Chemistry

Images in Chemistry Textbooks

The images from Andrew Hunt, Graham Hill, and Graham Curtis are
used to illustrate chemical concepts and real-world applications of
chemistry. Examples include:

Diagrams of apparatus
Photographs of materials in different states

Contribution of Graham Hill

Graham Hill made significant contributions to the original book and
encouraged further development. The team at Hodder Education,
including Hanneke Remsing and Emma Braithwaite, also made
valuable contributions to the book's development. Abigail Woodman
and Anne Trevillion are also acknowledged for their expert advice and
skillful work on the print and electronic resources.

Exam Practice Questions

Straightforward questions based directly on the information,
ideas, and methods described in the chapter.
More demanding questions involving the application of ideas
and methods to solve a problem with the help of data or
information from the chapter or elsewhere.
Hard questions that may require bringing together ideas from
different areas of the subject.

Practical Work
Each of the Practicals in the specification features in the main
chapters of this book outline of the procedure and data for you to
analyse and interpret. Throughout the text there are references to
Practical skills sheets which can be accessed at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/EdexcelAChemistry1.

Practical skills sheets include:

1. Practical skills for advanced chemistry

2. Assessing hazards and risks
3. Researching and referencing
4. Making measurements
5. Identifying errors and estimating uncertainties

6. Measuring chemical amounts by titration

7. Analysing inorganic unknowns
8. Synthesising organic liquids
9. Analysing organic unknowns

10. Measuring enthalpy changes

Importance of the Edexcel Data

Booklet
The Edexcel Data Booklet is an important resource to find information
when answering some questions in the examinations. You can
download the Data booklet from the Edexcel website as it is part of
the specification. The booklet includes the version of the periodic
table that you use in the examinations.

Working Like a Chemist

Chemists identify and explain material properties and behaviors
through observation. They create theories and models to be used in
chemical analysis and synthesis.

Patterns in Chemical Behavior

Looking for patterns in chemical behavior can help understand
chemistry.

Elements sodium and potassium are both soft and stored

under oil because they react so readily with air, and copper
sulfate is blue, like other copper compounds.
New Materials 🧱
Understanding how molecules are arranged in different materials and
the bonding that holds these particles together helps create new
materials. This knowledge allows for the creation of materials like:

Fibers that breathe but are waterproof

Plastic ropes that are 20 times stronger than steel

Metal alloys that can remember their shape

Key Chemistry Questions

These questions are the focus of Chapters 9 and 10:

How fast? How can a reaction be controlled so that it goes at

the right speed: not too fast and not too slow?

How far? Do the chemicals react completely, or does the

reaction stop before all the reactants have turned into
products?

How do reactions occur? Which bonds between atoms break

and which new bonds form during a reaction?
How much? How much of the reactants is needed to make the
product, how much of the product is produced, and how much
energy is needed?

Developing New Techniques and Skills

Chemists use practical skills to solve problems and increasingly rely
on modern instruments and information technology to explore
chemical changes and publish their findings.

Analysis and Synthesis

Analysis: Identifying the components of substances.

Synthesis: Combining simple substances to create new ones.

Spectroscopy
Originally used visible light, but now uses other kinds of
radiation such as ultraviolet and infrared rays, and
 microwaves.

Chemical Reactions
Often begin with careful observation of how chemicals react
and change.
Theories are more likely to be accepted if predictions made
from them turn out to be correct when tested by experiment.

Elements Described
Everything is made of substances, which are either elements or
compounds.

Metals and Non-Metals 🔩

Metals are typically shiny, malleable, ductile, and good conductors of
electricity. There are only 22 non-metal elements, including solids,
gases, and one liquid (bromine).

Atoms of Elements
An atom consists of a tiny nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
electrons. The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus,
which contains protons and neutrons.

Protons are positively charged.

Neutrons are uncharged.

Electrons are negatively charged.

In an atom:

The number of electrons equals the number of protons in the

nucleus.

