UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE, NUTRITION AND

TECHNOLOGY
BSC. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
AFT 406: TEA AND COFFEE: COURSE OUTLINE

Instructor: Dr. George Ooko Abong’

TEA TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
 Tea comes from the bush plant, Camellia sinensis
 Has been used as beverage for years since then.
 Accidentally discovered in China (<5000 years when a leaf
dropped inside cup of water and developed a pleasant taste,
flavour and colour. Just like saccharine?
 Cultivation:
i. started in India (1818-34)
ii. Java 1824
iii. Ceylon (Srilanka) 1867
iv. Durban in botanical gardens (1850)
v. Malawi 1878
vi. Kenya (1900/3 in Endebbes and Limuru)
 Commercial development started in 1920-30
 Kenya now is leading in production after India and Srilanka.
 Much of China’s production is consumed locally.
 USSR also has some tea (USSR-Russia)

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 Kenyan tea industry is divided into 2.
1. Large scale farm (Estates) production (40%)e.g.
Company No of factories
Unilever Tea (K) Ltd 11
Eastern produce 7
George Williamson 3
Sotik Tea Co. 1
Kikebe Ltd 1
Kaisugu 1
Nandi Tea 1
Sotik Highlands 1
Keritor Ltd 1
Tinderet Tea Ltd 1
Kaisagat Tea Factory 1
Kiptagit Tea Factory 1
Ceres Tea Estate 1
James finlays-4 factories
 These are much more productive in Yields/ha as they allow
plucking of >2 leaves and buds which also compromises quality.
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 2. Small holders -60% under auspice of KTDA-
[Link]
 The factories are owned by farmers but managed by KTDA
agency:
o advice on production at farms
o harvesting, handling,
o Processing and marketing.
 Mission and vision of KTDA:
Mission:
To invest in tea and other related profitable ventures for the benefit of the
shareholders and other stakeholders
Vision:
To be the preferred investment vehicle for the small holder tea farmers in Eastern
Africa
 Have good quality tea (allows only 2 leaves and buds to be
plucked).
 Mainly deal with black CTC and black orthodox tea
 Factories based on 7 regions: Aberdare ranges-2, Mt. Kenya-2,
Kisii, Nandi, Kericho,
 N/B:
o There is a Kenya tea directorate under AFA
o License tea processing factories
o Promote Kenyan tea at all levels
o Disseminates information related to tea
o Policy advice to government.

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Chemical constituents of tea leaf (soluble substances)
Substance Percent dry Percent total
weight soluble solids
Fresh Black black tea
shoot tea
1. flavanol (quality)
i). EGCG (epigallocatechin 9-13 1-3 3-8
gallate)
ii). ECG (epicatechin gallate) 3-6 These are polyphenols
iii). EGC (epigallocatechin) 3-6 which are derivatives of
iv). EC (epicatechin) 1-3 gallic or catechin e.g
v). Others 1-2 tannins
2. Flavonols and their 3-4 2-3 6-8
glycosides
3. Flavandiols 2-3 - -
4. Phenolic acids and 5 4 -
depsides
5. Thioflavins (if high then - 1-2 3-6
high quality tea)
6. Dialyzable biflavonols - 2-4 6-10
and dialyzable thearubins
7. Non-dialysable materials- - 1-2 3-5
thearubigins
8. Polysaccharides 14 14 3-4
9. Proteins 15 15 0.5-1
10. Caffeine 3-4 3-4 8-11
11. Amino acids and 4 5 14
peptides
12. Sugars 4 4 11
13. Organic acids 0.5 0.5 1.5
14. Mineral substance 5 5 10
15. Volatile substance 0.01 0.02 0.05

4
N/B: Thearubigins formed by fermentation contribute to the primary
quality black tea but fermentation for too long tends to increase them
at the expense of theaflavins.
Factors affecting composition of tea
The tea composition is synonymous to tea leaf
a) Genotype characteristics
 The two extreme gynotype are Camellia assamica and Camellia
sinensis. There are also intermediates between the two.
 The chemical composition of shoots differ
 Flavanol content in assamica (30%) sinensis (10%)
 The proportions of individual flavanols differ with
assamica containing high proportion of gallate esters
than sinensis.
 Flavanol- present largely as mono and diglycosides in
assamica while trad. Triglycerides in high proportions
in sinensis
 Volatile fraction- proportionately large quantities of
relatively high boiling terpenoids and aromatics
substances generally considered responsible for
desirable flavouring characteristics in sinensis.
 In summary- While assamica has generally large
leaves, high yields and rich in flavanols and caffeine of
which are responsible for colour, strength and
briskness, sinensis are superior in certain flavour
characteristics.
b) Environment
i) Cultural practice
 Age:
 Yields and quality potentials of tea bush not fully
realised till 10 years after planting.
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  Economic importance of tea bushes generally 40-45
years but may be larger if maintained.
 In the first 10 years quality is not fully developed but
in remaining years quality potential fully realised.
 Pruning:
- Most important cultural practice.
- Kenya’s pruning cycle 3-4 years to keep bushes at
manageable heights
- Also to keep plant in vegetative phase.
- Difference in quality can be detected according to time
elapsed since last pruning.
- Stimulates young shoots constitute cropped
proportions.
- After pruning the quality increases with time.
- Renew actively growing branches for replacement
- The 4 types of pruning include;
a) Collar pruning (near the ground )
b) Medium pruning
c) Top pruning
d) Fringe or lung pruning
 Shade (shading of tea)
o Has effect on the under growth.
o Depending on the climate provided in form of the
shades to protect from relative high temperatures.
o Shade trees were removed because of reduced
yields but the effect of shade on tea quality not very
clear.
o There has been conflicting results.
 Fertilizers
Application may affect quality.
6
 K fertilizers have little effect on quality.
PO4s improves quality (vary with district. But these are
not usually used because they do not sufficiently increase
yields.
Nitrogenous fertilizers commonly used increases yields
considerably and studies show increase in Nitrogen rates
reduces the quality of made black tea and reduced
flavanol levels. The flavour decreases and thus low quality
final made tea.
ii. Altitude
 In high altitude, tea universally regarded as superior to low one
 Considered to have important effect particularly on volatile
fractions.
iii. Climate
 Temperature, light, humidity, day length (not much of a problem
because do not vary much in Kenya)
 Best quality associated with slow growth of tea bush.
 If unfavourable climatic conditions ( less relative humidity) low
yields but high quality
c) Harvesting
i) Plucking standards
 70-90 days for another plucking.
 Size of harvested shoot or the plucking standards influence
quality.
 Best tea determined by plucking only 2 terminal leaves and bud
(fine plucking).
 Course plucking- 3 or more leaves below the apical bud.
 Caffeine content decreases with maturity thus high caffeine
content only produced by fine plucking standards
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 Also the theaflavin value decreases as plucking become course.

