganesha. The Kattiakkaran remains in
the acting square throughout the show. Usually, the show begins with a King’s court scene and all the
characters are introduced from someone standing behind the hand-held curtain

3.2.KARAKATTAM

Atta Karagam or simply Karakattam is an ancient and traditional art form in the folk dance genre
originating in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Legend has it that the art form came into
prominence after it was conceived to offer praise and oblations in glory of the rain goddess
Mariamman.

The earliest mention of this particular art form can be traced back to the vintage and primordial texts
in Tamil literature dating back to a timeline at least five thousand years ago. An ancient epic written
in the early stage and formative years of Tamil literature is stated to mention that the origin of
Karakattam is from the heritage dance form Bharatham with generous contributions from other
prominent dance forms present in the history of Tamil performing arts forms such as Bharatanatyam.
This particular dance form has several interesting sequences wherein the performer distorts their body
in various postures or mudras so as to mimic scenes depicting the greatness of the Goddess of Rain.
The dance recital is the way of the associated culture to relate as an offering to please the forces that
be and the Rain goddess for a healthy supply of rainfall. The dance recital is accompanied by any
song of Carnatic origin.

The premises of the attire and cultural significance of this dance recital include distinctly colourful
props and dress with resplendently painted faces. The dance form involves balancing a large number
of pots of decreasing size on the head of the dancers while dancing and expressing the theme of the
dance to the audience through their movements. It is performed as an entertainment form as well as a
spiritual practise. However, when performed in a spiritual or religious backdrop it is an oblation of
reverence to mark the grace of the Gods. It is believed that such detailed and intrinsically orchestrated
dance recitals please the overbearing forces and in return they bless them with bountiful rains and a
fertile harvest. So it is quite evident this dance form has its roots in the socio-economic agricultural
society of ancient India.

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3.3.Oyilattam Folk Dance

Oyilattam dance form has got a beautiful meaning which stands as the dance of grace. It is a folk
dance. The origin of this beautiful exclusive dance is in Madurai. Madurai is in the region of Tamil
Nadu. The dance was first performed in the southern Tamil Nadu in Tirunelveli district Madurai and
Tiruchirapalli district locality.

The Oyilattam dance form is traditional, and it is performed by a few men making row and
performing distinctive steps on musical notes. With time women have also started taking part in this
dance. The dancer tries handkerchiefs on their fingers and bells on their ankles while performing the
steps.

Oyilattam is a great piece of art. This dance is mainly enjoyed in village during festivals. This
beautiful traditional dance form, on the whole, portray the folk and mythological stories like
Mahabharata, lord Muruga’ s tale and Ramayana.

Tamil Nadu folk dance started its voyage as a holy art dance in the ancient temples as a part of
Worshiping goddesses and gods. On the lyrics of divine songs, this dance used to be performed. The
dance was said to be the act of devotion for their deities. Later this dance form started taking part in
the king's courts. After becoming part of the king’s court entertainment, it becomes famous, and now
it is performed in every village festival. Now it has female dancer too. Oyilattam dance has unique
dance steps that dancer execute on music. The colorful dresses and tied handkerchiefs give it
individual look and pleasant to audiences.

3.4Traditional Sports
Silambattam

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Silambam is a weapon-based Indian martial art originating in South India in the Indian subcontinent
which is being played as a traditional sport even in this modern days. This style is mentioned in Tamil
Sangam literature The World Silambam Association is the official international body of Silambam. It
is the most important traditional sport of Tamil nadu which is involved with the lives of people since
sangam age. It is a sport as well as self defending and attacking techniques. It is the most oldest form
of martial art originated from South India
Kabaddi
Kabaddi is the state sport of Tamil Nadu. The word "kabadi" is derived from the Tamil word "kai-
pudi"(கைபிடி) meaning "to hold hands". It is also known as sadu-gudu.
Kabaddi – the State Sport of Tamil Nadu Of the many sports played in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu,
both traditional as well as foreign sports, kabaddi takes the honor for being the state sport. It’s derived
from the Tamil word ‘kai-pudi’, meaning ‘to hold hands’. Kabaddi is an ancient contact sport which’s
origins can be traced back to about 4000 years ago in India during the Mahabharata period. Buddhist
literatures also have citing of Lord Buddha playing kabaddi as a recreational sport. Kabadi is played
as a mock up practice prior to the traditional sport Jallikattu later it is spread over as a commercial
sport.
It’s known by different names in different places such as ‘bhavatik’ in Maldives, ‘kauddi’ in Punjab
and ‘hadudu’ in Bengal. At this point it’s important to note that some other states like Punjab, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana also recognize kabaddi as their state sport.
The essence of this game is for the defending team to hold onto the raiding team in their pitch.
Though there are slight variations in the game played in different places, the basic rules are the same.
India introduced this sport on a world platform during the 1936 Olympics in Berlin. It was
popularized in Japan in 1979, Bangladesh in 1973 and Iran in 1996. It is the National Sport of
Bangladesh and one of the national sports of Nepal.
This game is often called the ‘game of the masses’ as it holds a lot of public appeal due to its
simplicity and games are watched with a great deal of gusto and raucous cheering. So far, India has
been indomitable at all the international kabaddi tournaments and with seven World Cup titles and
numerous Asian Games gold medals, the Indian men’s team is at the pinnacle of success.

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In Tamil Nadu, kabaddi is more than just a game; it’s a sport that’s ingrained into the minds right
from childhood when all that’s required is an open ground, a few friends and the enthusiasm for the
game, muttering ‘kabaddi, kabaddi’ as they maneuver through the opponents team. Stamina and
agility are two key strengths that are needed for this game and Tamil Nadu has done the country
proud by producing many players who have been part of the winning national team.
Seval Sandai

Seval Sandai or Seval Porr (cockfighting) is a popular rural sport in Tamil Nadu. Three or four-inch
blades are attached to the cocks' feet and the winner is decided after three or four rounds of no holds
barred fighting. The sport involves major gambling in recent times. Cockfighting in Tamil Nadu is
mentioned in ancient literature like Manu Needhi Sastiram, Kattu Seval Sastiram and other Sangam
literature. It is referred to as the favorite pastime for the warriors of Tamil country and is
acknowledged as one amongst the 64 great arts.
It involves basically fighting skills for your chicken.
Now it is widely played in the places of North America and Asia
Jallikattu

Jallikattu is a popular bull taming sport practiced particularly during Pongal festival. Jallikattu was a
popular sport since the Sangam period and Tamil classical period. Jallikattu (or sallikkattu), also
known as eru thazhuvuthal and manju virattu, is a traditional spectacle in which a bull, such as the
Pulikulam or Kangayam breeds, is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants
attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's back with both arms and hang on to it while the bull
attempts to escape. Participants hold the hump for as long as possible, attempting to bring the bull to a
stop. In some cases, participants must ride long enough to remove flags on the bull's horns].
Sathurangam

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Chess is believed to have originated in India, c. 280 – 550 CE, where its early form in Tamil Nadu
was known as Sathurangam literally four divisions [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants,
and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and
rook, respectively.
Modern day chess is a widely popular game in the state and Tamil Nadu State Chess Association is
the apex body for the game of chess in Tamil Nadu. The state has produced many grandmasters
including Viswanathan Anand, one of the greatest and most versatile players of the modern era having
won the World Chess Championship five times from 2002 to 2013. Other notable players include S.
Vijayalakshmi, P. V. Nandhidhaa and Krishnan Sasikiran.
Malyutham

Malyutham is a traditional Indian art of full contact Grappling that originated in Tamil Nadu. It was
widely practiced in Tamil Nadu since ancient times as a sport. Malyutham is one of the 64 Arts
mentioned in Ancient Literature. Malyutham is one of the Traditional Sports practiced in Tamil Nadu.
There is another Art named Malla - Yuddha coming from North India. Although the names are
similar, Malla-Yuddha and Malyutham are two different and very distinct Arts. They are different in
the nature of the techniques studied and on their external aspects as well.
Gusthi

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Gusthi is a Traditional Sports Activity, which is practiced in punjab since time immemorial. Gusthi is
also known as Kai Kuthu Sandai. Gusthi is a form of Traditional Boxing, which is slightly deviated
from Wrestling. Gusthi of Tamil Nadu is a derivative of Malyutham of Tamil Nadu. Gusthi also
includes Grapplings as well. There is another art coming from North India named Kushti. Although
the names are almost same, Gusthi and Kushti are two different and two distinct arts. Gusthi is an art
of Boxing, while Kusthi is an art of Wrestling. They are different in the nature of the techniques
studied and on their external aspects as well.
Killithattu

A game that requires quick reflexes, tactical thinking and tremendous team effort. This sport is a part
of Tamil heritage and preserves Tamil identity. The ‘kili’ or last player must stand on the centre of the
first lane when the game starts. The ‘kili’ player can move anywhere around the court or through the
middle of the court but not horizontally. The team that is guarding the base and capturing it is chosen
by a coin toss. The game is started by a whistle sound by the overseeing referee. When the game
starts, each of the other members can only move sideways/horizontally. This accounts for the rest of
the 5 members of the team for a total of 6 including ‘kili’.
Kho-kho
Kho kho is a tag sport played by teams of twelve players who try to avoid being touched by members
of the opposing team, only 9 players of the team enter the field. [11] It is one of the two most popular
traditional tag games played in schools, the other being kabbadi.
Uriyadi

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Uriyadi involves smashing a small earthen pot with a long stick usually with a cloth wrapped around
the eyes to prevent the participants from seeing the pot. [13] Other minor sports include Ilavatta kal
where lift huge spherical rocks,[14] Gilli-danda played with two pieces of sticks, Nondi played by
folding one leg and hopping squares. Some of the indoor games include Pallanguzhi involving
beads, Bambaram involving spinning of top, Dhayakattai which is a modified dice game, Aadu puli
attam, Nungu vandi and Seechangal.
Seven-Stones

Seven stones It is a traditional game in India as well as in Tamilnadu. It is an ancient game which is
also called as Lagori. It has things similar to dodge ball but it has extra features than the dodge ball.
They use seven stones that can be piled on top of each other and has a minimum of 2-6 player in a
team.
UNIT-4
DEPARTMENTAL DOCTRINES OF THE TAMILS

4.1.NATURAL VEGETATION
FOREST TYPES OF TAMIL NADU

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 The physiography of the country has been classified into ten bio geographic zones, of which two viz.,
the Coromandel or the East Coast and the Western Ghats are occurring in the State.
Naturally, landmass of the State falls under two natural divisions viz., the eastern coastal plain and the
hilly region along the north and the west. In view of the vast physical and climatic variations in the
landscape, the State encounters diverse types of vegetation. Among the Southern states, Tamil Nadu
contains the maximum number of 9 of the total of 16 major forest types. Within the major types, 48
sub types of forests are found in Tamil Nadu.
1. THE COASTAL PLAINS

Can be sub divided into:

