Unit 3

• Citizenship
Citizenship is the legal status of belonging to a country, granting
individuals rights and obligations. It is a membership and
allegiance to a sovereign state. The term “citizen” can be
understood in a narrow sense and broad sense. In a narrow
sense, it means the resident of a city or one who is living in a
city. While in a broad sense citizen means a person who resides
within the territorial limits of the State. Speaking in terms of
political science, citizen means a person who is the member of
the State and who enjoys social and political rights.

Definitions:-
• “ Citizen is he who has the power to take part in the
deliberative or judicial administration of any state is said to
be a citizen of the state”
-Aristotle

• “The members of a civil society bound to this society by

certain duties, subject to its authority and equal participants
in its advantage”.
-Vattal

On the basis of definitions given above, we arrive at the

conclusion that in order to become a citizen one must have the
membership of the state, social and political rights and sentiment
of devotion to the state. The loyalty of citizen towards his state is
an essential element of the definitions of citizenship.
• Methods of acquiring citizenship
Citizens are two types: natural born and naturalized.
Natural citizens are those who are the citizens of a state by
virtue of their birth or blood relations. Naturalized citizens
are those foreigners who are granted the citizenship of the
country on the fulfilment of some conditions laid down by
the respective country.
Each country has its own policies, regulations and
criteria as to who is entitled to its citizenship. A person can
be granted citizenship on number of bases which are as
follows:-

1. Citizenship by Birth:- One of the most fundamental and

widely recognized methods of acquiring citizenship is by
birth. This can take place through two main principles: jus
sanguinis and jus soli, and in some cases, by the
individual’s choice after attaining a certain age.

a. Jus Sanguinis (Right of Blood): Under the jus sanguinis

principle, citizenship is acquired through one or both
parents, regardless of the child’s place of birth. This means
that if a child is born to citizens of a particular country, the
child automatically becomes a citizen of that country, even
if born abroad. This principle is commonly followed in many
European and Asian countries, where lineage and ethnic
nationality are key determinants of citizenship.

b. Jus Soli (Right of Soil): The jus soli principle grants

citizenship to individuals born within the territory of the
state, regardless of the nationality or legal status of their
parents. This form of citizenship is common in countries like
the United States, Canada, and several Latin American
nations. However, many countries that follow jus soli have
added conditions, such as requiring at least one parent to
be a legal resident or citizen.
c. Choice Given to the Child After Attaining Required Age:
In some cases, where a child may be eligible for dual
citizenship by birth (due to differing national laws or mixed
parentage), the law allows the individual to choose their
nationality upon reaching a certain age, typically 18. This
choice enables the individual to decide based on their
sense of identity, cultural ties, or legal benefits. It ensures
that citizenship is not imposed but consciously accepted
once the person becomes legally competent.

2. Citizenship by Marriage:- Another common method of

acquiring citizenship is through marriage to a citizen of the
country. It is also known as jus matrimony. Most countries
allow foreign spouses to apply for citizenship after meeting
specific conditions, such as proving the authenticity of the
marriage, maintaining marital stability, and residing in the
country for a stipulated period. While marriage does not
automatically confer citizenship, it often simplifies and
expedites the naturalization process. This method
promotes family unity and helps integrate foreign spouses
into the socio-political framework of the country.

3. Citizenship by Adoption:- Citizenship can also be

acquired through legal adoption. When a minor child is
adopted by one or more citizens of a country, the child may
automatically acquire the citizenship of the adoptive
parents, provided the adoption is recognized under national
law. The granting of citizenship in such cases often
depends on the age of the child, the legal validity of the
adoption process, and whether the adoptive parents
themselves hold full citizenship status. This method serves
to ensure the child's legal and social integration into the
family and country.
4. Citizenship by Naturalization:- Naturalization is a legal
process through which a foreign individual acquires
citizenship after fulfilling certain statutory requirements.
This method is not automatic and is granted at the
discretion of the state, subject to the applicant meeting
prescribed conditions. There are several categories under
naturalization, including:

a. By Domicile: Citizenship by domicile involves acquiring

nationality after residing in a country for a significant period.
The individual must typically demonstrate long-term legal
residence, stable income, a clean legal record, and
sometimes cultural integration, such as language
proficiency or knowledge of national history.

b. By Choice: In some legal systems, individuals may

choose to apply for citizenship voluntarily, especially in
cases of statelessness or when eligible through dual
nationality laws. This is considered a personal declaration
of allegiance to the state and is typically subject to approval
by the concerned authorities.