ii) Handling leaf

 Avoid damage after plucking or overheating leaf to maintain
quality.
 Pluckers to use basket sacks, after weighing and collection leaves
should be transported with open sacks or baskets rather than
bulking in lorry or trailers
 This helps prevent overheating damage which will initiate
chemical reaction that will change the composition of tea leaves.

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TEA PROCESSING
 Quality control and tasting ensures quality of final product of
delivered tea leaf.
 Various tests reject consignment, downgrade or carry out
sorting.
 The 3 products of tea processing are,
Black tea or orthodox fermented dried
Green tea-unfermented
Oolong tea-partially fermented
- Black tea differs from green tea in that during fermentation stage
black tea is fully fermented while green tea is not.
- The enzymes responsible for fermentation are inactivated after
maceration hence maintains the chlorophyll.
- Oolong tea is between the black and green tea. There is potential
fermentation of macerated tea leaves before drying.

9
 H2O at
AIR GREEN LEAF. Treatment plant. TREATED
F/WOOD TA=81%
WATER
CN=10%
Temps< 350c LEAF INTAKE
BOILER AT 90-
16-20hrs For Physical Withering. 80-85% m.c 100%

60-70% Rh
1 WITHERING AND
STEAM AT
150 PSI DISCHARGING

Compost
Tea Waste to
Hot air 25-30oc

At ambient
70-72%
[Link]
cooling.
2
CTC

69-70 M.C. % cutting

Ambient temp.24-30oc o
temp 28-33 c
dhool air for radiators

3 FERMENTING

Reworked teas
135-160 mins at 24-28oc

Hot air at 145-160 oc(Inlet)

And 75-90 oc (Exhaust)

4 DRYING
Electricity

2.8-3.2 at 80oc
Tea Waste to Compost

een Leaf 25-30 mins

STD BULK DENSITIES (Drying)
KAPSO –BPI-260-300CC
Materials. PFI-250-275CC
PD-240-260CC
DI-220-235CC
Water RORET/TENDUET 5
BPI-305-330CC SORTING
PFI-310-320CC
Steam PD-260-300CC
DI-245-255CC
Air

a Waste PACKING OUT WEIGHT (KGS)

compost
BPI54-56 50-52 6
PFI 58-60 55-58 PACKING
ansport PD65-68 65-68
PD 70-72 N/A
worked
as -done by a senior officer manned by trained TRANSPORT (SUB-CONTRACTED)
guard, documents made and kept DESPATCH
-container verification done 7

10
Black tea Manufacturing
Withering
 Prime object is to prepare the leaf for rolling by making it:
o flaccid
o permeable to juices
 Potential water loss for moisture contained in the tea leaves.
 The final mc closely controlled because of subsequent process
(CTC) or rolling (physical characteristics) for effectives of the
process.

 Tea is spread thinly on tray banks or tats space 5-6 inches to

allow free air access
 With alleyways to allow distribution and removal of leaf.
 This can be in open air or building.
 Open air has no control except you use hygrometric conditions
of the ambient air.
 In closed building, air is circulated by fans; drawing air from
bulking chambers.
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 Humidity is reduced by mixing with hot air.
 Can be done using drum withering tats: perforated revolving
drums holding 1500 pds which air is blown (130 oF) and take less
space.
 Realistic check on the % =out turn of dry to withered leaf.
 Light withers (40-42%), medium (45-50%).
 The average time is 18-20 hrs for tats and 3 hrs for drums.
 A leaf for rolling is prepared by making it flaccid and permeable
to juices which rolling will wring out and spread evenly on the
surface.
 Take note of biochemical changes (after plucking enzymatic
activity and soluble amino acids increase for 20hrs and thereafter
changes are erratic but caffeine increases for 72 hrs.).
 These occur whether the leaf is withered or not.
 Brings increasing permeability of cell membrane which mingling
enzyme, polyphenols and oxygen depends on orthodox
manufacturing.
 The changes here increase quality eg
o Enhanced enzyme efficiency that promotes quicker and
more efficient fermentation.
o Amino acids influence colour and aroma enhanced.
o Caffeine is a stimulant making tea desirable.
 Under-withering is not desirable because
o Leaf thrown out of rollers
o Juice may be expressed and lost.
o Wet leaves clog sieves of sifting machines.
o Produce flack tea of low specific gravity.
 Too much withering overtax the drier (firing) and stalk cortex
removed from the rollers and tea becomes more red and so
more colour than quality.
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Physical changes-physical withered
 Cell juice looses water first which is rapid then plasma colloids
begin to loose water more quickly
 It is then followed with water evaporation resulting from
changes of plasma colloids which lose hydrolic nature.
 The cell protoplasm irreversibly looses its hydrophilic properties
and leaf does not restore initial turgor.
 The leaf becomes soft and elastic.
 The changes here are so obvious and profound that many
experts have erroneously regarded the withering stage as purely
physical process attaching no importance to chemical changes.