 The Coramandel plain, comprising the districts of Chengalpet, Viluppuram, Cuddalore,
 The Alluvial plains of the Cauvery delta extending over the composite Thanjavur and part of
Trichirapalli districts,
 The dry Southern plains in Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli and
 The inner plains comprising districts of Dharmapuri, Salem, Vellore and Madurai districts.
Along the coast at places like Mahabalipuram, Mandapam and Kanniyakumari, outcrops of rocky
head lands are present. A narrow belt of sand dunes rising to about 10m is found on the Toothukudi
coast. Further south in Toothukudi, red sand hills locally known as “Teri” rises to 50 m above mean
sea level (MSL).Typical coral reefs occur at Pamban islands at the head of the Gulf of Mannar on the
east coast.
Along the coast are, but a few lakes, lagoons and marshy lands. The Buckingham canal, which
connects river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh with Chennai, passes through some of them. Veeranam lake
in Chenglepet is one of the largest lakes in the State.
2. THE HILLY REGION

The hilly region along the North and the West Along the whole length of the western part, at a
distance from the sea varying from 80 to 160 km runs the range of Western Ghats, a steep and rugged
mass averaging 1220m above MSL and rising to 2554 m at Mukurti and 2637 m at Doddabetta in
Nilgiris.
It has tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forests, as well as savannahs intermixed with
cultivated lands and settled areas in the valleys. The Eastern Ghats from Andhra Pradesh cut across

35
the State to meet the Nilgiri hils. The ‘Palghat gap’ of about 30 km width is the only marked break in
the Western Ghats. To the south of this gap, the range is called Anamalai and Cardamom hills.
On the east of Western Ghats are Palni hills, which are an offshoot of Anamalais. Other prominent
groups of hills are Javadis, Shervaroys, Chitteris, Kolli hills, Kalrayans and Pachamalais. All these
form a chain of low, flat-topped hills. Nilgiris and Anamalais are hill groups with the maximum
height.
Slopes of the Western Ghats are the sources of many rivers, which flow eastwards towards the Bay of
Bengal. Of these, Cauvery, Moyar, Bhavani, Amaravati, Chittar and Tamaraparani are perennial
rivers, whereas Vellar, Noyyal, Suruli, Gundar and Vaipar are non-perennial ones.
All these rivers are rain-fed, unlike the snow-fed ones of the Himalayas. Cauvery, which rises from
Brahmagiri in Coorg is the longest river of the State.
It travels the entire breadth of Tamil Nadu and forms a large delta at its mouth in the erstwhile
composite Thanjavur district making the region the ‘granary of Southern India’. Tamiraparani also
has deltaic deposits at its mouth in Toothukudi district.
VEGETATION AND ITS DISTRIBUTION

THE STATE’S FLORAL DIVERSITY

The Indian region with a total area of about 328 million ha is very rich in biological diversity. It is
estimated that about 45,000 species of plants occur in the country.
The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous vegetation cover itself comprises 15,000 species, of
which more than 60% are endemic and have so far not been reported from anywhere else in the world.
The total plant wealth of the country includes not only the usually large, showy-flowered vascular
plants, but a large number of non-flowering plants, viz. ferns, liverworts, algae and fungi.
The wild relatives of crop plants along with related species as well as the species of economic plants
(estimated to be over 150) are in themselves very valuable gene pool.
Inventorization of floral and faunal distribution continued under the aegis of the national institutes of
Botanical Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of India across the country and with every
subsequent survey, new and unknown species of plants and animals came to be identified and added
to the list.
The Angiosperm diversity of India includes 17,672 species. With 5,640 species of flowering plants.
Tamil Nadu ranks first among the States in the country in angiosperm diversity.
It accounts for nearly one-third of the total flora of India. This includes 533 endemic species, 230 red-
listed species, 1,559 species of medicinal plants and 260 species of wild relatives of cultivated plants.
The gymnosperm diversity of the country is 64 species, of which four species are indigenous
Gymnosperms and the rest are introduced species. The pteridophyte diversity of India includes 1,022
species of which Tamil Nadu has about 184 species.
FAUNA

RICHNESS OF FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN TAMIL NADU

India is represented by a wide array of faunal species. More than 50,000 species of insects, 4,000 of
molluscs, 6,500 of other invertebrates, 2,000 of fishes, 140 of amphibians, 420 of reptiles, 1,200 of
birds and 340 of mammals, totalling more than 65,000 species of animals are recorded from the
country.
The faunal diversity of the State includes 165 species of fresh water fishes, 76 species of amphibians,
177 species of reptiles, 454 species of birds and 187 species of mammals.

36
 According to the CAMP reports the red-listed species include 126 species of fishes, 56 species of
amphibians, 77 species of reptiles, 32 species of birds and 40 species of mammals. The endemic fauna
includes 36 species of amphibians, 63 species of reptiles, 17 species of birds and 24 species of
mammals.
IMPORTANT SPECIES
Nilgiri Tahr

The Nilgiri tahr is the only mountain ungulate in southern India amongst the 12 species present in
India. It is also the state animal of Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiri tahr, which used to be found along the
entire stretch of Western Ghats, is presently found only in small fragmented pockets. A large part of
its population has been wiped out from its historical range. The existing populations are under severe
stress due to habitat loss and hunting.
This endemic species of the Western Ghats is listed as Endangered in the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species and is protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act of India, 1972.
The Nilgiri tahr is a sure-footed ungulate that inhabits the open montane grassland habitats at
elevations from 1200 to 2600 m of the South Western Ghats. Currently, the Nilgiri tahr distribution is
along a narrow stretch of 400 km in the Western Ghats between Nilgiris in the north and
Kanyakumari hills in the south of the region.
Though there are smaller populations found in the Palani hills, Srivilliputtur, and the Meghamalai and
Agasthiyar ranges, only two well-protected, large populations are documented — one from the
Nilgiris and the other from the Anamalais, including the high ranges of Kerala.
The Eravikulam National Park in Anamalai hills, Kerala, is home to the largest population of the
Nilgiri tahr, with more than 700 individuals.
Threats:

1. Habitat loss due to rampant deforestation, competition with domestic livestock, hydroelectric
projects in Nilgiri tahr habitat, and monoculture plantations
2. Occasional hunting for its meat and skin

Indian Giant Squirrel

The Indian giant squirrel is a large rodent species native to India. More specifically, it is a type of tree
squirrel. This animal’s appearance is unlike most other squirrel species due to its vivid colors and
notable size.
These giant squirrels are distinguishable by their striking, multi-colored hues. The colors vary
between individual squirrels. There is a common pattern of two to three shades, including white or
cream, brown, black, red, maroon, and sometimes dark Fuschia. The deep shades are primarily seen
along the body, while the lighter colors occur on the underside and the long, bushy tail.
These squirrels are hailed as giants because of their impressive size. They ordinarily weigh one-and-a-
half to two kilograms or 3.3 to 4.4 pounds. Two kilograms is about five and a half times as heavy as a
can of soup.
Malabar giant squirrels are endemic to South Asia. In the wild, they can be found specifically in India.
Their habitat ranges through many states, including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
They prefer to live in tropical rainforest environments and are widespread within the Malabar
rainforests. These squirrels spend most of their lives in trees. They are sometimes able to hide from
predators on high limbs and in hollows of trees.

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Humans are one of the biggest threats to these amazing creatures. Deforestation, logging,
development, and the building of dams all lead to habitat loss and further fragmentation of
populations. Some humans also hunt giant squirrels for their meat, which greatly contributes to a
decline in the population.
Lion Tailed Macaque

Lion-tailed macaques have black fur. They are characterised by the grey mane around their face. In
fact they are sometimes called bearded monkeys. They have a small tuft on the tip of their tail. Their
tail resembles a lion’s tail which is where the name ‘lion-tailed macaque’ comes from.
In the wild, lion-tailed macaques are only native to India. There, they live in the Western Ghats hills
and mountains of southwestern India, where they live in tropical rainforests and on elevated
mountainsides.
Lion-tailed macaques use some seventeen different vocal calls to communicate with each other. They
also communicate a lot through facial expressions and posture. Their tail is also a major component of
their communicatio
The lion-tailed macaques’ habitat is shrinking and has become very fragmented. There are currently
three sub-populations that are not connected to each other. This is because humans are chopping down
the forests to construct things like tea and coffee plantations and roads. Macaques are sensitive to
changes in their habitat.
Malabar Grey Hornbill

This small, plain brownish-grey hornbill is found only in the tall wet forests of the Western Ghats.
They have been categorised as vulnerable under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Its head and underparts have whitish streaks. It lacks the casque typical of Hornbills. Its beak is quite
long, slightly curved and yellow. Its wings have white tips.
The male has a long curved yellow-orange bill, paler at tip, low casque.Female is smaller, with
smaller dark-spotted casque and black base of mandible. The tail is black, tipped with white at the
bottom. White broad supercilium above eye running from head to hind neck, whitish streaks on head,
crest, throat and upper breast. Size: 45 cm, male: 238-240 g. They are only about 60 cm long.
Malabar Whistling Thrush

Nilgiri Langur

The Nilgiri Langur, also known as Indian Hooded Leaf Monkey, John’s Langur and Black Leaf
Monkey, is an attractive black Colobine monkey with a pale gold mane. The rump and base of the tail
are white, and females have white highlights on their inner thighs which are present from an early age.
These langurs form groups with one dominant male and around 20 females, with the sub-adult and
subordinate males forming bachelor groups. These troops move through the forest feeding on leaves
of about 100 plant species (which gives rise to their name ‘Black Leaf Monkey’) as well as fruits,
flowers and seeds.
The home range of Nilgiri Langurs is between two and six hectares, which varies according to how
concentrated the sources of preferred food are and the density of langur troops in the area. They only
occur in the Western Ghats of southwestern India, next to the Mudahalli Elephant Corridor.
The Nilgiri Langurs are hunted for their skin to use for drums, and other parts of their bodies are used
for traditional ‘medicine’, which has led them to be classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species as there may be only 5,000 left in the wild. They have been affected by habitat
loss due to crop plantations, mining, dams, and human settlements but they are good dispersers and
are able to colonise new areas, which makes them better adapted than primates like the lion-tailed
macaques.