c. By Marriage (as a path to Naturalization): Though already

mentioned as a separate method, marriage is also
recognized as a basis for naturalization. In such cases, the
foreign spouse undergoes the naturalization process but
often under relaxed conditions, such as a reduced
residency requirement or exemption from certain
formalities.

d. By Government Appointment: Some states reserve the

right to grant citizenship to individuals who have rendered
extraordinary service to the nation, such as in the fields of
science, sports, diplomacy, arts, or national security. This
is a discretionary power usually exercised through
 presidential or governmental approval and is considered an
honorary or exceptional form of naturalization.

e. By Application: The most standardized method under

naturalization, this involves the individual submitting a
formal application to the relevant government department.
The process typically requires meeting various criteria such
as a minimum residency period, legal conduct, proficiency
in the national language, and allegiance to the constitution.
Upon approval, the individual may be required to take an
oath of citizenship, marking the completion of the process.

• Methods of losing citizenship

Citizenship, while generally considered a permanent legal
status, can in certain cases be lost or revoked. States have
legal provisions that define the conditions under which an
individual may cease to be a citizen. These methods of
losing citizenship vary across countries and can be
voluntary or involuntary. Below are the major methods
through which citizenship may be lost:

1. Renunciation:- Renunciation refers to the voluntary act

of giving up one's citizenship. Individuals may renounce
their citizenship when they acquire a new nationality, wish
to avoid dual obligations (such as military service or
taxation), or no longer wish to maintain legal ties with their
country of origin. This process typically requires the
individual to submit a formal declaration to the government,
and the state must accept the renunciation for it to take
effect. Some countries also require proof of having acquired
another nationality, to prevent statelessness.

2. Denaturalization:- Denaturalization is the involuntary

revocation of citizenship that was previously granted,
usually through naturalization. This typically occurs when it
is discovered that the individual obtained citizenship
fraudulently—by lying, concealing important information,
fraud in naturalization process or engaging in criminal
activities such as espionage or terrorism. Denaturalization
is a legal process initiated by the state and often requires a
court ruling or executive order. Once denaturalized, the
individual may either return to their previous nationality or
become stateless, depending on the laws of other countries
involved.

3. Voluntary Acquisition of another Citizenship:- In

many countries, acquiring a foreign nationality voluntarily—
without the permission of the home government—can lead
to the automatic loss or termination of original citizenship.
This principle is based on the idea that acquiring a new
nationality may signal allegiance to another state and result
in a conflict of loyalty. However, some countries allow dual
citizenship and do not treat this as a cause for automatic
loss, while others require citizens to notify or seek
permission before acquiring another nationality.

4. Residing Abroad Permanently:- Some countries may

revoke citizenship if a citizen lives abroad for an extended
period without maintaining official ties with their home
country. This is especially true for naturalized citizens or
those with conditional citizenship, where continued
residence in the country may be a requirement. If a person
is perceived to have abandoned their allegiance by
establishing permanent residence elsewhere, the state may
initiate legal action to withdraw citizenship.

5. Marriage with a Foreigner:- In earlier legal systems,

especially those with patriarchal norms, women often lost
their citizenship automatically upon marrying a foreign
national. Although this practice has been widely abolished
 due to human rights concerns, some countries may still
have laws where marriage to a foreigner can lead to loss of
citizenship if the person voluntarily adopts the spouse’s
nationality. In modern legal frameworks, marriage alone
does not usually result in loss of citizenship unless it
involves acquiring another nationality voluntarily under the
laws of the home country.

6. Serving in Foreign Military or Government: - A person

may lose their citizenship if they join the military or civil
service of a foreign state, or particularly if that state is
considered hostile or if such service is done without prior
approval or found to be traitor with allegiance to another
state. This act is often seen as a breach of allegiance and
loyalty to one’s home country. Serving in a foreign
government may suggest dual loyalties or even conflict of
interest, especially during periods of international tension.
As a result, several states have provisions that
automatically revoke citizenship or allow for revocation
under such circumstances.

• Political parties
A political party is a group of like-minded people who work
together as a unit to influence the general public in the context
of elections to gain control over the government. The members
of a political party share common goals and objectives. They
agree upon certain fundamental principle of public policy and
have a ideology of their own.

It is group of people who come together to contest elections

and hold power in the government. Political parties are well
organized which agrees on some proposed policies and
programs with a view to promoting the collective interests of their
supporters.