Biochemical changes- chemical withered

 Enzymatic activity increases in the leaf required for fermentation
3 folds.
 Oxidation reactions:
o Involves oxygen absorption by the leaf
o followed by oxidative reaction within the leaf
o this confirmed by intensification of colour of water
extract of withered leaf compared to fresh leaf.
o E.g if the colouration of fresh leaf is 100% then withered
one will be 150-175%.
o Catechins vary considerably in withered leaf.
o Sum total in the plucked leaf 139 mg/g and withered one
116 mg/g.
 Changes in individual catechins in freshly withered leaf:
Catechins Fresh leaf (mg/g) Withered leaf (mg/g)
EGC 26.2 23.8
GC 13.3 11.1
EC 8.9 9.9
EGCG 72.2 54.7
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 ECG 18.1 15.6
 The decreases in catechins with exception of EC seem to be
associated with oxidative transformation of the compounds.
 An insignificant increase of EC appears related to the
degradation of EGCG which is also suggested by increase in the
content of gallic acid at withering.
 Increase of soluble nitrogen- due to changes in protein and
amino acid composition in the tea leaf.
 The activity of proteolytic enzymes increase resulting in protein
hydrolysis.
 The content of soluble protein and free amino acids in the
withered leaf also increases.
 The increase is 6-12 %.
 Biosynthesis:
o There is a significant increase in the content of free air
during withering.
o Amino acids not in unwithered leaf are present in the
withered leaf e.g. leucine and phenylalanine.
o It appears that biosynthesis of amino acids and other form
of aldehydes and brown red pigments in the course of
oxidative interaction with catechins important for formation
of aroma and infusion of colour.
 Essential oils: marked changes develop.
 The biochemical process which results in the tea aroma during
fermentation starts at withering and that is why you can smell the
fruit aroma in withering room.
 Withering process characterized by accumulation of appreciable
amount of essential oils responsible for the specific tea aroma e.g
linaldehydexide, nerd, benzallelyde, trans-2-hexenol, cis-3-
hexenol.

14
  In some studies green and withered leaf were found to contain
0.3-0.5 % essential oils respectively

Degree of the wither

 This is the extent to which withering process proceeds and may
be expressed in 2 ways:
i) Weight of leaf withered as percentage of fresh leaf weight
= withered wt/fresh leaf wt x 100. This compares
processes/operations on day to day basis. But doesn’t
account for moisture content due to weather, therefore not reliable.
ii) Out-turn of the black tea= wt made tea/wt withered tea x
100. It is reliable since variation of moisture content of
made tea is very small (2.5-3.5 %) if dryer properly
constructed with correct through-put and airflow,
temperatures maintained. It is used to control drying
process. 40-42 %= light withered, 45-50 %=medium to
hard wither.
Withering systems
 Natural withering
o air in natural circulation is used and no control of speed,
temperature or rh.
o Open sided shade is normally used.
o Tea leaves are placed on series of floors usually wire
supported large mesh wires netting covered with removable
hesion cloth.
o It results to potential water evaporation from the tea leaf
and biochemical and physical changes. Requires large
space/area.
o Has many uncertainties: rate of moisture loss depends on
natural conditions, rh, rainfall and wind speed.

15
 Controlled withering
o Air temperature is controlled particularly where heating is
done.
o Withering is more efficient and more uniform not just
within a particular path of tea leaf but from day to day.
 More uniform product quality with mc etc. can be:
i) Tunnel withering
o Tea leaf is spread on layers of trays on the mobile
trolleys hession or wire netting.
o The leaf loading on the trays is about 1.8 kg/m2 the
trolleys are wheeled into a withering tunnel and
subjected to warm air through tunnel, typically air mass
at speed 2.5 m/s and has wet bulb depression 7.5 oC
(no relative humidity).
o It is difficult to estimate the dry bulb temperature and
this can say something about rh.
o The warm air should not exceed 38 oC.
ii) Trough withering
 It is the pre-dominantly used in Kenya in all factories.

16
 Much longer and narrower 25m.
 There is a wire, hession, nylon netting fixed horizontally on
the upper part of the tough about 9 inches below its top.
 A layer of tea leaf, 8 inches (20 cm) thick is spread on the
netting resulting in a loading of about 23.5 kg/m2.
 At the bottom of trough is tunnel which serves as an air
condition.
 Air is circulated by a fan made of steel tubes through which
steam flows and condenses as it looses heat to the
surrounding air.
 The condensate is re-circulated back to the boiler via steam
trap (prevents escape of live steam and allows flow of
condensate).

17
  Indirect fuel heaters may be used (100-industrial diesel oil)
especially at KTDA for 1o-15 years.
 Hot air temperature should not exceed 38 in the troughs.
The air fan usually reversible (air flow direction can be
reversed).
 Withering usually starts with ambient air flow in downward
direction through the leaf.
 This is done mainly to remove leaf mc.
 After 2 hrs the flow is reversed, air moves through the
heater and upwards through the bed to the leaves. Warm air
flows upwards through the leaves 15-18 hrs.
 The total withering time varies from 18-20 hrs in normal
practice.
 Withering here takes much space and capacity of the
factory, better improve withering time to increase capacity.
iii) Continuous withering machine- this is an option to be
considered but not well adopted in Kenya. Long used in Russia.
Drawing

18
  Tea leaf spread on perforated trays move from feeding end
of the bed to the delivery end where leaf is discharged onto
a conveyor belt to rolling area.
 Warm air flows upwardly through the bed of withering leaf
and there is continuous feeding and delivery to the moving
belt.
 The belt speed is variable and operation can determine
withering time from one end of the belt to the other.
 It is improved with continuous flow compared to the other
types where you wait for rotors before the next step.
Factors affecting withering of tea leaf
i) Extent of tea damage- damage tends to cause premature
critical changes and hence uneven withering. There is
deterioration of leaf appearance and liquor quality if damage is
significant.
ii) Type of leaf received- course plucking results to slow
withering leaves than fine plucking. Leaves from different yields
may have different sizes and composition which may influence
rate of withering (physical and chemical changes).
iii) Moisture content of leaf surface- surface water content
determines degree of withering or time. Its presence encourages
bacterial growth which adversely affects final tea quality.
iv) Thickness of spread- for given withering trough, design of
pan determines speed of withering. Air flow rate depends on
thickness of spread of leaf, if thick requires higher air flow rate
and hence affect degree of wither and increase time of wither.
v) Drying air parameters- drying capacity of air is influenced
by temperature, rainfall, air flow rate. If air is saturated (100%
rh), no evaporation of water will be effected from the leaves.
The lower the rh, the higher the rate of withering. Temperature
19
 affects rh, rh decreases with its increase and vice versa.
Increasing it means high evaporation rate since air has higher
holding capacity for water. The flow rate determines how much
water is evaporated at a given time from a batch.
vi) Duration of withering- influences quality, high for long
wither and v.v. usually takes 18-20 hrs in Kenya but can be
shortened to 6-8hrs with proved sufficiency to allow chemical
and physical changes to have high quality.