The total negative charge equals the total positive charge, so

the atom is uncharged.

Compounds
Compounds form when atoms of different elements join
together.
To explain the properties of compounds, chemists need to know how
the atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged (the structure) and what
forces hold them together (the bonding).

Compounds of Non-Metals with Non-

Metals
These compounds:

Have molecular structures.

Melt and vaporize easily.

May be gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature.

Do not conduct electricity.

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio
of the atoms of different elements in a compound.

Molecular Formula
The molecular formula of a compound shows the actual
number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the
compound.

Compounds of Metals with Non-Metals

Metal/non-metal compounds:

Consist of a giant structure of ions.

An ion is an atom, or a group of atoms, which has become

electrically charged by loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Metal atoms form positive ions by losing electrons.

Non-metal atoms form negative ions by gaining electrons.

Are solids at room temperature.

Conduct electricity as molten liquids, but not as solids.
Balancing Charges in Ionic Compounds
The formulae of all metal/non-metal (ionic) compounds can be
worked out by balancing the charges on positive and negative ions.

Chemical Changes
Chemical changes are what happens during a chemical
reaction to create new chemicals.

Acids, Bases, and Salts

Acids react with carbonates to form carbon dioxide and
water. An example reaction is: ZnCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) →
​

ZnCl2 (aq)
​

Bases (also known as alkalis) are substances that dissolve to

form solutions with a pH above 7.

Examples of bases include hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and ammonia.
Alkalis are useful because they neutralize acids.

Some manufacturers produce powerful oven and drain

cleaners containing hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
because they can break down greasy dirt.

Strong alkalis are highly ‘caustic’ and can attack tissues,

producing a chemical burn.

Salts can be regarded as having two ‘parents’. They are related

to a parent acid and to a parent base.

For example, hydrochloric acid gives rise to salts called

chlorides, such as sodium chloride, calcium chloride,
and ammonium chloride.
The base sodium hydroxide gives rise to sodium salts,
such as sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, and sodium
nitrate.
Neutralization is not the only way to make a salt. Some
metal chlorides, for example, are made by heating
metals in a stream of chlorine. This method is useful for
making anhydrous chlorides, such as aluminum chloride.
⚛️Early Ideas About Atoms

Pictured is John Dalton, whose atomic theory was published in 1808.

The idea of atoms was suggested by Greek philosophers, such

as Democritus, thousands of years ago.

Democritus proposed that if a lump of metal, such as

iron, was cut into smaller and smaller pieces, the end
result would be minuscule and invisible particles that
could not be cut any smaller.

Democritus called these smallest particles of matter

‘atomos’ meaning ‘indivisible’.
Democritus explained the properties of materials such as
iron in terms of the shapes of atoms and the ‘hooks’ that
he imagined joined them together.

Modern atomic theory grew from work started about 2000

years after Democritus.

Scientists in Europe started to purify substances and

carry out experiments with them.

They found that many substances could be broken down

(decomposed) into simpler substances, which they called
elements.

These elements could then be combined to make new

compounds.

In the eighteenth century, chemists began to make accurate

measurements of the quantities of substances involved in
reactions. To their surprise, they found that the weights of
elements which reacted were always in the same proportions.
 For example, water always contained 1 part by weight of
hydrogen to 8 parts by weight of oxygen. And, black
copper oxide contained 1 part by weight of oxygen to 4
parts by weight of copper.

At the start of the nineteenth century, John Dalton concluded

that if elements were made of indivisible particles, then
everything made sense. Compounds, like copper oxide, were
made of particles of copper and oxygen with different masses
that always combined in the same ratios.

Dalton began to publish his atomic theory in 1808. The

main points of the theory were that:

All elements are made up of indivisible particles

called atoms.

All the atoms of a given element are identical and

have the same mass.
All the molecules of a given compound are
identical.

🔬 Inside Atoms
Scientists discovered that atoms contain smaller particles:
electrons, protons, and neutrons.