Definitions:-
• “ A party is group of men professing the same political
doctrine”
-Benjamin Franklin

• “A political party may thus defined as an organized group of

citizens who share the same political views and who by
acting as a political unit try to control the government”.
-Gilchrist

• “A political party consists of a group of citizens more or less

organized who act as political unit and who by the use of
their voting power aim to control the government and carry
out their general policies”.
-Gettel

Manifesto:- A manifesto is a published verbal declaration of the

intentions, motives or the views by a political party before
election. A public declaration of policy and aims, especially one
issued before an election by a political party or candidate. It is a
very important tool used by the political parties to present before
people their ideology, visions, aims, goals and set of promises to
be fulfilled if they were elected to power. It is a means to woo the
voters to vote for their political party.

Functions of political parties

Political parties are indispensable for the working of democratic
governments. It lies in the fact that democracies cannot function
without the existence of political parties. The political parties
perform the following functions:-
1) It makes the working of parliamentary government
possible:- A parliament consists of representatives of the
people. The political parties organize these representatives on
party lines and the electorate choses their representatives on the
basis of their party affiliation. The party which gains the majority
forms the government and runs the state and the other remaining
parties constitute the opposition who try to find fault with the
government. Thus making it more responsible. In the absence of
political parties parliamentary government is not possible.
2) Political parties formulate policies:- After elections and
formation of government by the political party that attained the
majority formulates policies of administration and running the
state on the basis of the promises made by the party in its
manifesto. These policies are made keeping mind the interests
of the general public. Other than this policies are also formulated
on internal law and order, national security and also policies on
the basis of its ideologies.
3) Political parties educate public opinion:- Political parties
educate, formulate and organize public opinion by spreading
awareness about political issues, government policies, and
citizens' rights. They simplify complex matters through
speeches, debates, and media outreach. By presenting different
ideologies, they help people form informed views. Parties also
encourage public participation in political processes. Through
these means, they shape and guide public thinking in a
democracy. This also helps in the growth of the level of political
consciousness of common citizens.
4) Political parties provide stability:-The political parties in
more than one way unite, simplify and stabilize the political
process of the country. Political parties provide political stability
by organizing government leadership and ensuring a smooth
transfer of power through elections. They unify diverse interests
under a common agenda, reducing political conflict. By
maintaining a structured opposition, they encourage healthy
debate and accountability. Parties also build public trust in the
democratic process. This helps sustain orderly governance and
long-term national stability.
5) It helps in the recruitment of leaders:- Political parties help
in the recruitment of leaders by identifying, training, and
promoting individuals with leadership potential. They provide a
platform for aspiring politicians to gain experience and public
exposure. Through internal elections and party positions, parties
prepare leaders for legislative and executive roles. This ensures
a continuous supply of capable leadership.

Merits of political parties

The merits of political parties are as follows:-
1) Political parties encourage public participations:- One of
the greatest strengths of political parties is their role in
encouraging active public participation in politics. By organizing
campaigns, rallies, debates, and public meetings, parties
engage citizens in the political process. They give individuals a
platform to express their views, support causes, and influence
policy decisions. Through party membership, volunteering, and
voting, people become more politically aware and involved,
thereby strengthening the democratic system.
2) Political parties creates checks and balances:- Political
parties, particularly when functioning in a multi-party or
competitive environment, help establish a system of checks and
balances. The presence of opposition parties ensures that the
ruling party is held accountable for its actions. They question
government policies, highlight corruption or inefficiency, and
offer alternative solutions. This constant scrutiny helps prevent
the abuse of power and promotes transparency in governance.
3) Political parties distribute information throughout
society:- Political parties play a key role in informing the public
about political issues, government policies, election agendas,
and national concerns. Through their communication networks—
including speeches, press releases, manifestos, and media
outreach—they disseminate crucial information to all sections of
society. This helps citizens stay informed and make educated
choices during elections and public debates.
4) Political parties water down special interest investment:-
While special interest groups may try to influence politics for their
own benefit, political parties often act as a moderating force.
Since parties aim to appeal to a broad base of voters, they must
balance the demands of various groups. This dilutes the power
of any single interest group, encouraging more inclusive
policymaking that reflects the needs of the wider population,
rather than catering to narrow, elite interests.
5) Political parties helps decisions be made quicker:- In a
representative democracy, political parties streamline the
decision-making process. By organizing lawmakers into
structured groups with common ideologies, parties help reduce
confusion and delays in governance. When a party has a clear
majority, decisions on legislation and policies can be made more
efficiently. Even in coalition governments, party negotiations
often lead to faster consensus than in systems without organized
political groupings.
Kinds of political parties
There are various kinds of political parties depending on its basis
of functioning, structure, goals, motives and ideologies. The
main kinds of political parties are as follows:-
a) One Party system
b) Multi-Party system