Rolling
 The object of rolling is to macerate the leaf so that the enzymes
and their substrates get intimately mixed up.
 This is achieved mechanically either by the use of an orthodox
roller, the rotorvane, or by CTC (crushing, tearing and curling)
machines.
 Rolling ruptures the cell wall thereby enabling the production of
enzymes.
 Essentially macerated and formed into particular shapes.
 In the cut tear and curl system they are curled.
Methods:
a) Orthodox method
 Orthodox tea- tis distinct and demand by some
markets.
 It uses pressure rollers and is batch process where
withered leaf (55-60 % mc) is fed to rollers of vertical
metal cylinders open at both ends.
 The lower end rests on larger circular table fitted with
series of ribs and battens.
 The fittings are basically protrusions into the leaves.

20
  The upper ends of the cylinders are closed cup which
compresses the leaves-drawing.
 The roller is rotated over a table surface at a speed of
40-75 rpm.
 Some designs may have rotating tables-double action
rollers.
 The rolling cycle takes 30 min and leaf discharged and
passed through a screen and larger pieces recycled back
(feed roller)

 Twists leaf, breaks it and expresses juice.

 Compress and turn leaf over, keeping it in continuous motion
(like rubbing between palms)

 Work done depends on pressure, friction between leaf and

rollers and motion (speed throw of crank).
21
  Leaf bruised and twisted (raised battens-can be smooth or has
cutting edges set at angles) depression, and rounded off cones.
 Under high pressure and severe battens, leaves tend to
disintegrate. Without pressure, action more directed towards
wringing and twisting.
 The juice is expressed from leaf and spread as thin film on their
surfaces (liquids forced out of cell without rapture) ad mix
catechins and enzyme which were separated and exposed to
atmosphere.
 Thus enzyme oxidation of catechins begins.
 The green colour diminishes and brown or coppery colour
begins to appear.
 Thus rolling affects final tea and has to be arranged well since:
o At onset, evolution of heat generated by friction forces and
exothermic chemical oxidation.
o The rise in allows fermentation but not be too high (80-90
o
F)
o Pressure by consolidating leaf confines and accumulate heat.
Pressure and battens impede circulation of leaf and prevent
constant air interchange within this mass.
o Thus if pressure is too high, may rise too high and cause
insufficient oxygen.
o Number of times a batch of leaf is rolled varies with tea
type, degree of wither or rolling.
o If light wither then a few times (3-5 rounds).
b) Legg-cutter (machine)
- It was originally designed for tobacco cutting and combines leaf
into firm cake and cuts it into strips varying in width ¼ -1/10
inch (0.625-0.025cm)

22
 - The strips are then given short light roll in roller with a flat table
and centre concentration.
- Not adequate when used alone but combined with pressure
rollers therefore used as pre-treatment.
- Has advantage that unwithered leaf can be processed without
difficulties. Numbers of rollers required may be about 1/3 of
those required by orthodox method.

c) Lawrie Tea Processor (LTP)

- Modified hammer mill with barrel containing shaft carrying a
series of knives and beaters.
- Shaft rotates at a high speed while leaf blown into and discharge
from machine by means of centrifugal fan.
- Advantages include:
 low capital required,
 low maintenance cost,
- Main disadvantage is that it can only be operated satisfactorily
over very narrow range of low moisture content (70-72%).
d) Rotorvane machine (RVM)
- Consists of horizontal cylinder fitted with rotor assembly which
include a worm to drive the leaf forward.
 Series of vanes which squeeze the leaf against battens and
indentations inside barrel of machine.
 Gap through which leaves discharge and adjustable to allow for
pressure applied to the leaf be varied.

Diagramme

- The machine can be used as the only means of rolling leaf.

23
 - In this case 2 or more machines of different diameters may be
used in series and course materials recycled.
- Alternatively, a RVM can be used to provide pre-treatment for
CTC.
- For pure RVM manufacture mc of 65% is required
e) Cut Tear and Curl (CTC) Machine
- Consist of a pair of horizontally mounted stationary steel rollers
rotating in opposite direction.
- Surface of each roller has series of teeth engraved on it.
- The rollers are mounted in such a way that the teeth mesh
together and the gap between them adjustable.
- 1 roller runs 700-1000 RPM and the other at approximate 1/10
of this speed 70-100 RPM.
- The withered leaf first preconditioned by processing in RVM or
other suitable alternatives then fed onto surface of slow moving
of the 2 CTC rollers.
- Usually 3 CTC machines are used in series with gap between
rollers being progressively reduced. Recommended mc of leaf
67-72%.
- Moisture Content determines amount of heat generated during
cutting (if drier more heat and vice versa).
- Maintenance of CTC rollers include periodic sharpening of the
teeth with special machine (after 100 hrs operation).

Comparison of various rolling methods

1) Leaf appearance- pressure roller is favoured where appearance
is of prime importance.
- Its best grade is relatively larger pieces of leaves, black with
definite twist imparted
- RVM can produce similar style leaf but small pieces.
24
- CTC grades are even and graining and generally smaller with
narrow particle size distribution.
- LTP usage results in a product somewhat similar to CTC but
rather broader particles size distribution.