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 Neela Kurunji

Neela Kurunji is a shrub that is found in the shola forests of the Western Ghats in Kerala, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu.
The plant is named after the famous Kunthi River which flows through Kerala’s Silent Valley
National Park, where the plant occurs abundantly.The genus has about 250 species. Out of that,
around 46 species are found in India. Most of the Strobilanthus species have an unusual flowering
behaviour varying from an annual to 16- year blooming cycles.
Characteristics include gregarious flowering, mass seeding and synchronised monocarpy (the
characteristic character of certain plants which flower once in their lifetime and die after fruiting).
Honey bees act as pollinators of Neelakurinji. The nectar collected by honey bees from these flowers
is found to be very tasty, nutritious and has medicinal values.
Some Kurinji plants bloom once in every seven years and then die. Their seeds sprout subsequently
and continue the cycle of life before they die eventually.
Kurinji has long featured in the culture of South India, especially the modern-day states of Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. In the ancient Sangam literature of Tamilakam or Tamil Country, land was classified
into five types.
Theyare Kurinji (mountainous), Mullai (forested), Marutham (agricultural), Neithal (coastal) and
Paalai (desert). Tamil scholars opine that this classification was based on the most characteristic
plants of these ecosystems: Strobilanthus kunthianus (Kurinji), Jasminum auriculatum (Mullai),
Nymphaea nouchali (Neithal) and Wrightia tinctoria (Paalai). The mountainous landscape, referred to
as Kurinji, abounded with Kurinji flowers.
The Paliyar tribal community that lives in the montane rain forests of the South Western Ghats uses
the flowering periodicity of this plant to calculate their age.
Kurinji used to once grow abundantly in the Nilgiri Hills (part of the Western Ghats) in Tamil Nadu.
The brilliant blue colour of Kurinji has given the hills the name “Nilgiri”, literally meaning “Blue
Mountains”. But presently, plantations and buildings have occupied the hills.
ECO TOURISM
Tamil Nadu is a State with several distinguished tourism genre. It has cerulean mountains, verdant
vegetations, sandy beaches, mammoth monuments, timeless temples, fabulous wildlife, scintillating
sculptures and reverberating rural life. It has picturesque spots, continuing heritage, cultural
confluence and aesthetic magnificence.
Tamil Nadu has excellent hill stations like:
 Ooty
 Kodaikanal
 Yercaud
 Elagiri
 Javvadhu Hills
 Kolli Hills
 Sirumalai Hills
 Valparai
 Topslip
 Parvathamalai Hills
 Pachamalai Hills.
It has silvery cascades in:
 Courtallam
 Hogenakkal

39
 Thiruparappu
 Monkey falls
 Thirumurthi Malai
 Akasa Gangai
 Papanasam.
It has excellent National Parks like Guindy National Park and Anamalai National Park. It has wildlife
sanctuaries in Mudumalai, Kodiakarai, Kalakkad, Mundanthurai and Berijam. It has Botanic Gardens
in Ooty, Kodaikanal and Coimbatore.
It has UNESCO declared monuments like living Chola temples at Thanjavur, Darasuram and
Gangaikondacholapuram, monuments at Mamallapuram and Nilgiris Heritage Train. The vast
coastline of Tamil Nadu has many silvery beaches like the Marina, Elliots, Thiruvanmiyur,
Tiruchendur, Rameswaram and Kanniyakumari.
The temples of Tamil Nadu reverberate with spirituality and music. Madurai, Rameswaram,
Kumbakonam, Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli have innumerable temples with different
deities. The finely hewn grandeur sculptures reflect artistic excellence and cultural splendour.
Tamil Nadu is a unique and fascinating State, where technology co-exists with tradition, old
architecture blends with contemporary vitality and where nature is at its unsullied best. These make
Tamil Nadu a year round destination. It boasts of abundant tourist wealth, which can be broadly
grouped under the following heads:
HILL RESORTS
They are a beautiful mix of mountain ranges and plains with pastoral landscape, exotic plants and
shrubs, and grassy hillocks. The notable hill resorts are Udhagamandalam, Kodaikanal and Yercaud.
BEACH RESORTS
Out of 7100 km long coastline that India enjoys, Tamil Nadu has a 1000 km long spectacular
coastline with sugar-white bays and sun -drenched beaches. Marina beach is the second longest in the
world.
Kovalam Beach, a zero liquid waste managed beach has received Blue Flag. The beach has a grey
water treatment plant, 40 KW off-grid solar power plant and a solid waste management unit with an
automatic composting machine.
The recent beautification drive launched by Government on the Marina has earned the appreciation of
all and Marina has been restored to its past glory.
WATERFALLS
They present an awesome spectacle with the colossal cascade of water. Hogenakkal, Kutrallam,
Thirparappu, Kumbakarai, Papanasam etc. are worth mentioning.
WILDLIFE SANCTURIES
Mudumalai, Anamalai, Mundanthurai, Kalakkadu will attract various enthusiasts.
ZOOLOGICAL PARKS
They have abundant wildlife that can be seen and appreciated in their natural habitat.
BIRD SANCTUARIES
These visitors can be seen in close range during their sojourn to India, when the climate is
inhospitable in their homelands.
BOTANICAL/ HORTICULTURAL GARDENS
These gardens that are immaculately maintained will provide a visual feast.

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4.2.INTERNAL PRINCIPLES OF TOLKKAPIYAM AND SANGAM LITERATUE

Sangam Literature is also referred to as Tamil Literature. The period of the Sangam age is
approximately between 300 BC and 300 AD; however, most work is considered to be done between
100 CE and 250 CE. The term "Sangam" implies association. The works of Sangam literature provide
an insight into early Tamil culture and trade relations between South India and the Mediterranean,
West Asia, and Southeast Asia. Sangam literature is not just the work of any particular social or
religious group; however, many people have authored it over time.

About the Sangam Literature

o Sangam Literature is a valuable source of information about the Sangam period.

o Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and two
epics named Silappadikaram and Manimegalai.
o Tolkappiyam, penned by Tolkappiyar, is the first Tamil literary work. It is primarily a study
of the Tamil language, but it also includes information about the political and socio-economic
conditions of the time.
o Ettutogai comprises eight works: Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru,
Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal, and Padirruppatu (Eight Anthologies).
o The Pattuppattu consists of ten works: Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunarruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai, and Malaipadukadam (Ten Idylls).
o Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen books on ethics and morals. The most famous of these
books is Tirukkural, authored by Thiruvalluvar, a brilliant Tamil poet, and philosopher.
o Elango Adigal, and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar wrote Silappathikaram. They also
provide valuable information about Sangam politics and society.

Origin of Sangam Literature

The history of Sangam Literature can be traced to ancient times. The earliest existing Tamil literature
is known as Sangam literature. Most of the literature was written between 100 and 250 CE, with the
Sangam period generally regarded as dating from 300 BC to 300 AD. The literal meaning of the term
"Sangam" is "association." It refers to a growing community of Tamil poets from ancient southern
India. The first Tamil Sangam at Madurai is supposed to have been presided over by the Ancient
Tamil Siddhar Agastyar. The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas were the three most powerful Tamil
kingdoms during the Sangam period.

The Sangam Categories

The Sangams are divided into three categories-

o Three Sangams (academies of Tamil poets) were held in the ancient South Indian province of
Muchchangam, according to Tamil tradition.
o The First Sangam is claimed to have taken place in Madurai, and gods and mythical sages
attended it. The literary work of this Sangam is unavailable.
o From the Second Sangam, held in Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survived.
o The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. Only a few of these Tamil literary works have
survived, and they can be utilized to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.

41
Classification of Sangam Literature

There are three sangams, known as Muchchangam. The Sangam literature can be classified based on
composition, Context, and Interpretation.

Based on the Period of Composition

Patinenmelkanakku: It is a part of Sangam literature composed between 200 BCE to 100 BCE. It is
a collection of Tamil poetry anthologies and the oldest surviving Tamil poetry.

Patinenkilkanakku is a part of Sangam literature composed between 100 CE and 500 CE.

It is a collection of 18 poetry compositions, mainly composed before Pallava's age.

The composition deals with ethics and moral codes. Some of its chief works include Naladiyar,
Thirukkural, Palamoli, etc.

Based on the Context and Interpretation

Aham (Inner): A type of Sangam literature in which the abstract discussion on human aspects is
done. It signifies emotions and sentiments in the form of love, sexual relations, sensuality, etc.

Puram (outer): It is a type of Sangam literature related to exploits and heroic achievements in form
of Human experiences. Puram is a direct form of poetry. It signifies heroism, customs, social life,
ethics, philanthropy, etc.

Third Tamil Sangam

The third Sangam's compositions are divided into 10 idylls called Pattuppattu and eight anthologies
called Ettuttokoi/Ettuthokai.

Ettuthokai

Ettuthokai is also known as Eight Collections. It is a classical Tamil poetic work and part of the
Sangam literature's eighteen greater texts anthology series. The list of the following works is included
in the Ettuthokai:

1. Natrinai
2. Kuruntogai
3. Ainkurunuru (composed by Gudalur Mar)
4. Pathitrupathu
5. Paripadal
6. Kalittogai
7. Ahanuru (compiled by Rudrasarman)
8. Purananuru

Pattuppattu

Pattuppattu is also known as Ten Idylls. The list of the following works is included in the Pattuppattu.

1. ThiruMurugatrupadai (composed by Nakkirar)

2. Sirupanarruppadai
3. Perumbanarruppadai

42
 4. Pattinappalai
5. Maduraikkanji
6. Porunararrupadai
7. Kurinchippattu
8. Nedunalvadai
9. Malaipadukadam
10. Mullaippattu

The Patinenkilkanakku was formed at the third Tamil Sangam. They primarily discuss moral
principles. The Thirukkural, commonly known as the Kural, is the most significant. It describes the
daily life of an orthodox Hindu and shows the influence of the Sanskrit Shastras. Acharakkovai and
Palamoli, both by Munrurai Araiyar, are important additional works.

Major Works of Sangam Literature

o There were 3 great epics Silappathigaram, Dipavamsa, and Mahavamsa. These epics
demonstrate that Cheran Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty and Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka
were contemporaries.
o Moreover, large numbers of coins made by the Roman Emperor in the first century can be
unearthed throughout Tamil Nadu.
o Moreover, Greek writers like Megasthenes, Strabo, and Pliny asserted that the West and
South India had trading relations.
o The Cheras, Chola, and Pandya kings who ruled in the region south of the Mauryan Empire
were mentioned in inscriptions from the Ashokan Empire.
o The Sangam literature has been dated to the third century B.C. to the third century A.D. based
on literary, archaeological, and extraterritorial evidence.
o Some of the major works of Sangam literature are Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Silappathikaram,
Manimegalai, Pathinenkilkanakku, and Ettutogai.
o Two epics were published during the modern era: Elango Adigal's Silappathigaram and
Sittalai Sattanar's Manimegalai.
o Works of Sangam literature contain essential information on the Sangam society and
governmental structure.
o The Tamil Brahmi writing dates to the 15th century and is described in the Kalugumalai
inscription.
o Tamil poets' tragic fates and local chieftains are mentioned in the Tirukkovalur inscription.
o The Tolkappiyam, the first of these works, was composed by Tolkappiyar and included Tamil
grammar and details regarding the social, economic, and political conditions during the
Sangam Era.

Other resources for learning about the Sangam Literature

o Among the Greek authors who mention commercial trade relations between the West and
South India are Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy.
o The Ashokan inscriptions mention the Chera, Chola, and Pandya monarchs to the south of the
Mauryan kingdom.
o The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga mentions Tamil kingdoms.