a) One Party System

A one-party system is a political system in which a single political
party controls the government, and no other parties are allowed
to compete for power. In this system, the ruling party dominates
all aspects of political life, and opposition parties are either
banned or allowed limited and controlled participation. Citizens
may still vote, but they typically choose among candidates from
the same party. It is urged that the single party is the reflection
of the national unity. The single party preserves the unity of the
nation and looks at problems from the national point of view.
This system is often found in authoritarian or communist states,
such as China or North Korea, where the party claims to
represent the will of the people and maintain national unity. While
it may bring political stability and quick decision-making, a one-
party system is criticized for suppressing dissent, limiting
freedom of expression, and reducing political accountability. It
often leads to lack of competition and innovation in governance.

Merits of One-party system

1) It helps in the establishment of stable administration which
further helps in the progress of the country.
2) In this system, formation and execution of long-term planning
is possible.
3) The country achieves remarkable economic progress as the
government ends conflicts among all the classes and it devotes
its entire energy towards the increase of production in the
country.
4) The administration becomes efficient because all the powers
are concentrated in the hands of the leader and favoritism,
nepotism and black marketing are banished altogether.
5) There is unity and discipline in the country.
6) Time is not wasted in unnecessary criticism and propaganda.

Demerits of one-party system

1) Since there is only one party in this system, there is no
freedom of speech and expression.
2) Democracy is eroded and dictatorship emerges.
3) There is no regard for the views of different classes and
interests.
4) The government becomes absolute and the administration
becomes irresponsible.
5) The development of the personality is hindered because all
social freedoms are crushed with heavy hand.
6) In this system, there is an overbearing influence of terrorism,
and the opponents are crushed with heavy hands.
7) The dictators make enormous military preparations for
maintaining their honor and position, and they adopt policy of war
and victory which is quite harmful for the country and its people.
b) Multi-Party system
A multi-party system is a political system in which multiple
political parties compete for power and have the potential to form
the government, either independently or through coalitions. It
encourages diverse representation of ideas, interests, and social
groups within the political framework. It signifies the existence of
many political parties, big and small, in the country.
This system is common in democratic countries like India,
Germany, and France, where no single party often gains a
majority, leading to coalition governments. The multi-party
system promotes healthy competition, greater public
participation, and checks and balances. However, it can
sometimes lead to political instability, frequent elections, and
challenges in decision-making due to conflicting party interests.

Merits of Multi-Party system

The merits of multi-party system are as follows:-
1) It gives ample choice to the voters to chose from depending
on their policies and ideologies. Having ample choices or options
to vote is preferable over having only two choices or no choice
at all.
2) It gives adequate representation to numerous interests of
people as there is freedom of views and opinion. This ensures
all shades of representation and makes sure that all views and
classes are heard.
3) Multiple parties competing for power encourage better
performance, transparency, and responsiveness from all political
actors thereby ensuring healthy competition.
4) Power is less likely to concentrate in the hands of one party,
reducing the risk of authoritarian rule and ensuring democratic
balance and therefore it prevents dictatorship.
5) A multi-party system often includes regional or state-based
parties that focus on the specific needs and issues of their local
areas. This leads to better attention to regional development and
ensures that national policies are more balanced and inclusive
across different parts of the country.

Demerits of Multi-party system

1) Multi-party system leads to formation of coalition governments
which are basically weak and are high likely to dissolve soon.
2) In a multiple party system there is lack of administrative
efficiency because the government changes very often.
3) Parties in a coalition may have to compromise their core
principles to stay in power, leading to diluted or inconsistent
policies. With multiple parties involved, reaching consensus on
major issues can be time-consuming, delaying important
legislation or reforms.
4) Frequent coalition governments can lead to unstable
administrations, with parties often pulling out over
disagreements, causing early elections or policy paralysis which
may cause political instabilities. This was observed in the mid
and late 1990s in India.
5) In this system trading in votes and formation of government
undermines the political morality.