2) Rate of fermentation
- Rate of reaction increases as particles of macerated leaf reduces
in size thus CTC teas are fermented about 11/2 hours, pressure
rollers 2-3 hours.
- The rate limiting step during fermentation is diffusion of oxygen
to the reaction sites within leaf particles.
- Smaller or particles that have larger surface area: volume ratio
and allow oxygen transfer faster.
- Pressure roller and to less extend RVM compress the leaf and
restricts oxygen transfer to interior of particles. This effect is
minimal in CTC or LTP rolling.

3) Liquor quality
- Liquor from CTC teas tend to be strong and brightly coloured
- whereas liquors from pressure rollers are generally thinner and
less coloured but often superior in flavour due to the following
reasons:
i) The more complete oxidation of volatile precursors especially
area of unsaturated fatty acid lead to high levels of less
desirable volatile substances during fermentation of CTC
rolled teas.
ii) Some desirable volume substances are destroyed by oxidation
during fermentation of CTC rolled tea
iii) Where pressure rollers used the relatively anaerobic conditions
created within compressed leaf allows the glycoside enzyme
25
 responsible for the release of the desirable volatilise: linalool
and geraniol remain active for long period resulting to high
levels of them.
iv) Due to the high moisture content of CTC rolled teas and the
larger surface area of the leaf particles, there is greater
opportunity for loss of desirable volatile substance during
drying.

Roll- breaking and Green –leaf Sifting

 On discharge from roller leaf mass is more or less compressed
into lumps, broken in sifting (in rectangular or sieve set on
moderate mechanical agitators.
 Roller discharge is fed into chopper with revolving beaters to
break up the mass before falling to sieve for the next stage.
 Roller breaker and green leaf sifting performs 3 essential
functions:
i) Cools heat to prevent retention of any excess.
ii) Aerates tea mass.
iii) Separate leaf to portions uniform for fermentation (feed
continuously spread in sieve). These now form dhools.
FERMENTATION
- Critical process that if not properly done may lead to quality
impairment.
- Involves a series of complex reactions of polyphenols, enzymes
(polyphenoloxidases, orthodiphenol oxidases or catechol
oxidases) and oxygen.
- Complex series of oxidation, chemical reactions some of which
are not fully understood but major steps seem to be known up
to now.

26
 - Main chemical reaction involves enzymes naturally present in tea
leaves.
- Hence withering temperatures have to be low so as not to reduce
the quality of the enzymes responsible during fermentation.
- During fermentation there are wide varieties of chemicals
responsible for colour, taste and flavour of the final tea.
- It is a critical stage with regard to tea quality.
- Fermentation has to proceed to optimum level so that we have
optimum quantities of desirable chemicals and minimize
quantities of undesirable chemicals.
- Once optimum levels are reached fermentation reaction has to
be quickly stopped (by drying).
Consider the chemistry of tea leaf
Enzymes:
 Oxidation enzymes of tea polyphenols occur on exposure to air.
 Thus use of oxidase enzyme with Cu as prosthetic group with
both soluble and non soluble components.
 It is specific and oxidises hydroxyl group in ortho-position and
the rate of oxidation depend on the amount of enzyme and
accumulation of fermentation products.
 The activity is high in dry weather.
 Peroxidase oxidises catechins but play no role in fermentation.
 Pectin broken by pectinases during manufacturing.
Vitamins:
 Riboflavin (B2) - Persists up to storage.
 Ascorbic acid oxidised on manufacturing during fermentation
(black tea)
Carbohydrates
- Starch and sugars
27
Inorganic constituents
-Mainly as salts in cell sap:
a) Aluminium
b) Manganese- gives green tint of leaf. Concentration increases
with leaf age.
c) Potassium- Highest among the mineral constituents and richest
in young foliage.
d) Calcium- second most abundant mineral.
e) Mg
f) Iron- variable and low if Mn is high.
g) Copper- Important because it plays a role in fermentation
h) phosphorus-high concentration in young leaves.
Fermentation process
 It is the process of oxidation of leaves.
 The mechanical aspect involves spreading out of the leaves
macerated by rolling a layer (dhools) 5-8 cms thick,
 For 45 minutes to 3 hours, depending on the quality of the
leaves.
 Fermenting machines make the process continuous, that is, every
unit of macerated leaf has to be spread out for individual
treatment.
 The thickness of spread takes care of oxygen access, rate of
moisture loss and leaf temperature.
 Requires good air circulation.
 If hot climate kept humid by reducing temperatures in controlled
fermentation rooms
 Leaf changes to coppery red shade and looses grassy oduor and
then to dark colour and pleasant aroma develops.
 Time must be kept from rolling and be limited for after 4 hrs
there is loss of quality.
28
  If leaf colour (green) is retained after this, then it means rolling
was insufficient.
 Over-fermentation decreases quality but increases colour (dark).
 Daily washing of fermentation trough surfaces to remove juices
which may be sources of bacteria is required.
 Dhools are then transferred to driers for firing.

Fermentation products:
 Most chemical process is oxidation of polyphenols by
atmospheric oxygen with help of oxidase.
 Results to production of o-benzoquinone derivates from
catechins.
 Individual phenols oxidized successively.
 The catechin derivatives only 2 are important- epigallocatachin
and its gallate.
 3 variants formed: ECG, EGCG and hybrid of EGCG and
EGC.
 The primary results of oxidation are the o-quinones that are
highly reactive and undergo wide range of different reactions
plus oxidation of other substances.