Tolkappiyam
Tolkāppiyam, also romanised as Tholkaappiyam (Tamil: தொல்காப்பியம், lit. "ancient poem"]), is
the most ancient extant Tamil grammar text and the oldest extant long work of Tamil literature.The
surviving manuscripts of the Tolkappiyam consists of three books (atikaram), each with nine chapters
(iyal), with a cumulative total of 1,610 (483+463+664) sutras in the nūṛpā meter. It is a

43
comprehensive text on grammar, and includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology,
morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.
The Tolkappiyam is difficult to date. Some in the Tamil tradition place the text in the mythical second
sangam, variously in 1st millennium BCE or earlier. Scholars place the text much later and believe the
text evolved and expanded over a period of time. According to Nadarajah Devapoopathy the earliest
layer of the Tolkappiyam was likely composed between the 2nd and 1st century BCE,and the extant
manuscript versions fixed by about the 5th century CE. The Tolkappiyam Ur-text likely relied on
some unknown even older literature.
Iravatham Mahadevan dates the Tolkappiyam to no earlier than the 2nd century CE, as it mentions
the puḷḷi being an integral part of Tamil script. The puḷḷi (a diacritical mark to distinguish pure
consonants from consonants with inherent vowels) only became prevalent in Tamil epigraphs after the
2nd century CE.[10] According to linguist Prof. S. Agesthialingam, Tolkappiyam contains many later
interpolations, and the language shows many deviations consistent with late old Tamil (similar
to Cilappatikaram), rather than the early old Tamil poems of Eṭṭuttokai and Pattuppāṭṭu.
The Tolkappiyam contains aphoristic verses arranged into three books – the Eluttatikaram ("Eluttu"
meaning "letter, phoneme"), the Sollatikaram ("Sol" meaning "Sound, word") and
the Porulatikaram ("Porul" meaning "subject matter", i.e. prosody, rhetoric,
poetics).The Tolkappiyam includes examples to explain its rules, and these examples provide indirect
information about the ancient Tamil culture, sociology, and linguistic geography. It is first mentioned
by name in Iraiyanar's Akapporul – a 7th- or 8th-century text – as an authoritative reference, and
the Tolkappiyam remains the authoritative text on Tamil grammar.
Here is no firm evidence to assign the authorship of this treatise to any one author. Tholkapiyam,
some traditionally believe, was written by a single author named Tolkappiyar, a disciple of Vedic
sage Agastya mentioned in the Rigveda (1500–1200 BCE). According to the traditional legend, the
original grammar was called Agathiam written down by sage Agastya, but it went missing after a
great deluge. His student Tolkappiyar was asked to compile Tamil grammar, which is Tolkappiyam. In
Tamil historical sources such as the 14th-century influential commentary
on Tolkappiyam by Naccinarkkiniyar, the author is stated to be Tiranatumakkini (alternate name for
Tolkappiyan), the son of a Brahmin rishi named Camatakkini. The earliest mention of Agastya-related
Akattiyam legends are found in texts approximately dated to the 8th or 9th century.
According to Kamil Zvelebil, the earliest sutras of the Tolkappiyam were composed by author(s) who
lived before the "majority of extant" Sangam literature, who clearly knew Pāṇini and
followed Patanjali works on Sanskrit grammar because some verses of Tolkappiyam – such as T-Col
419 andT-Elutt 83 – seem to be borrowed and exact translation of verses of
Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya and ideas credited to more ancient Panini. Further, the author(s) lived after
Patanjali, because various sections of Tolkappiyam show the same ideas for grammatically structuring
a language and it uses borrowed Indo-European words found in Panini and Patanjali works to explain
its ideas. According to Hartmut Scharfe and other scholars, the phonetic and phonemic sections of
the Tolkappiyam shows considerable influence of Vedic Pratishakhyas, while its rules for nominal
compounds follow those in Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, though there is also evidence of innovations. The
author(s) had access and expertise of the ancient Sanskrit works on grammar and language. According
to Zvelebil, another Tamil tradition believes that the earliest layer by its author(s) – Tolkappiyan –
may have been a Jaina scholar, who knew aintiram (pre-Paninian grammatical system) and lived in
south Kerala, but "we do not know of any definite data concerning the original author or authors".
This traditional belief, according to Vaiyapuri Pillai, is supported by a few Jaina Prakrit words such
as patimaiyon found in the Tolkappiyam.

Content
The Tolkappiyam deals with ilakkanam (grammar) in three books (atikaram), each with nine chapters
(iyal) of different sizes. The text has a cumulative total of 1,610 (Eluttatikaram 483 + Sollatikaram
463 + Porulatikaram 664) sutras in the nūṛpā meter, though some versions of its surviving
manuscripts have a few less The sutra format provides a distilled summary of the rules, one that is not

44
easy to read or understand; commentaries are necessary for the proper interpretation and
understanding of Tolkappiyam.
Book 1
Eluttatikaram
"Eluttu" means "sound, letter, phoneme", and this book of the Tolkappiyam covers the sounds of
the Tamil language, how they are produced (phonology). It includes punarcci (lit. "joining,
copulation") which is combination of sounds, orthography, graphemic and phonetics with sounds
as they are produced and listened to.The phonemic inventory it includes consists of 5 long
vowels, 5 short vowels, and 17 consonants. The articulatory descriptions in Tolkappiyam are
incomplete, indicative of a proto-language. It does not, for example, distinguish between retroflex
and non-retroflex consonants, states Thomas Lehmann. The phonetic and phonemic sections of
the first book show the influence of Vedic Pratisakhyas, states Hartmut Scharfe, but with some
differences. For example, unlike the Pratisakhyas and the later Tamil, the first book
of Tolkappiyam does not treat /ṭ/ and /ṇ/ as retroflex.
Book 2
Sollatikaram
"Sol" meaning "word", and the second book deals with "etymology, morphology, semantics
and syntax", states Zvelebil. The sutras cover compounds, some semantic and lexical issues.
It also mentions the twelve dialectical regions of Tamil speaking people, which suggests the
author(s) had a keen sense of observation and inclusiveness for Old Tamil's linguistic
geography. According to Peter Scharf, the sutras here are inspired by the work on Sanskrit
grammar by Panini, but it uses Tamil terminology and adds technical innovations.Verb forms
and the classification of nominal compounds in the second book show the influence of
Patanjali's Mahabhasya.
Book 3
Porulatikaram
"Porul" meaning "subject matter", and this book deals with the prosody (yappu) and
rhetoric (ani) of Old Tamil. It is here, that the book covers the two genres found in
classical Tamil literature: akam (love, erotics, interior world) and puram (war, society,
exterior world). The akam is subdivided into kalavu (premarital love) and karpu (marital
love). It also deals with dramaturgy, simile, prosody and tradition. According to
Zvelebil, this arrangement suggests that the entire Tolkappiyam was likely a guide for
bardic poets, where the first two books led to this third on how to compose their
songs.The third book's linking of literature (ilakkiyam) to the grammatical rules of the
first and the second book (ilakkanam) created a symbiotic relationship between the
two. The literary theory of Tolkappiyam, according to Peter Scharf, borrows from
Sanskrit literary theory texts.
Epigraphical studies, such as those by Mahadevan, show that ancient Tamil-
Brahmi inscriptions found in South India and dated to between 3rd century BCE and 4th
century CE had three different grammatical form. Only one of them is assumed in
the Tolkappiyam. The language of the Sangam literature is same as the one described
in Tolkappiyam, except in some minor respects.
 It is the oldest preserved Tamil work until now.
 Between the fourth and fifth centuries of the Common era.
 Provides information about the social life, human psychology, politics, and economics of the
Sangam Age.
 There is also a discussion of Tamil grammar.
 The book is organised into three sections, each containing nine chapters.
 There are 1612 sutras, covering a wide range of topics.
 The effect of Sanskrit on this work is limited and small.

45
  The Tamil Sangam is the third in a series of similar events.
 The writings of the third Sangam are split into eight anthologies, Ettuttokoi/Ettuthokai, and
ten idylls, Pattuppattu.

Thirukkural

o The first work in the realm of ethics by a Dravidian.

o In total, there are 1330 couplets.
o It has been translated into many languages, including foreign languages.
o Epics, love, polity, and governance are among the topics covered.
o The author is Thiruvalluvar.

About the Post-Sangam Period

o There is a period known as the Post-Sangam Period after the Sangam.

o This period was known as the Middle Ages and lasted from 200 to 600 CE. During this time,
five significant Tamil epics were written:
o There are also five minor writings by Jain authors included.

Silappadikaram

o The epic was composed by Ilango Adigal.

o The plot requires the use of an anklet. The name means "anklet narrative."
o Ilango Adikal, the younger brother of Cheran king Senguttuvan, is an ascetic-prince.
o Kannagi is a significant character who seeks vengeance against the Pandya kingdom for the
wrongful killing of her spouse.
o The poem contains much information on Tamil society, governance, values, and social life
today.
o This song was written by Manimekalai and Sangam Chithalai Chathanar (also spelled
Sattanar).
o Because the literature favours Buddhist values over those of other religions at the time, the
author's purpose was to expand Buddhism throughout South India.
o In numerous aspects, the Sangam Literature serves as a source of rulers' history and culture
during the period in which it was written:
o Each poem in the Sangam Literature includes information about the poem's authorship and
subject matter, the name of the King or chieftain to whom the poem is dedicated, and the
poets and poetesses who have benefited from their patronage.
o According to Sangam literature, the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras were three kingdoms that
existed at the time.
o It covers love, military and war, administration and governance, and economic and commerce
interactions.

Significance of Sangam Literature

o According to Sangam literature, the administrative system of that time had the King as the
administrative centre and hereditary monarchy as the most popular form of governance.
o Avai was the name given to the crowned monarch's court.
o The King's sabha or manram was the highest court of justice in the capital.
o The King's advisers included Amaichchar or ministers, Purohitas or priests, Senapati or
military commanders, Dutar or envoys, and Arrar or spies.
o Mandalam refers to the entire kingdom, such as the Chola Mandalam or the Pandya
Mandalam.

46
 o Underneath the mandalam was a vast division called nadu (province). The ur was a town that
was referred to by various people as a huge village (perar), a little village (sirur), or an old
hamlet (mudur).
o Agriculturists constituted the majority of the population.
o There were two classes of individuals in early Tamil culture.
o A land-tax known as Karai was the principal source of revenue for revenue administration.
o As a result, Sangam Literature can be regarded as a source of kingly history and culture from
the time it was produced. [The claims made in Sangam literature, particularly those
surrounding monarchs, are considerably exaggerated and should be used with caution as a
source of information.
o In contrast, Sangam literature is extraordinarily rich regarding the social and cultural lives of
the people of the time.
o The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas were the three dynasties that ruled South India during the
Sangam Period. Sangam Period literary allusions are the primary source of information on
these countries

Sangam Society

o The Sangam Society is a non-profit organization devoted to the study of Sanskrit.

o Kurinji (hilly paths), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal), and Palai
(inland) are the five divisions of Tolkappiyam (desert).
o Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes: arasar (ruling class), anthanar (trade and commerce),
vanigar (trade and commerce), and vellalar (carried on trade and commerce) (Agriculturists).
o Ancient primordial tribes like the Thodas, Irulas, Nagas, and Vedars existed at this time.

4.3. EDUCATION AND LITERACY OF THE SANGAM LITERATURE

Education was considered important in Ancient Tamil as they considered the mind of the uneducated
to be an "abode of darkness". The period of acquiring knowledge was during youth.
The rulers and aristocrats of ancient Tamilakam were always conscious of their duties to their
country. They considered development of education as an important duty. So the kings and chieftains
took all measures for the education of people. Naladiyar one of the Tamil books of Law lauds that
"men gathered books in abundance and filled their house with them." They studied science,
mathematics, engineering, astronomy, logic and ethics.
Education was widespread and there was high standard of literacy. Libraries attached to Jain Pallis
and Buddha Viharas promoted education among the people. The Sangam literature makes clear that
people irrespective of sectarian or sex considerations were entitled to get the benefits of full
education, making the Tamil people one of the earliest civilisations to acquire high female literacy.

Women and education

The girls of the Sangam age were given a good training in literature, music and drama. The Sangam
literature bears ample evidence to the fact that many women had distinguished themselves in the art of
music.
More than fifty women have been ranked among the Sangam poets.