The Discovery of Electrons

Scientists observed that when a high voltage was applied
across the terminals of a tube containing air, the glass walls
glowed brightly.
It was found that rays travelling in straight lines from the
negative terminal hit the glass walls and made it glow.
Experiments showed that a narrow beam of the rays was
deflected by an electric field. When passed between charged
plates, the rays always bent towards the positive plate. This
showed that they were negatively charged.
J.J. Thomson discovered these particles smaller than atoms,
and called them electrons.

Thomson obtained the same electrons with different gases in

the tube and when the terminals were made of different
 substances. This suggested that the atoms of all substances
contain electrons.

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

Thomson knew that atoms had no electrical charge overall, so
the rest of the atom must have a positive charge to balance the
negative charge of the electrons.
In 1904, Thomson published his model for the structure of
atoms. He suggested that atoms were tiny balls of positive
material with negative electrons embedded in it like fruit in a
Christmas pudding.
As a result, Thomson’s model became known as the ‘plum
pudding’ model of atomic structure.

Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom

In 1909, Ernest Rutherford's colleagues, Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden, directed narrow beams of positive alpha
particles at very thin gold foil. They expected the particles to
pass through the foil or to be deflected slightly. The results
showed that:

Most of the alpha particles went straight through the foil.

Some of the alpha particles were deflected.

A few alpha particles rebounded from the foil.

The above diagram illustrates the experiment conducted by Geiger and

Marsden, showcasing the behavior of alpha particles as they interact with
gold foil. Most particles pass through, some are deflected, and a few
rebound.

Rutherford came up with a new model of the atom to explain

the results. The key points are:
 Atoms have a small positive nucleus surrounded by a
much larger region of empty space in which there are
tiny negative electrons orbiting the nucleus.

The positive charge of the nucleus is due to positive

particles Rutherford called protons.
Protons are about 2000 times heavier than electrons.

The positive charge on one proton is equal in size, but

opposite in sign, to the negative charge on one electron.
Atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons, so
the positive charges on the protons cancel the negative
charges on the electrons.

Chadwick and the Discovery of Neutrons

In 1932, James Chadwick solved the mystery of the extra mass
in helium atoms.

Chadwick studied the effects of bombarding beryllium with

alpha particles and found that this caused the emission of
neutral particles with a mass similar to protons. He called these
particles neutrons.
It was soon understood that neutrons had the same mass as
protons.

The discovery of neutrons accounted for the relative masses of

hydrogen and helium atoms.
It is now understood that all atoms are made up from protons,
neutrons, and electrons.

| Particle | Mass relative to that of a proton | Charge relative to that

on a proton | Position in atoms |

| :----------

| :--------------------------------

| :----------------------------------

| :---------------- | | Proton
|1
| +1
| Nucleus
| | Neutron
|1
|0
| Nucleus
| | Electron
| 1/1840
| -1
| Shells
|

🔢 Atomic Number and Mass Number

All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of
protons, but atoms of different elements have different
numbers of protons. The number of protons an atom has
determines which element it is.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is

called the atomic number (symbol Z).
The mass number of an atom (symbol A) is the number
of protons plus neutrons in its nucleus.

There is an agreed shorthand for showing the mass number

and atomic number of an atom. This is shown for a potassium
atom: 39
19 K
​

Ions can also be represented using this shorthand. For

+
example, the potassium ion can be written as 39
19 K​

⚖️Comparing Atoms – Mass

Spectrometry
Individual atoms are far too small to be weighed, but scientists
invented the mass spectrometer. This gave scientists a way of
comparing the relative masses of atoms and molecules.

Schematic diagram to show the key features of a mass

spectrometer.