 The rearranged pairs are bisflavanols which are capable of

further reaction with ortho-quinone already present giving
theaflavins (TF).
 An additional oxidation not enzyme controlled transforms
theaflavins to thearubigins (TR).
29
 The reaction does not proceed to completion during normal tea
manufacture and finished black tea contains both TF and TR
and TF decreases with prolonged fermentation time.
 Orthodox methods of rolling gives lower TR/TF than
maceration.
 Oxidation leads to disappearance of the bitter taste of
unoxidized tannins and development of pleasant tender and
astringent taste.
 Complete chain:
GC/catechins + oxygen

Enzyme oxidation
Ortho-quinone

Paired dimerization
Bis-flavanols
Condensation with +O2
Amino acids Condensation with o-quinone
Theaflavins

Non-enzymatic oxidation
Thearubigins
 Bisflavanols are formed by condensation of 2 molecules of 0-
quinones derived from GC and are colourless.
 TF results from oxidative condensation of one molecule of the
o-quinone derived from EGC or condensation of bisflavanols
with o-quinones.
 They influence quality of teas-if high then higher quality. Their
formation is favoured by availability of oxygen and sufficient
polyphenol oxidase and high levels of sufficient substrates.
 The EGC levels in fresh tea has been found to indicate the
extent of theaflavin formation on fermentation and the ratio of
GC:C is very important in determining the potential for
theaflavin formation.

30
  Thearubigins are coloured phenolic oxidation products and are a
mixture of various compounds (polymeric and non-polymeric).

Kinetics of formation of theaflavins and thearubigins

 Temporary oxygen starvation at the start of reaction lags the
formation of theaflavins.
 The formation then proceed at a steady rate reaching peak
corresponding to the consumption of almost all the available
flavanols.
 Oxygen consumption then slows down markedly at this point
and subsequently theaflavins decrease slowly.

 Drawing.
 Thearubigins are rapidly formed and steadily from the onset and
continue to be formed slowly after theaflavin peak has passed.
Polymeric thearubigins are formed only very slowly at fast then
increase fatster after theaflavin peak has reached.
Factors affecting the formation process
i) Oxygen supply-should be adequate for the formation of o-
quinones and theaflavins
ii) Temperature- maximum theaflavins are obtained at low
temperatures.
High temperatures encourage oxidative polymerisation
leading to reduction in theflavin and increased polymeric
thearubigins due to 2 reasons:
 High temp results in increased activity of peroxidase
believed to mediate in conversion of theaflavins to
polymeric thearubigins,
 it also results in reduced solubility of oxygen in the leaf
juices hence less available oxygen
31
 iii) Time- should be up to just peak of theaflavins.
Normally subjectively judged by appearance and aroma of
fermenting leaves:
 Green yellow yellow/brown light/brown
coppery red.
 At low temp the time does not need to be controlled
very precisely but as the temp and reaction ratios
increase, control of fermentation time is much more
important.
 It varies from 45min t0 3 hrs depending on the temp
and type of processing equipment.
iv) Degree of wither-the amount of TF formed decreases
with increase of the degree of wither. Possibly 2 reasons:
 activity of polyphenol oxidase decrease with increase of
the degree of wither,
 Greater heat generated on maceration of drier leaf
leading to more rapid rate of reaction but low final
levels of TF due to competing influence of temp.
v) PH—the initial PH of leaf juice is about 5-6 but falls during
fermentation to 4.6. Adjustment of PH to 4.5-4.8 prior to
commencement of fermentation increases TF and decreases
TR thereby improving the products.
vi) U.V Radiation- exposure of leaf to uv accelerates the
rate of reaction, increases levels of TF and this improves
blackness of final product.
Other oxidation reactions
 The o-quinone act as oxidizing agents are themselves reduced
back to flavanols.
 Some of the reactions are significant in determining the
composition of the volatile fractions and hence tea aroma.
32
  They include oxidation of amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids
and carotenes:
i) Amino acids- oxidative deamination yields corresponding
aldehydes with loss of CHO & NH3.
R.CH2 (NH2).COOH O2 [Link] + CO2 + NH3 (STRECKER
DEGRADATION) .
 Some of the aldehydes are significant flavour compounds
e.g. formation of phenyl acetaldehyde with rose-like aroma
from phenylalanine.
ii) Unsaturated fatty acids- oxidation yields aliphatic
aldehydes and acids of lower molecular wts
 e.g. oxidation of linoleic/linolenic acids giving rise to trans-2
hexenal, hexanoic acid and trans-2-hexenoic acid.
iii) Carotenes- terpenoids, aldehydes, ketones which are
important in black tea aroma are formed on their oxidation.

N/B:
 The other enzymatic reactions on fermentation:
 Polyphenols and oxidative products are powerful enzyme
inhibitors and seems therefore most enzyme systems in the leaf
cease to function at or soon after maceration.
 But some enzymes other than polyphenol oxidase and
peroxidase do survive e.g.
i) Relatively large amounts of methanol in unfired leaf results to
activity of pectin methyl esterase (dimethylated pectin).
ii) Chlorophillases – injured leaf after pruning does not show any
green pigment since initial stages in the breakdown of chlorophyll
are enzyme mediated. It is likely that these enzymes also survive to
some extent and contribute to appearance of final product.

33
 iii) Glycosidase- some volatile substances that are significant
in flavour determination such as linalool and geraniol are present
and also glycosides in the intact leaf are released during maceration
which apparently as a result of enzymatic action.
Fermentation methods
i) Floor fermentation
 Cut rolled leaves ‘dhools’ are spread on the floor at a layer
sufficient to allow oxygen to diffuse throughout the mass (1-2
cm thick).
 Heat of fermentation is absorbed by the floor and frequent air
humidification done to prevent leaf surface from drying.
 Disadvantages: require large floor surface, unless floor is
clean and smooth there is danger of building bacteria whose
role may lead to unpleasant taints in the final product.
ii) Tray fermentation
 Leaves are spread on trays which are then packed on mobile
frames in fan room.
 Trays may be stack in layers and each rack gives total
fermentation space of 9 m2 and leaf thickness of 4 cm.
iii) Tubs-trolleys
 Most pre-dominant in Kenya.
 Small mobile tubs supporting bed of leaf 20-25 cm deep on a
wire mesh.
 The tubs are connected to supply of humid air which enters
the base and moves upwards through the leaf bed.
 The leaf raked from time to time to minimize uneven
fermentation due to temp variation with the leaf bed.