Late Sangam age

The Pallavas patronised both Prakrit and Sanskrit. They established an institution
for Sanskrit at Kanji and lesser schools near Pondicherry. They attracted the best students
from Tamizhagam and other parts of the south. Buddhism particularly flourished in the next few
centuries attracting students from Sri Lanka and as far flung as China.

47
Bodhidharma is a noteworthy mention. Even though the Tamil language saw a decline during this
period, Cilappatikaram and Manimekalai, two of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were
composed during this period. These epics broke with the Sangam convention of not mentioning the
names or specific details of the characters, showing signs of growing influence from Sanskrit.

Decline after Sangam age

Unlike the cosmopolitanism of the Sangam period, the new era of Vedic teaching was an exclusive
privilege of the Brahmins as can be seen from Thirukkachi Nambi's refusal to teach Ramanuja vedic
texts. The Guru Shishya parampara was instigated at this point and signalled the decline of education
among females and the general population.
4..4.PORTS AND CITIES
Considerable information about early towns and ports has been derived from Greek sources
contemporary with the Sangam period. There are over a hundred named towns or political or trade
centres mentioned in Sangam literature, Ptolemy’s map and other Greek sources.

Ptolemy lists six coastal places in Tamilnadu to which he appends the word ’emporium’. Three of
these, Musiri, Korkai and Kaverippattinam are known from anthologies to have been chief ports of
three early kingdoms. Another city, called either Perimula or Perimuda, is described as “the greatest
emporium of trade in India”. It was on the Vaigai delta near Rameshwaram.

A walled city called Kapadapuram was situated around Tambraparani delta. Akkadu village in
Tanjavur has been suggested to have been the Arkatos of Ptolemy which was also the second capital
of the Cholas. Musiri of anthologies was known as Muziris to the Greeks. A subsidiary capital, Tondi
has been identified with Ponnani.

Greek records also mention Vaikkarai, Nilakanta and Netravati as ancient port towns in Kerala. Pantar
in the south of Kerala and Puli (around Tuluva) were ports of the Sangam period.
Kaveripumppattinam was known to Ptolemy as Khaberis (Puhar of literature). Vellaiyan-irruppu
(“white man’s settlement”) is located near Kaverippattinam. Kalaiyur, located near Kaverippattinam
has yielded a structure which was identified as a dock by S. R. Rao, Korkai, a port of the Sangam
period, was a pearl market and the seat of the Pandyan vice-royalty.

Manabalipuram may have been Ptolemy’s Melange (Mavilankai) which is said to have been an
emporium. It is also identifiable with the port of Nirpayarrurai mentioned in Perumpanarruppadai.
Marakanam, north of Pondicherry, appears to have been a harbour and is identified with Sopatma of
the Periplus and Eyil of Sirupanarruppadai.

The mouth of the Vellaru was an Arab ship building port. The place called Agarlu in the Periplus was
situated near Tondi on Palk Bay (different from Tondi in Kerala). It exported pearls and muslins. The
end of the peninsula, called Kodi, was one of the earliest points of the south known in the north
(.Arthasastra) and was used by the Greeks as a fixed point of navigation.

Nearby was situated Pasika mentioned in the Arthasastra as a source of pearl? Muthupettai, west of
the Vaigai delta, was a pearl market. Tirucendur, south of the Tambraparani delta, has a well known
temple of Murukan, said in myths to protect the Pandyas from incursions from the sea.

This is probably the same as Sentil of Tirumurukarruppadai and is certainly one of the earliest
Pandyan sacred spots. Somewhere nearby was the early Pandyan capital of Kapadapuram, and also on
the coast in the same region was South Madurai. These are supposed to have been the first two
Pandyan capitals and the sites of the first two literary akademies, Kanniyakumari (Cape Comorin) is
mentioned as early as Eratosthenes which the Greeks used as a fixed point for navigation.

48
Ptolemy lists it among the ports, though one fails to see today where a port could have been located.
Bandar and Kodumanam were others ports with a wealth of seaborne imports, Bandar being noted for
its pearls and Kodumanam for rare jewels. Mention is made of the abundance of quartzite precious
stones in the hills of the Chera country.

Thus, Tamilaham carried on an extensive trade with foreign countries from very early times. Pepper,
ginger, rice, sandalwood, ahil, almug, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory and pearls, gems like
beryl (an aquamarine gem) and corundum, cotton and cotton fabrics were the main commodities,
which were in great demand in foreign countries.

Monkeys, deer, peacocks, cheetahs, tigers and elephants were also in demand. Kapin (kavi in Tamil)
and tukim (peacock, tokai in Tamil) are Hebrew words and these were exported to the western world.
Similarly, Greek oruza for rice is derived from Tamil arisi, English ginger is derived from Latin
Zingiber which in turn was derived from Tamil injiver, the Tamil Chiruttai became Cheetah in
English, Cardamom was from Kurundam and sandal was derived from sandana or sandu.

We find large hoards of Roman gold coins of the Augustan Age in many parts of south India which
provide evidence of the brisk trade between Tamilaham and Rome. The direct trade route between
Tamilaham and Arabia, Egypt and Rome had been well established by the date of the Periplus.

Trade with Rome in the first century AD was so lucrative to the Tamils that the Pandyan king sent
two embassies to Augustus (20 BC) to win his favour. Historians have assessed the impact was
substantial, leading to important changes in society while others believe that the character of this
exchange hardly led to any significant socioeconomic or political change, because there is no
evidence to show that the overseas exchange stimulated the transformation of contemporary economy
and social relations.

The inland merchants and manufacturers continued to be subsumed within the network of clan ties
and kinship. They do not seem to have acted as middlemen between the foreign merchants and the
chiefs in the transaction of goods.

The foreign merchants freely used the ports for the traffic of goods from the South East Asian
countries as well without involvement of native traders as middlemen. Without such involvement it is
hard to believe that the trade exerted any influence on the transformation except stimulating the
production of the goods in demand.

However, many evidences have been gathered against this postulation as well. We have reference to
the inability of others to enter the western sea where the Chera led his gold-giving ship. One text
mentions the ships of Tittan Veliyan bringing gold. Pliny’s reference to an Indian ship carried off to
the German coast by wind is also given as evidence.

Recent excavations on the red sea coast have brought to light graffiti in Tamil Brahmi characters,
probably the two names Chatan and Kanan. This could be another piece of evidence if we take them
to be names of two traders from Tamilaham.

Further; inscriptions dated to the first century BC from Sri Lanka mention a Damila vaija, Damila
navika and a Damila gahapati showing their association with horse trade. A Jataka (480) also
mentions Kaveripattam in the Damila country.

4.5.EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

Sangam people exported a diversity of goods to Greece and Rome, The important of them were
spices such as pepper, cardamom, cloves and ginger. Sandal paste, flowers, scents, and aromatic wood

49
such as Ahil, ivory, pearls, corals, medicinal plants, banana and rice were exported in less quantity as
compared with the earlier. Cottan was greatly demanded that was manufactured in Tamil country and
the varieties were regaled in the Sangam literature. Apart from that the Romas were interested in the
various varieties of beads, diamonds, sapphire, topaz, emerald, tortoise shells.10 The pearls of the
pandiyas and the cottan clothes of Uraiyur much impressed the Romans. The main imported goods
were sweet wine, gold coins and ornaments, glass, copper and other articles. The horses were also
imported.

Sea- ports

The early kings, the Cholas, the Cheras and the pandyas developed the ports around their kingdoms to
attract foreigners. The seaports on the coastal areas of the Tamil Nadu smoothed the active trade
between the countries. The seaports on the eastern coast were Mamallapuram, Poduke,
Puhar,Poraiyaru, Korkai and Kumari. These ports developed into the focal points of prosperity in the
country.The pattinappalai describes the details of the Puhar harbor and its activities. The Pandyan
port-town Korkai was famous for its pearls. Musiri and tondi were the two important seaports on the
west. Warehouses for storing the goods and the chief ports had their lighthouses, which were called in
the Tamil literature as Kalangarai Ilangu Sudar. Facilities were also made in the seaports for repairing
the ships. The facilities were provided for the foreign traders to stay.

UNIT -5

PARTICIPATION OF TAMILS FOR INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT AND INDIAN

CULTURE

5.1 ROLE OF TAMILNADU IN FREEDOM MOVEMENT

Vellore Mutiny – 1806
The British administration prohibited the Hindu soldiers from smearing religious marks on their
forehead and ordered the Muslims to shave their beard and trim their moustache which created a
strong resentment among the soldiers. On July 9, 1806, one of Tipu's daughters was to be married at
Vellore. The revolting soldiers gathered at the fort under the pretext of attending the wedding. On the
midnight of July 10, the soldiers surrounded the fort and killed most of the Europeans and unfurled
the flag of Tipu over the fort. However, the British crushed the revolt in no time.

Madras Mahajan Sabha

P Rangaiah Naidu was elected first President of the Sabha. The Sabha adopted a moderate policy in
its early days. Madras Mahajan Sabha was considered to be a unique one that paved the way for our
national freedom. The Sabha voiced out the fundamental rights of our countrymen. In 1930, the Sabha
organised the salt satyagraha movement on April 22nd in Madras George town, Esplanade, the high
court and the beach areas. When the British government banned the Congress party, Madras Mahajan
Sabha conducted numerous exhibitions to instigate the patriotic feelings in the hearts of our
countrymen as well as All India Khadi Exhibition and Swadeshi Exhibition.

V.O. Chidambaram Pillai

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He started his career as a lawyer in Tirunelvelli. He encourgaed the formation of trade guilds and
worker's association. He was the founder of the Swadesi Dharma Sanga Weaving Association and
Swadesi Co operative Stores at Tuticorin. The Partititon of Bengal had drawn him into politics. He
organised Coral mill strike in the town near the sea shore that resulted in the increase of worker's
wages and reduction of working hours. He followed the militant leader Lokmanya Tilak and preached
his philosophy. Charged with sedition, he was sentenced to forty years of imprisonment.

Subramaniya Siva

He was a freedom fighter and a creative writer. He was arrested many times between 1908 and 1922
for his anti-imperialist activities. When Siva was unable to walk due to the severity of leprosy, the
British government enacted a law for Siva, that leprosy patient should not travel by rail. Due to this,
Siva travelled the whole length of Madras province on foot. He eventually died on 23rd July 1925.

Subramanya Bharathiyar

He worked as a Tamil teacher at Madurai. He also served as an Assistant Editor of Swadeshimitram in

1904. In 1907, he participated in the Surat conference and supported the demand for Swaraj along
with Tilak and Aurobindo. In April 1907, he became the editor of the Tamil weekly 'India.' In 1908,
he organised a huge public meeting in Madras to celebrate 'Swaraj Day.' After the First World War,
Bharathi entered British India near Cuddalore in November 1918 where he was arrested for giving

51
evidence in a case which had been instituted by the British against Kappalotiya Thamizhan. He was
released after 3 weeks in custody. He passed away on September 11, 1921.

Vanchinathan

He was under the service of the state of Travancore. Since the activities of the Extremists alarmed the
British, the collector Ashe shot down and killed four persons in Thirunelveli. In order to take a
revenge against the Collector, Vanchinathan secretly went to Maniyachi Railway station and shot
dead Ashe after which Vanchinathan committed suicide.

Achievements of Periyar

He spread self-respect principles through Kudiarasu, Puratchi, Viduthalai. He also published some
books against social evils. He visited many European countries and studied their way of life. After his
return, he propagated 14 points of the Socialists Manifesto. In order to check the growing population
and to keep good health, he suggested family planning.