The above schematic outlines the path a sample takes through a mass
spectrometer. The sample starts in a gaseous state, gets ionized,
accelerates through a vacuum, gets deflected by a magnetic field, and is
measured by the detector.
 Inside a mass spectrometer there is a high vacuum. This allows
atoms or molecules from the chemical being tested to be
studied without interference from atoms and molecules in the
air.
A beam of high-energy electrons bombards the atoms or
molecules of the sample. This turns them into ions by knocking
out one or more electrons: e− + X → X + + e−

After ionization, the charged species are separated to produce

the mass spectrum, which distinguishes the positive ions on the
basis of their mass-to-charge ratios.
The output from the detector of a mass spectrometer is often
presented as a ‘stick diagram’. This shows the strength of the
signal produced by ions of varying mass-to-charge ratio.

A mass spectrum of element lead. The lead ions that are normally
formed under these conditions the same as the stable lead ions found
in solid lead compounds or solutions.

The above mass spectrum shows the relative abundance of different

isotopes of lead based on their mass-to-charge ratio.

☢️Isotopes and Isotopic Masses

Mass spectrometer traces show that many elements contain
atoms that are not all of the same mass. These are called
isotopes.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same

number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

A mass spectrum for magnesium.

The mass spectrum above demonstrates the presence of three isotopes of

magnesium.

Look closely at the figure above. It shows a mass spectrometer

printout (mass spectrum) for magnesium. The three peaks
show that magnesium consists of three isotopes with relative
masses of 24, 25, and 26.
 These relative masses are best described as relative isotopic
masses because they give the mass of particular isotopes.

Today, the isotope carbon-12 (12

6 C) is chosen as the standard
​

and given a relative mass of exactly 12.

Key Terms
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Relative isotopic mass: The mass of one atom of an isotope
relative to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of the carbon-12
isotope.

Relative atomic mass (Ar ): The average mass of an atom of an

​

element relative to 1/12th of the mass of an atom of the

average mass of an atom of the element
carbon-12 isotope. Ar = ​

1/12×mass of one atom of carbon-12

​

Table summarizing the similarities and differences in isotopes:

| | Similarities
| Differences
|

| :----------

| :----------------

| :---------------- | | Isotopes
| Number of protons | Mass numbers
| | | Number of electrons | Physical properties | | | Atomic number
| | | | Chemical properties | |

Relative Molecular and Formula

Masses
The relative masses of molecules are called relative molecular
masses (symbol Mr ). ​

The relative molecular mass of an element or compound is

the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in its
molecular formula.

For oxygen, O2 , Mr (O2 ) = 2 × Ar (O) = 2 × 16.0 = 32.0

​ ​ ​ ​
 For sulfuric acid, H2 S O4 , Mr (H2 S O4 ) = (2 × Ar (H)) +
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Ar (S) + (4 × Ar (O)) = (2 × 1.0) + 32.1 + (4 × 16.0) =

​ ​

98.1

For ionic compounds and other compounds with giant

structures like silicon dioxide (SiO2 ), the term relative formula
​

mass (symbol Mr ) is used instead of relative molecular mass.

​

For magnesium nitrate, (M g(N O3 )2 ), Mr = Ar (M g) + 2 ×

​ ​ ​ ​

Ar (N ) + 6 × Ar (O)
​ ​

The mass spectrum hydrocarbon and its fragments.

The mass spectrum for hydrocarbons shows a fragmentation pattern,

helping to identify different fragments and molecular masses.

When analyzing molecular compounds, the peak of the ion with

the highest mass is usually the whole molecule ionized. So the
mass of this ‘parent ion’ or ‘molecular ion’ (M + ) is the relative
molecular mass of the compound.

e− + M (g) → M + + e−

Mass Spectrometry

Mass Spectrum Analysis 📊

The spectrum features a prominent peak at m/z 301,
accompanied by smaller peaks at m/z 258, 270, and 284. The
base peak, which is the most abundant ion, is located at m/z
301. The spectrum provides information on the molecular
weight and fragmentation pattern of the analyzed
compound.

Ionization Energy ⚡
Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove electrons
from one mole of gaseous atoms, or ions, of an element.