34
Drawing
iv) Continuous fermentation Unit (CFU)
 Continuous leaf flow from rollers into fermentation unit and
firing.
 KTDA have both the tubs and CFU. The leaf is spread on
perforated belts or trays and continuous airflow through leaf is
supplied.
 Fermentation proceeds as the leaf moves on belts.
 Often stacked belts with intermediate ball breakers are used
and more than one belt is used.

35
Disadvantages:
 Expensive especially capital cost and running costs.
 Difficult to maintain compared to tubs
 Difficult to clean.

Advantages:
 Minimal space required
 Provision of continuity in production process once the leaf is
fed.
FIRING/DRYING
 The process during which the enzyme activities are stopped
 Moisture content is brought down from 45-50 % to 2-3 % in
dried black tea.
 It also allows development of black tea aroma
 Physically achieved by blowing hot air through fermented leaves
as they are conveyed in chains.
 The drying process lasts for about 20 minutes.
 Drying in steps till last (bottom trays) or on fluidized beds.
 The hot air is provided for by furnace or steam boiler through
passage tubes.
 Induced drought is maintained by fans.
 Dhools fed into a hopper ancillary to which is an automatic
spreads.
 There are automatic thermometers recording inlet and outlet
temperatures.
 Subject to temperatures of 140 oC< in dryers.
There are 3 stages:
1. Chemical changes take place during drying which are very
important for quality of the final product.
36
 2. There is colour development.
3. Dried tea particles come out of dryers which vary widely in sizes.
 It subjects fermented tea to forced blast of hot air in such
manner that hottest air comes first into contact with driest tea.
 Through water evaporation fermented leaf looses coppery red
colour and transforms to black tea.
 At commencement fermentation proceeds at accelerated rate.
 Enzyme activity declines steadily and only ceases all together
when moisture content falls to about 20 %.
 Time taken to reach this point is critical:
o If drying is too rapid the outer layer of the leaf particles or
agglomeration of leaf particles will harden and prevent
diffusion of moisture within.
o If too slow the period of high temperature fermentation will
be too long and unpleasant taste develops and tea is said to
be stewed.
 Precise temperature time regime is less important once
enzyme activities have been completely arrested but it is
desirable that leaf reaches highest possible temperature
consistent with avoidance of burnt taste.
 This ensures maximum possible enzyme inactivation.
 The typical drying temperature ranges 100-150 oC at the start
and low temperatures used as the end of leaf temperature
approaches air temperature.
 Low temp is sometimes employed with object of retaining
high proportion of flavoury volatiles.

Chemical changes during firing

 Arrests enzymatic activities and consequently biochemical
processes.
37
  Large proportions of essential oils formed on fermentation are
volatilized (75-80 %).
 Practically every fraction of essential oils is reduced.
 Total acids increase.
 Quantity of nitrogenous compounds is reduced.
 Methanol content reduces as it is volatilised (formed after
fermentation due to demethylation of methyl) thus decreased
toxicity.
 Heat sensitive vitamins e.g. E are lost.
 Contents of glucose, sucrose and starch decrease
insignificantly which is very important for good quality since
firing results in specific tea aroma due to partial caramelisation
of soluble carbohydrates.
 At high temperature fermented tea leaf undergoes certain
transformation leading to typical lactic acid aroma and
contents of many compounds determining aroma increase e.g.
alcohols, aldehydes, acids.
Tea driers
Tea drying is predominantly done on fluidized beds but 15 years ago
it was done on endless chain driers.

1. Endless chain drier (ECD)

 As stacked bed continuous fermentation unit without ball
breakers.
 Used in series of slowly moving perforated belts of trays
placed above each other.
 Fermented tea is fed at one end and falls and moves to the
other end where it falls to the next lower level of the belt.
 The process is repeated till tea is discharged at the end of
the lowest belt.
38
  Heated air is fed at the bottom of stacked belts and flows
upwards through tea leaf and discharged to the atmosphere
after the top tea.
 Counter current occurs with driest tea leaf at the bottom
belt in contact with hottest incoming air and moist tea leaf
on top belt contact air of lowest temperature.
 The stack belt thus is like black box giving counter current
but also cross-flow.
 Drying temperatures were in the region of 104-110 oC and
some literatures indicate low temp of 82-94 oC
2. Fluidized bed driers (FBD)
 Layer of tea in the drying chambers is fluidized by passing hot air
through an upward direction.
 There is intimate contact between air and leaf particles resulting
in efficient uniform drying.
 2-3 drying sections each with own air supply.

--------- --------
--------------Tea leaf out -----------
Tea leaf in

Hot air in hot air in through the tea leaves

 Fluidization due to upward air movement through the bed into

the tea particles.
 The leaves are not stationary and do not rest on each other but
move continuously on suspension.
 It is very important to control air velocity.
 At very low velocity no fluidization and beyond high limit,
particles are carried away.
 Thus minimum and maximum limits of velocity are observed.

39
  There is always entrainment of particles. Air passes through
cyclone which separates air from tea leaf particles.
 Air heating is usually done by steam but is the same as endless
chain drier
 Drawing

Advantages
 Few moving parts hence low maintenance costs
 Produce cleaner tea with less fibre and more grainy as fibre is
entrained by air.
 More surface area of heat and mass transfer therefore more
efficient drying.

Disadvantages
 May be tendency to stewing in entirely stages where thick bed
not fluidized and heat transfer is poor.
 The leaf is moved through machine by air flow with mechanical
aid consequently precise control over residence time not possible
and particles are unevenly fired. Particles taking too long may
over dry and have poor quality and vice versa under dried.
 Very high air flows required for fluidization may result in greater
loss of volatile substance than in tradition ECD.