Thiruppur Kumaran

He was a great revolutionary. He founded Desa Bandhu Youth Association and led protests against
the British. He participated in the march against the ban on the national flag and he died from injuries
sustained from a police assault. He is revered as a martyr in Tamil Nadu.

CN Annadurai

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He was the founder of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. Anna's inception into politics was through
the Justice Party. Anna chose the Justice Party to work for the establishment of a casteless and
classless society. He became the General Secretary of the DMK. In the 1967 election, his party got
victory and Anna became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu in 1967. He introduced the scheme of 1
kg rice for RE. 1. He also introduced Tamil Language Development Scheme. Government under the
leadership of Anna changed the name of the state from Madras to Tamizhaga Arasu. He was
conferred Doctorate by Annamalai University in 1968.

S. Satyamurti

He was an Indian politician and a patriot. He was the political mentor of K. Kamaraj. He served a
Mayor of Madras in 1939, leading a campaign to restore public education, improved water supply and
improve the life of the citizens. He started practising as an advocate prior to his initiation in the
National movement. He participated in the swadeshi movement and the quit India movement for
which he was imprisoned several times. He passed away on 28th March, 1943.

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy

Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddy fought vigorously against the Devadasi system. She was the first woman in
India to get a degree in medicine. She started cancer relief hospital in 1949. She was also interested in
politics and social reforms. Appreciating her role in the agitation against Devadasi system, she was
nominated to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Council in 1929. In 1930, she organised All India Woman
Conference at Pune. She also started Avvai Illam, an orphanage at Santhome in Madras.

C. Rajagopalachari

He became a lawyer at Salem in 1898. He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the
Calcutta session in 1906. In 1930, he broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam. He won the 1937 provincial
elections and became the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency. During his administration, he
introduced prohibition, passed several laws to uplift Adi Dravaidar and other depressed classes. He
became the first Indian Governor General of free India. He founded the Swatandra party in 1959. He

53
wrote many books. In 1955, he was awarded 'Bharat Ratna.' He was often referred as 'Chanakya' for
his diplomatic skills.

Dr. S Dharambal
One reformer who proved that service to the people could be done through humanity and goodwill
was Dr. S. Dharmambal. She had the instinct of social service and started a hospital at Chennai. Later,
she entered into public service. She showed great interest in implementing widow remarriage,
intercaste marriage and women education. She participated in the Hindi agitation programme and
went to jail many times. She started an agitation called 'Elavu Varam' to ensure that Tamil teachers
were paid equal salary. To improve student's knowledge in Tamil and to score good marks, ''Chennai
Manavar Mandram'' was established of which she was the President for 10 years. She sacrificed her
whole life for Tamil people, language and literature.

K. Kamaraj

He was one of the greatest freedom fighters of Tamil Nadu. He entered into thd freedom movement of
India by taking part in Vaikam sathyagraha in 1924. He enrolled himself as a full time worker of the
Congress party in 1929. He participated in the salt sathyagraha in 1930. Because of his active
participation in the Quit India Movement in 1942, he was arrested and sentenced to 3 years in the
Amravathi prison. He served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu for 9 years and introduced various
welfare measures like fee education, mid-day meals, construction of dams and canals to improve
agriculture, etc. He was famous for his policy known as 'K' Plan.

Moovalur Ramamirdham
She belonged o Isai vellalar caste. In olden days, girls belonging to this caste were sacrificed to
temples to do service to God. Later, they were ill treated and humiliated by the landlords and
zamindars in the name of caste. Moovalur decided to fight for their emancipation. She joined the
Indian National Party and organised the conference of Isai Vellalar in 1925. She was supported by
many great leaders who raised slogans against the cruel practice of Devadasis. As a result, the
government passed ''Dr Muthu Lakshmi Devadasi Abolition Act.'' She inspired women to take part in
the national movement on a large scale.

Work of EV Ramasamy Naicker

He was the first leader the country had ever seen to inculcate self-respect, nationalism, women
liberation and social equality in the minds of the people. He joined the Congress in 1919 to realise his
ideas. He joined the Non-Cooperation Movement. He led the famous Vaikam Sathyagraha in 1924,
where the people of downtrodden community were prohibited to enter into the temple. Finally the
Travancore government relaxed such segregation and allowed the people to enter the temple. He

54
moved a resolution for reservation in government services for non-Brahmins in the state Congress
conference held at Kanchipuram. He started the Self Respect Movement in 1925 to spread and
execute his ideas and policies. He criticized the meaningless ideas, superstitious beliefs and
unbelievable puranic stories in the public meetings.

5.2.Self Respect Movement – Leader, Objectives & Impact:

The self-respect movement was founded by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, commonly known as Periyar.
It was a dynamic social movement aimed at destroying the contemporary Hindu social order in its
totality and creating a new, rational society without caste, religion and god.
A number of present-day political parties in Tamil Nadu, such as Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) owe their origins to the Self-
respect movement.

What was Self Respect Movement?

The Self Respect Movement was established in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu to establish a
society where disadvantaged castes would have fair human rights and opportunities. It also
encouraged backward castes to value themselves in a caste-based society where they were viewed at
the bottom of the social scale. S Ramanathan started the Self Respect Movement against Brahminism
in Tamil Nadu, India.

Self Respect Movement : An Overview

The Brahmins’ monopoly on power and influence steadily diminished due to E.V.R. ‘s never-ending
anti-orthodoxy crusade. People were inspired by a notion of self and, more importantly, self-
confidence as they prepared to fight the Brahmins’ systemic racism.

 As a result, inter-caste and interreligious weddings were encouraged, and marriages without a
Brahmin priest were legally done.
 The very first state after freedom to pass legislation allowing Hindu marriages without a
Brahmin priest there was Tamil Nadu.
 Additionally, the system of giving Harijan members monopoly seats in municipal councils
was abolished.
 The Self Respect Movement’s continued support led to the name panels of the hotels being
changed from “Brahmins Hotel” to “Vegetarian Hotel.
 People started to be proud of losing their caste name.

Self Respect Movement Objectives

The three main goals of the Self Respect Movement were eliminating Brahminical authority,
employment equity for women and underrepresented groups, and the revival of the Dravidian
languages, including Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, and even Tamil. Self Respect Movement’s
supporters laid forth their objectives in the two pamphlets “Namathu Kurikkol” and “Tiravitakkalaka
Lateiyam.” The group’s primary goals were as continues to follow:

 To create a society wherein lower castes enjoy the same fundamental rights as higher castes,
equality is the central part of the society. Discrimination should not be supported or followed.
 Attempting to give each individual the same opportunities for development and growth so that
they can be treated equally by living in the same society.

55
  The creation of a particular society that is fair enough and peaceful, in addition to the total
elimination of untouchability. So that everybody living in the community should feel free.
 It aspired for a social transformation in which everyone naturally experiences friendship and a
sense of belonging.
 To develop schools and colleges and build homes for the homeless, orphans, and widows.
 It should forbid building new temples, mutts, kings, or Vedic institutions. The movement
aimed to abolish behaviors like using one’s family name as their given name and other
similar, thoughtless customs.

Self Respect Movement in India

The Self Respect Movement was a feminist revolution, a Dalit resistance, and an avant-garde
movement all rolled into one. India’s history is loaded with collectively fought battles such as
communal uprisings and freedom campaigns. There were no coordinated campaigns to defend
oneself. The Self Esteem Movement was unique in its goals and played a significant role in Dalit
history.

India’s First Fight for Dignity In 1925

E.V. Ramaswamy initiated the movement. This movement was initiated in Tamil Nadu, where it had a
massive effect, by S. Ramanathan in 1925.

 The very changing Self Respect Movement, commonly referred to as the Dravidian
Movement, advocated equal rights for the destitute group and the struggle for women’s rights.
 However, the group’s founders said it was vital to fight for the “self-respect” of members of
the backward caste in India.
 Ramanathan and Periyar Ramaswamy were inspired by the emphasis on self-worth in Tamil
literature, including Tan-Maanam or Suya Mariyadai, as they strove to promote the notion of
developing one of the most critical factors that self-respect in people will eradicate
discriminatory practices.

Periyar, in particular, thought that political freedom advocates like Gandhi and Nehru did not permit
individual liberty. He held that self-freedom is where true freedom is found. India was striving for
political independence, but that freedom did not let widows remarry or for anybody to marry the
partner of their choice without penalties. For these freedoms, the Self-Respect Revolution was fought.

The movement’s main demands were equality for men and women, economic parity in society, a
promise of all Indians’ friendship, and widespread unanimity regardless of caste, religion, or varna.
Chastity was vehemently opposed because, according to the movement’s women, “chastity is the way
women are confined within the systems of chattel slavery.” A manifesto of this kind in 1925 was
many years ahead of its time. The streets were filled with men and women yelling slogans and
demanding what they had always been due. The simple act of the lower caste reclaiming their identity
in public, loud and fearless, was a move in the right direction toward looking forward to having.

Self Respect Movement and Feminism in India

Very well-known Women activists, Veeramal and Annai Meenanmbal, were two women leaders of
the Self Respect Movement. They kept bugging Periyar to learn more about the rights of Dalit
women. A significant portion of the organization worked to end societal discrimination against
women and seek rights for women. The founders of the Self Respect Movement promoted permanent
birth control for women for a period.

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  On the other hand, Gandhi was adamantly opposed to any birth control for women. In
actuality, the construction of the ego marriage system was one of the group’s most effective
stages.
 Women participated actively in the Vaikom Satyagraha which came in the 1920s to demand
equal access for individuals from all castes in public areas.
 The group was headed by Nagammai, a well-known social crusader and reformer who
eventually rose to the post of editor of Kudi Arasu, the monthly publication that used to
support the Self Respect Movement.
 As part of an Anti-Arrack struggle, Nagammai often organized women’s organizations to
protest toddy stores in Erode. Gandhi acknowledged that there was little he could do about the
picketing’s occasional violent outbursts and accepted the reality that the cause was “in the
arms of the women from Erode,” a testament to the tenacity and tenacity of their organization.

Movement for Self-Respect Based on Feminist Principles

The Self Respect Movement has strong feminist ideals in addition to anti-caste beliefs. It advocated a
culture in which a person’s decisions regarding her sexual, psychological, and women’s health were
her own. When she observed much discussion about anti-conception medicines across the country,
Periyar’s policy offered women access to contraceptives and long-term birth control. The group’s
feminist ethos pushed for equal rights for women to choose their partners, get a divorce, and also get
married. The Self-Respect Movement aimed to drastically alter heterosexual relationships by
eliminating gender conventions and hierarchies. It clarified how important it is for men and women to
divide household chores and parenting duties.

Political Freedom and Self Respect movement

 Political freedom was defined as a lack of tyranny or coercion, satisfaction of enabling

environment for a person, or the lack of primal urge life factors, including economic coercion,
in a society.
 Within a set of laws and organizations, political freedom necessitates a specific social and
legal status. That legal standing is typically described as a different set of rights. Social
systems both recognize and limit various rights.
 Marriages based on race are publicly displayed to the world. This concentrates on a specific
self-respect campaign that will never be fulfilled until Indian approves gay marriage.
 However, it is still true that the Self Respect Movement’s unshakable principles and demands
opened the path for genuine democracy.