Ionization energies are always endothermic, meaning energy is taken

in, giving the energy change a positive sign. For example, the first
ionization energy of sodium is the energy required for the reaction:

N a(g) → N a+ (g) + e−

first ionization energy = +496 kJmol−1

Spectroscopic Determination 🌈
Scientists can determine ionization energies by studying the light
given out by atoms when heated in a flame using a spectroscope.
The spectroscope shows a series of bright lines, each arising from the
energy given out when electrons drop back from a higher energy level
to a lower level.

Using data from spectra, it is possible to measure the energy needed

to remove electrons from ions with increasing charges.

For example:

N a(g) → N a+ (g) + e− first ionization energy = +496 kJmol−1

N a+ (g) → N a2+ (g) + e− second ionization energy = +4563 kJmol−1

N a2+ (g) → N a3+ (g) + e− third ionization energy = +6913 kJmol−1

Successive ionization energies for an element get bigger because it is

more difficult to remove a second electron from the positive ion
formed.

Electron Arrangement in Shells 🐚

The successive ionization energies provide evidence that electrons in
an atom are arranged in a series of levels or shells around the
nucleus.

A graph of log ionization energy against the number of electrons

removed suggests that sodium atoms have one electron in an outer
shell, eight electrons in a second shell, and two inner electrons in a
shell closest to the nucleus.

This electronic structure for a sodium atom can be represented in an

energy level diagram.

Energy Level Diagrams ⚛️

The energy levels of electrons in a sodium atom are represented in
the diagram below.

In energy level diagrams, electrons are represented by arrows. When

an energy level is filled, the electrons are paired up and spin in
opposite directions.

Shielding 🛡️
Shielding refers to the effect where inner electrons shield the outer
electrons from the full positive charge of the nucleus. Thanks to
shielding, the electrons in the outer shell are attracted by an 'effective
nuclear charge', which is less than the full charge on the nucleus.

Quantum Shells and the Periodic Table 🗓️

The quantum shells of electrons correspond to the periods of
elements in the periodic table. By noting where the first big jump
comes in the ionization energies of an element, it is possible to
predict which group the element belongs to.

For example, the first big jump in the ionization energies for sodium
comes after the first electron is removed, suggesting that sodium has
just one electron in its outermost shell and belongs to Group 1.

Electron Arrangement in Sub-shells ♐

By studying ionization energies and spectra, scientists have found that
the electrons in atoms are grouped together in energy shells. These
main shells are labeled as 1, 2, 3, etc., nearest to the nucleus. Each
quantum shell can hold only a limited number of electrons:

the n = 1 shell can hold 2 electrons

the n = 2 shell can hold 8 electrons
the n = 3 shell can hold 18 electrons
the n = 4 shell can hold 32 electrons

These main shells divide into sub-shells labeled s, p, d, and f. The sub-
shells are further divided into atomic orbitals.

Atomic Orbitals 🎯
An atomic orbital is a region in space around the nucleus of
an atom in which there is a high probability of finding an
electron.

An orbital is defined by its energy level, shape, and direction. The

shapes of the orbitals are based on calculations from the Schrödinger
wave equation.

The one orbital in the first shell is spherical (1s).

The four orbitals in the second shell are made up of one s
orbital (2s) and three dumbbell-shaped p orbitals (2px, 2py,
2pz), arranged at right angles to each other.

Filling Energy Levels ⬆️

Electrons in an atom fill the energy levels according to a set of rules:

Electrons go into the orbital with the lowest available energy

level.
Each orbital holds a maximum of two electrons with opposite
spins.

Where there are two or more orbitals at the same energy, they
fill singly before the electrons pair up.

Electron Configurations ⚙️
The arrangement of electrons in the energy levels of an atom is called
the electron configuration. Chemists use the 'aufbau principle' to
build up electron configurations from the bottom.
There are several common conventions for representing electron
configurations in a shorthand way. For example, the electrons-in-
boxes representations and the s, p, d, f notations show the electronic
structures of beryllium, nitrogen, and sodium.