40
SORTING AND GRADING
- Tea from drier is a mixture of fibre and tea leaf with broad
particle Size distribution to be separated into sizes.
- Fibre extraction– sorting by means of PVC coated rollers.
- Sketch

- Friction causes the surfaces to acquire electrostatic charges

which attract fibre and attached as tea moves along belt.
- Fibre is removed from the belt.
- Grading- by screening: series of screens of different of different
sizes with one largest and the bottom smallest aperture.
- Whole unit vibrates ( vibro screens ) separates to 4 grades:
i. BP1-Broken pekoe 1
ii. PF1- pekoe fanning 1
iii. PD1- pekoe dust 1
iv. D1- Dust 1

Diagram:

These are primary grades

- The rollers have on the surface trapped fibres with some tea.
- They are swept and taken back to sorting line same way to give
secondary grading same way.
- Further sweeping and back give another grade, “ fanning” and
the sweepings give broken mixed fanning ( BMF )
Packaging
- In factory for export and local packaging industry, not for
consumers.
- Can be blend on requirement.
- Pure grade is rare in the market.
41
 - To minimize water vapour since tea is hydroscopic.
- Flavour retention very important: Use paper sack for export.
- 4 layers Kraft paper lined with Al foil normally used.
- Tea sold to packers in canvas bags lined with polythene sheet.
Tea Tasting
- Quality control involves:
- Looking at tea leaf particles as they appear (dry tea, black or
brownish.
- Cleanliness: (fibrous or dusty), even, twisted, curled or desired.
- Infused leaf (after extraction) colour, dust, brightness, is colour
mixed or one type.
- Taste of liquor: taste, colour, body (thickness) and flavour.
Instant tea manufacture
- Teas soluble in hot and cold water
- used in some countries as ice tea mixed with other ingredients
e.g. cold lemon tea mix which has sugar, citric acid, natural
lemon flavour and tricalcium PO4.
- Processing operations include:
Selection of raw materials
- Black tea fermented and dried leaf, oolong or green tea i.e. uses
finished products of primary tea factory.
- Choice made on:
 Processing requirement
 Market tea intended for
 Commercial restriction on manufacture
Extraction:
 Use of water solution compounds by extension liquid (water
recycled).
- Final concentration of water fairly low by 3-5 % TS.
42
- Can be batch or continuous
- Batch- use extension tanks and water at 80-900c. Tanks remain
stationary but extraction liquid moves from tank to another.
- Extraction continues for some time and tank emptied before
introduction of fresh leaf.
- Continuous more convenient e.g.
Counter-current continuous extraction

Diagram

-tea leaves introduced at lower end and conveyed upwards by

rotation of screen while extracting water flows in reverse direction.
- Soluble solids transferred from leaves to water.
- The screws perforated to allow water flow more easily through
tea body.
- Extraction temperature controlled by series of heater on the body
of the unit.
Aroma stripping
Extraction results in loss of aroma compounds therefore need to
retain.
- Vapour which aroma compounds condensed (dilute aroma)
hence concentrated by refractionating column.
- Aroma comes top as vapour and is condensed.
- Some aroma taken back to distribution column to aid it reflux
but the rest taken to storage tank.
- Reflux ratio= 20:1 (storage: tank)
- The distillation column has 2 fractions (top- aroma concentrate,
bottom is water with some aroma compounds which form part
of extraction liquid in the extractor.

43
Concentration
- The dearomatized extract from the separator is evaporated by
steam heating.
- Vapour concentrated mixture goes to separator (separate to
liquid and vapour) and
- liquid is then concentrated and taken to storage tank as aroma
concentrate.
- Part of concentration is further concentrated.
- Vapour fraction from separator is mixture of vapour and aroma
compounds.
- Thus dearomatized extraction has some aromas condensed in 2
stages.
i. Using ordinary water and condensate forms part of extension
liquid in extractor.
ii. Vapour fraction from separator (those not condensed in first
condenser). It is a refraction condenser using chilled liquid to
condense aroma compounds.
- Condensate taken to storage tank and part of it joins dilute
aroma on its way to distillation column.
- Concentrate plus aroma concentrate and part of aroma
condensate are stored together.
- Corn syrup solids usually added to these concentrates before
drying to retain as much aroma compounds as possible.
- Drying also results in loss of aroma due to evaporation.

Drying- 2 methods commonly used:

i. Spray drying- mostly
ii. Freeze drying- more expensive. This tea is more expensive,
high quality due to superior reconstitution ability.

44
Packaging
-instant tea powder has MC 3% but very hygroscopic and absorbs
moisture if exposed on air to unsafe levels. Ensure minimal entry of
water by always tinning.
N/B:
Cream processing - Done only when tea is subjected to
temperatures below 6 0c. Thus avoided by not cooling to these low
temperatures, which turn extract into cream of opaque brown colour
which gives non uniform product. It is processed especially alone
before concentration.

Quality Questions

 Quality is determined by many factors (controlled and

uncontrolled)
 Biochemistry researches determine constituents that promote
good quality.
 Ethyl acetate dissolving substances indicate quality produced
by efficient fermentation.
 For good colour TR/TF should be fairly Ltd (at best 10-12
range) by regulating fermentation time and method since TR
is 10*
 Prime consideration of quality is nature of plucked leaf, good
leaf of high polyphenol content, high enzyme activity,
physically allows tissues to be worked on.
 Thus course plucking results in poor quality tea because of
- Low average polyphenols
- Mature and more lignified leaf not easily macerated and cells
distorted giving free access to air on fermentation and contains
enzymes mingled with polyphenols
45
  Rhythm of growth of tea bush affects quality e.g. Quality
improves with age after pruning up to 4 years.
 Damaged leaf not good due to uncontrolled fermentation.
 Slow growth results to high quality
 Long withering increase bacteria which is not required
Finished tea should have 3 %mc and since they are hygroscopic will
pick moisture if not controlled (9-10%) mc encourages moulds giving
musky taint to the dry liquor
Healthy benefits of tea
- Body protection against heart diseases, stroke, cancer and more
Why?
- High levels of antioxidants (polyphenols, flavonoids and
catechins) they scavenge radicals.
- Fluoride benefits teeth and has antibacterial properties
controlling bad breathe and formation of plague.
 White tea has more antioxidants than all.
 Green tea has more catechins than black.
 Unfermented has more polyphenols.
 Brewed (caffeinated) has more antioxidants.
Tea drinking has the following benefits:
- Low blood pressure.
- May lower the cholesterol level therefore reduce chances of
heart attack.

46