Other Self Respect Movement Objectives

The devadasi system, popular in the country’s eastern and southern regions, was one of the
movement’s main aims. The temple god required women between the ages of Seven to thirty-six to
dedicate their lives to him by engaging in various tasks.

 At first, being a devadasi was regarded as a respected position. Still, later, during the colonial
period, the devadasi system was condemned for participating in prostitution by having given
birth to several children for priests and high net-worth individuals.
 The devadasi system also isolated these women from society. The movement subsequently
included women from all backgrounds who actively participated in demonstrations for human
rights.
 The Self Respect Movement’s main objective was to alter society positively. It impacted
people from all walks of life by pushing against gender equality and criticizing the caste at the
time.

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Modern Applicability of Self Respect Movement:

 To achieve his goal of freeing society from certain harmful social customs which are known
as Dharma and Karma. Periyar came up with the idea of setting up a Self Respect Movement.
 A very well anti-caste movement that has put India’s social structure into doubt, the Self
Respect Movement has grown in popularity.
 The movement emphasized inter-caste marriages while also emphasizing women’s bodily
liberty.
 A society where women could make their sexual, reproductive, and physical decisions was
what the feminist movement campaigned for. In India, the movement represented a defining
moment for feminism.
 It gave top priority to ensuring that women had access both to contraception and long-term
pregnancy prevention.
 The Self-Respect Marriage System was among the major social revolutions brought about by
the self-respect revolution.

Some Important Aspects of Self Respect Movement

There are a few other notable points about the Self Respect Movement Brahmins were impacted

 To promote the promotion of self-respect for people in India’s caste-based system, it fought
the hegemony of Brahmins as the higher caste. According to the movement, one can only
build individuality when they have earned esteem.
 The movement’s primary objective was to attain equality in all areas of life. It aimed to rid
society of detrimental social customs upheld by religion and caste, perpetuating a cycle of
discrimination, including caste-based hiring practices and lower castes.
 Due to casteism, which prevented people from acting according to logic, comprehension, and
perspective, people were pushed to behave irrationally.

Self-respecting organizations

 One of the qualities of the most important services societal changes brought about by the Self
Respect Movement was the legislation of self-respect weddings, which allowed marriages to
begin without the presence of a Brahmin priest because most ceremonies were conducted in
Sanskrit, a language that even the majority of people did not understand. So rituals were
based on rigid obedience.

South India changes after the Self Respect Movement

 Social and religious advances: Hindu weddings performed without a Hindu priest are now
lawful due to this trend. The first county to do so in the nation. Additionally, this group
opposed the Devadasi System, caste system prejudice, and widow marriage.
 Political changes: They helped the people of Tamil Nadu feel more nationalistic. E.V.
Ramaswamy argued that true intellectual liberation could lead to full liberty.
 Self-Respect League Establishment: The self-respect league was formed throughout Tamil
Nadu during the movement. After that, many well-known people joined the league to further
the Periyar movement. The team’s inaugural National Conference took place on November
27, 1927. In that organization, thirty-two resolutions were approved while E.V. Ramaswamy
was President of India.
 Hinduism is opposed since, in Periyar’s opinion, religion is indeed the source of all social ills
and that without deconstructing religious superstition, society cannot be reformed. He began
criticizing Hinduism since it resulted in the development of the whole caste.

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  He began contesting his Brahmins’ supremacy since they were seen as the guardians of the
Hindu religion.
 The Congress Party’s popularity is increasing gradually. Incorrect depiction of the Dalits
group in the campaign Image of Justice party as wealthy landlord groups. Also, power abuse
and corruption are increasing.

5.4. ROLE IN MEDICINE AND SIDDHA MEDICINE

Siddha medicine is one of the 2 most ancient medical systems of India. Ayurveda is the other one.
Siddha is the mother medicine of ancient Tamils/Dravidians of peninsular South India. Before 2000
years the traditional medical system of the Tamils was known as Marunthu (Medicine).1 It got the
proper name of Siddha Medicine in course of time due to the extraordinary contributions made by
Siddhars.
The word Siddha means established truth.2, 3 The persons who were associated with
establishing such a Siddha school of thought were known as Siddhars. Siddhars were upright people
and mystics who acquired supernatural powers.3 Siddhars recorded their mystic findings in medicine,
yoga, and astrology in Tamil. Siddhars do not belong to any narrow spectrum of race, religion, caste,
or creed. Any holy man who is concerned about relieving human suffering can be called a Siddhar.
For instance, Saint Francis of Assisi can be called a Siddhar. Saiva Siddhantam is fundamental for
Siddha.4 Many of the Siddhars were devout Saivaites. Yet, Poonaikannar, a French priest, was a
Siddhar.5 Yakobu, a Muslim, was a Siddhar; Joseph Constantine Beschi, an Italian priest who called
himself Veeramamunivar in Tamil, was a Siddhar. Arabs, Chinese, and Sinhalese also form part of
Siddha School. Although Siddha is essentially a Tamil medicine many for the benefit of the whole
human race developed it from time immemorial. Siddhars believed in the universal brother hood.
They were social reformers. Some of them were staunch atheists. The reason why Siddha is less
known in the West is due to 2 facts. One, most of the Siddha literature is still in Tamil. Two, when
western scholars like Max Müller were provided with translated versions of Sanskrit literature,
including that of Ayurveda, no such effort seems to have been taken to introduce Tamil works to
western scholars. Thousands of Siddha literature still remain in the form of palm leaf manuscripts. Of
late, Siddha is slowly gaining recognition in the world of complementary/alternative medicine.
Modern medicine recognizes Siddha medicine as an alternative East Indian Medical System prevalent
among Tamil speaking people.6
 Five Elements (Aimpootham)
 Siddha propounds that the physical structure of the universe and man are basically made up of
Five Elements. They are Nilam (Earth), Neer (Water), Thee (Fire), Kaatru (Air),
and Vin (Sky). These names denote the properties of the elements and not the exact
substances they mean. Hence, we have to take them as earthlike, waterlike, firelike, airlike,
and skylike. These Five Elements are present in different proportions in all living and
nonliving things, including drugs and diet articles. Various
 Eight methods of examination (Envakai Thervukal)
 Thirukkural1 tells
 Noi nadi Noi mudal nadi athu thanikkum
 Vai nadi vaippa cheyal
 “Diagnose the disease, its etiology, determine the treatment, and apply it appropriate to the
patient.”
 To arrive at a correct diagnosis and etiology, the Siddha physician uses 8 methods of
examination of a patient.8 They are Nadi (pulse examination), Parisam (touch: tactile
indications such as heat, cold, etc, including palpation), Naa (tongue: color, coating, ulcer,
dryness, moisture and related features,

 Skin diseases
 Skin diseases are known as Thol Noikal in Siddha. Today, we do not have any ancient text
book of Siddha devoted entirely to dermatology. We have to pool the information from
several sources to present a comprehensive account. Details of the conditions differ according

59
 to the source. There are occasions when even synonyms are considered as separate entities by
different authors. For instance, psoriasis is equated to mandai karappan and kutta
karappan under karappan diseases and chori kiranthi
 Diseases due to faulty urine; STD (Meka Noikal)
 Mekam means faulty urine. As per Siddha, some diseases arise because of pathology of urine.
These diseases are called Meka noikal. Apart from diabetes mellitus, venereal diseases are
also grouped under Meka noikal.

 Pemphigus vulgaris
 In a short span of 6 months, the author had the chance of treating 3 cases of pemphigus
vulgaris. Before the availability of glucocorticoids, the outcome of pemphigus vulgaris was
death. Mortality rate in India is fairly high. 20 Common causes of morbidity and mortality are
infection and complications of treatment. Occasionally, the condition is not controlled even
with intensive treatment. Rarely such cases come for Siddha treatment.
 The disease is not directly mentioned in Siddha literature.
 Leprosy (Kuttam)
 Syn Thozu Noi, Kurai Noi. Siddha explains 18 types of kuttam.15 It is generally held that the
word Kuttam denotes all major and minor skin diseases including leprosy. 12 The author
clearly differs from this opinion and believes that the word stands for different manifestations
of leprosy caused by Mycobacterium leprae. The influence of modern medicine is so
profound that no leprosy patient usually comes for Siddha treatment.

5.4. PRINTING HISTORY OF TAMIL NADU BOOKS

The introduction and early development of printing in South India is attributed
to missionary propaganda and the endeavours of the British East India Company. Among the pioneers
in this arena, maximum attention is claimed by the Jesuit missionaries, followed by
the Protestant Fathers and Hindu Pandits. Once the immigrants realized the importance of the local
language, they began to disseminate their religious teachings through that medium, in effect ushering
in the vernacular print culture in India. The first Tamil booklet was printed in 1554 (11 February)
in Lisbon - Cartilha em lingoa Tamul e Portugues in Romanized Tamil script by Vincente de
Nazareth, Jorge Carvalho and Thoma da Cruz, all from the Paravar community of Tuticorin. it is also
the first non-European language to find space in the modern printing culture in the world.
These developments took place at a time when other locations such as Madurai were still confined to
the use of copper plates and stone inscriptions. This book was printed earlier than the first printed and
dated books of Russia (1563), Africa (1624) and Greece (1821).

Henriques and the sixteenth century

The appearance of Tamil in print, both in Roman transliteration and in its native script was the result
of the convergence between colonial expansion and local politics, coupled with the beginnings of
the Jesuit 'Madurai Mission' led, among others, by a Portuguese Jesuit priest, Henrique
Henriques who arrived on the Fishery Coast (Tuticorin) in 1547. During his stay Henriques produced
five different books in the Tamil script and language, printed at various Jesuit settlements on the west
coast. He also compiled a Tamil Grammar and a Tamil Dictionary, which, though never printed, were
widely used by other Europeans. Graham Shaw speaks of Henriques as, "the first great European
Scholar of any Indian language" (Stuart Blackburn).
Around 1575 Henriques was relieved of his missionary duties on the east coast and moved
to Goa where he began to prepare his texts. Henriques was there assisted by Father Pedro Luis, a local
Brahman convert, who entered the Jesuit order in 1562. The stage was finally set when Tamil types
were cast in Goa by João Gonçalves (perfected by Father João de Faria in Kollam), with the
assistance of Luis.
In 1577 the first of the Henriques’ five books, Doctrina Christam en Lingua Malauar Tamul
(Thambiran Vanakkam) was printed in Goa. The book was the first book printed with Indian type.

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Although some scholars refuse to consider this as a historical fact, Graham Shaw seems convinced
that it was printed. The second printed Tamil book was only 16 pages long, but a third Catechism of
127 pages, a Tamil translation of the popular Portuguese text by Marcos Jorge, was printed again with
new type in Cochin on November 14, 1579. Three Catechisms were printed with three sets of type, at
three different locations on the west coast over the following three years. Henriques’ two other books
printed at Cochin were:

1. A Confessionary (Confessionairo) 1580 (214 pages)

2. Lives of Saints (Flos Sanctorum), 1586 (669 pages)

Roberto De Nobili and the

seventeenth century
In the 17th century, Tamil books were printed at Ambalakad with type made in Rome. Only five in
number and printed within a space of two years, these books might be called the second phase of
Tamil printing. There were five books but only two texts. The first was Roberto De
Nobili’s Catechism, Nanopatecam, printed posthumously in three volumes: Volume 1 in 1677
followed by Volumes 2 and 3 in 1678. The second text was Antem De Proenca’s Tamil-Portuguese
Dictionary of 1679.
Unlike Henriques, Roberto de Nobili did not translate a Portuguese text into Tamil, instead he wrote
his own manual, so that he might emphasize the hidden truths of the new faith.

Ziegenbalg and printing in Tranquebar

Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg was the pioneer in the setup of a printing press at Madras. In South India
the printing press had been established as early as 1578, but printing activities came to an end owing
to a gradual decline in the religious zeal of successive generations of missionaries. Tamil printing
stopped after 1612, as the numerous writings of Nobili and Manoel Martin lay unpublished in 1649
and 1660. There were some attempts to revive printing, but they proved short-lived. For instance,
there is a reference to a Latin–Tamil grammar by Father Beschi, a Sanskrit scholar, having been
printed at Ziegenbalg’s press.
Ziegenbalg explained in a number of letters that the books prepared in the Malabar language, to help
in the propagation of the Christian faith, were initially written in Portuguese and then translated into
the “Malabarick Language” with the help of Indian assistants. In the absence of a printing press the
books that had been prepared up until then had to be transcribed by hand. This proved to be a slow,
laborious and expensive process. With the objective of facilitating a wider and faster dissemination of
Christian literature, Ziegenbalg in his letter of August 22, 1708, put forth a demand for a “Malabarick
and Portuguese printing press”.[2] In the meantime, Ziegenbalg devoted considerable attention to
collecting manuscripts of Indian literature, as this would help him to understand the old beliefs of the
Hindus which he proposed to refute.
In a letter written in 1708, Ziegenbalg speaks of 26 sermons delivered by him at the church
of Tranquebar and two vocabularies of Malabar language prepared by him. The first consisted of
26,000 words in common use, and had three columns, the first giving the word in Malabar characters,
the second its transliteration and the third its meaning in German. The second contained words used in

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poetry. For this work Ziegenbalg was assisted by Indian scholars and poets who remained at his house
for four months.
Ziegenbalg was keenly aware that to attain his object he needed a printing press. He made repeated
demands for a press in his letters of April–June 1709. The Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, set up in the 1690s, came forward to help under the recommendation of the Rev. A. W.
Boehme (the German chaplain to Prince George of Denmark). In 1711 the society sent the mission
some copies of the Bible in Portuguese as well as a printing press with pica types and other
accessories along with a printer to operate it. The ship was held up by the French near Brazil, and the
printer Jones Finck was arrested but later released. Finck soon succumbed to fever near the Cape of
Good Hope. The printing press reached India in 1712 unaccompanied by its operator. The press,
however, started functioning with the help of a German printer–cum–compositor.
Malabar characters were obtained from Europe. A letter dated April 7, 1713, contains a list of 32
books in the Malabar language, original works as well as translations, and 22 books in Portuguese
prepared by the missionaries. It is stated that the books in the Malabar language included a vocabulary
written on paper and another written on palm leaves.
According to a letter of January 3, 1714, the work of printing the New Testament in Tamil had
already begun. Another letter of September 27, 1714, states that, "The Four Evangelists and Acts of
the Apostles" was already printed. Reportedly, this is the oldest Tamil book printed at Tranquebar, a
copy of which is available at the Serampore College Library. From 1715 onwards with the completion
of the New Testament, printing activity in Tamil commenced in full swing. In 1715 Ziegenbalg wrote
a concise grammar of the Malabar language for use by Europeans and had it printed by 1716. A copy
of this book also exists at the Serampore College Library. Ziegenbalg and his collaborators aimed at
spreading their printed work all over India. Consequently, their marketing strategies cajoled them to
produce almanacs which were quite scarce in the country. A Sheet Almanac was printed and sold on
the coast of Coromandel as well as in Malabar and Bengal.

Constanzo G. Beschi
Parallel to printing efforts by the Protestant missionaries at Tranquebar or Tarangampãdi, the growth
of the Jesuit missionary Constanzo Beschi (Viramãmunivar; Constantine Joseph Beschi 1680–1747)
was equally significant in revolutionizing the face of Tamil print and literature. The difference in the
Christian beliefs of the respective cults gave rise to rigorous disputes and theological debates, which
on many occasions even led to violent conflicts resulting in injuries and death. These disputes were
carried on by the Lutherans through "printed books and pamphlets" whereas Beschi (due to lack of a
Jesuit-owned printing press) mainly concentrated on writing influential pieces of literature. Although
printing in Tamil was introduced by the Jesuits, by the eighteenth century the scenario had changed
and the domain of the press came to be majority controlled and cultivated by the Protestants. Beschi's
efforts in a place populated with thousands of Lutheran converts (mainly Tanjore and Travancore),
grew to become an "alarming", "arrogant" and "formidable" rival to the already sprawling missionary
activities of the Protestant fathers. One particular reason for Beschi's popularity was, as Blackburn
observes, his "Romanish compromises with local customs". In the books of Muttusami Pillai (Beschi's
Tamil biographer), he is frequently portrayed as a traditional Eastern or Oriental king, adorned with
ornate jewellery and chandan on his forehead. Beschi was reportedly favoured by the local rulers,
especially Chanda Sahib whom he had served diwan to, thereby making it easier for him to master the
language. He was intelligent enough to adopt such means which would undoubtedly benefit him in
ways more than one.
Contrary to this image, Beschi has also been examined as a magical Indian "poet-saint" with
extraordinary literary skills and persuasion prowess. Beschi's written works constituted the
substructure of modern Tamil literary acculturation. According to sources, Beschi wrote more than
twenty books :– dictionaries, epic poetry, prose collections, grammar, folklore. His major prose essay
was Veta Vilakkam which ran to 250 pages. The first bilingual Tamil grammar printed in India is also
credited to Beschi. He composed various interlingual dictionaries: Tamil-Latin, Latin-Tamil-
Portuguese, and Tamil-French and most importantly the four-way lexicon Tamil-Tamil Catur-

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Agarati which comprised meanings, synonyms, rhymes, etc. [5] This book was not printed before 1824.
Although it cannot be assumed that his works were well accepted and appreciated by the Protestants,
as Blackburn comments, the rival camp unbiasedly “admired Beschi’s literary skills - they printed one
of his grammars and another of his books (Vetiyar Olukkam, A Manual for Catechists) became
standard reading for them by the nineteenth century…”.Beschi's Parramarta Kuruvin Kattai or Guru
Simpleton was the first printed book of Tamil folktale.
Guru Simpleton
Beschi's Guru Simpleton (which occupies a status similar to The Arabian Nights or The Panchatantra
in Tamil culture) is a blend of the oral tradition of Tamil folklore and the European story form,
wrapped in the author's imaginative faculty. Although Beschi had completed its composition (along
with a preface) by 1776, the book was not published singularly until 1822 in London. Records show
that Beschi wrote the Tamil version first and later translated it into Latin. Although Beschi claimed
that the sole purpose of the book was to disseminate amusement and humour among both locals and
missionaries, Blackburn mentions that the author was most probably yearning for something more
than that – “this was a plea for a Jesuit patron, somewhere outside India, to underwrite the publication
of his dictionary and folktale”, as print was a more reliable medium to “demonstrate correct spelling”
than local scribes and copyists.

Printed oral tales in Tamil

In the history of print in early nineteenth-century India there were an enormous number of books
of oral literature, especially folktales published. Between 1800 and 1835 most printed books in
Tamil(dictionaries and grammars aside) were collections of oral tales. Well known literary texts, such
as Tirrukkural and Nalatiyar, also appeared in print, but these classical texts were outnumbered by
books of oral tales. The first of these was Vikkiramatittan Katai, a collection of folktales in the
framework of a literary tale which appeared in 1804, followed by the Catamuka Ravanan Katai in
1808; the Mariyatai Raman Katai and Tamilariyum Mantai Katai in 1812; the Pururava Cakravarti
Katai in 1819; the Katamantacari, a collection of oral tales in 1820; the Tamil – English bilingual
publication of Paramartta Kuruvin Katai (Guru Simpleton) in 1822 (in London); a
Tamil Pancatantra in 1826; the Katacintamani, another collection of oral tales, in 1833; and
translations of tales from English, French and Aesop by the 1850s. Some of these books are still
available today.

Printing by Pundits
A number of early Tamil print publishing houses were set up by the pundits in the 1830s in Madras.
These establishments played a significant role in the consolidation of the commercial printing world.
They were also involved in public–politics, the anti–missionary movement in Georgetown, for
instance. Pundits who were educated at the College Fort of St George and some who were not, used
the text-making skills they learned from the Europeans in setting up of their own presses at Madras.
The rise of the pundit - presses saw growth during the 1830s with Kalvi Vilakkam, the joint venture of
Charavanaperumal Aiyar and Vichakaperumal Aiyar in 1834. The press functioned till the 1850s
producing more than 50 books. This was followed by the Sarasvati Press (1835) of Tiruvenkatachala
Mutaliar, and Kalvi Kalanchiyam set up in 1839 by Umapati Mutaliar and his three brothers. These
presses quickly became associated with movements in deflecting the missionaries as they started
voicing the sentiments of certain sections of the Hindu community.

Arumuka Navalar
Arumuka Navalar spearheaded the Saivism cult both in Sri Lanka and in Tamil Nadu. He was the
guardian of pure and pristine Saiva tradition. He established a number of schools for Tamil and
Saivism and printing presses at Jaffna, Chidambaram and Madras. He was the most fluent Tamil
speaker and writer of his generation. At the age of 27, Arumugam was conferred the title of
“Navalar”, the eloquent.

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In the context of printing, Arumuka Navalar or Arumuga Navalar was an editor of old Tamil texts.
Among his editions the most important are Mantalapurutar's lexicon cutamani nikantu with
commentary (first printed in 1849), the standard medieval grammar Nannūl with a commentary
(1851), the early devotional poem Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai, Manikkavacakar’s great devotional
poems Tiruvacakam and tirukkovaiyar, the text of Tirukkuṛaḷ with Parimelazhagar’s detailed gloss in
1861.
Arumuga Navalar apparently introduced few novel features in the area of Tamil editing. He was
probably the first to use punctuation marks like the semicolon, the question mark and the exclamation
mark. He produced the first “split” complex sandhi forms to facilitate reading and comprehension.

Madras School Book Society

The Calcutta School-Book Society was established under the patronage of the Marquis of Hastings in
1817. Soon after a similar society was set up in Madras. The association in South India soon
languished, and for many years it virtually ceased to exist. It was revived around 1850, when prizes
were offered for the best school book on specified subjects. Several new publications were thus
secured of which, The History of India by H. Morris Esq., was very successful.
The publications of the Madras School Book Society being chiefly used in Government Schools such
that religious sentiments were adapted accordingly. The committee of the Madras Tract Society issued
some books with Christian elements intended specially for mission schools Classified catalogue of
Tamil printed books, with introductory notices. Though reading books of the Madras School Book
society were prepared with special reference to the government schools, the committee was not
restricted to non–Christian publications. The Rev. A.R. Symonds suggested that the society should
make an effort to provide wholesome and attractive literature. Prizes were also offered for the best
translation of Robinson Crusoe.

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