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

🧑‍🏫
The periodic table helps chemists organize information about
elements and their compounds. Elements are arranged in order of
atomic number. The horizontal rows are called periods, and the
vertical columns are called groups.

The periodic table can be divided into four blocks – the s block, p
block, d block, and f block – based on the electron structures of the
elements. Elements in the same group have similar properties
because they have the same outer electron configuration.

Blocks in the Periodic Table 🧱

s block: comprises the reactive metals in Group 1 and Group 2,
in which the outermost electron is in an s orbital in the outer
shell.

p block: comprises the elements in Groups 3 to 7 and 0 on the

right of the periodic table, in which the last electron added goes
into a p orbital in the outer shell.
d block: occupies a rectangle between Group 2 and Group 3 to
13, in which the last electron added goes into a d orbital. These
elements are sometimes called ‘transition metals’.

f block: occupies a low rectangle across Periods 6 and 7, in

which the last electron added is in an f orbital. These elements
are often called the lanthanoids and actinoids or the ‘inner
transition elements’.

Group Numbering 🔢
IUPAC recommends that the groups in the periodic table should be
numbered from 1 to 18.

Ionization of d-block elements ➕

The 4s orbitals are filled before the 3d orbitals, but the 4s electrons
are the first to be removed when a d-block element ionizes.
The explanation for irregularities in electronic structure lies in the
stability of half-filled and filled sub-shells. For example, the electronic
structure of chromium is [Ar]3d5 4s1 , and that of copper is [Ar]3d10 4s1
.

Alkali Metals ⚗️
Alkali metals are in Group 1 and each has one s electron in its outer
shell. This similarity in electron configuration explains why they have
similar properties. Alkali metals:

are very reactive because they lose their single outer electron
easily
form compounds with similar formulae
form very stable ions with an electron structure like that of a
noble gas

The reactivity of an element depends on the electrons in the outer

shell and how strongly they are held by the nuclear charge.

Periodic Properties 🔄
Modern versions of the periodic table are arranged so that elements
are in order of atomic number. The repeating pattern is a periodic
pattern, hence the term 'periodic properties'.

The most obvious repeating pattern in the periodic table is the change
from metals on the left, through metalloids, to non-metals on the
right. Graphs of physical properties, such as melting temperatures,
electrical conductivities, and first ionization energies, also show
repeating patterns.

Melting Temperatures of the Elements 🔥

The melting temperatures of elements against atomic number are
shown below.

In general, metals have high melting temperatures because metallic

bonding is strong. The more electrons each atom contributes to the
delocalized electrons, the stronger the bonding and the higher the
temperature.

Non-metal elements form simple molecules, and the intermolecular

forces between these molecules are weak, so these elements have
low melting temperatures.
First Ionization Energies of the Elements ⚡
The first ionization energies of the elements are shown below.

The general trend is that first ionization energies increase from left to
right across a period.

The ionization energy of an atom is determined by:

The charge on the nucleus

The distance of the outermost electron from the nucleus

Shielding by inner electrons

Moving from left to right across a period, the nuclear charge increases
and electrons are added to the same outer shell. The increased
nuclear charge tends to pull the outer electrons closer to the nucleus.
The shielding of full inner shells is constant, and the extra electrons in
the same outer shell do not shield each other well. As a result, the
first ionization energy generally increases.

There are exceptions to this trend. The first ionization energy

decreases from beryllium to boron and again from nitrogen to
oxygen, which reflects the order in which electrons feed into s and p
orbitals.

Electron Configurations and Atomic

Structure

Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, and

Neodymium
Let's look at the electron configurations of Lanthanum (La), Cerium
(Ce), Praseodymium (Pr), and Neodymium (Nd), which have atomic
numbers 57 through 60:

Lanthanum (La): [Xe] 4f⁰ 5d¹ 6s²

Cerium (Ce): [Xe] 4f² 5d⁰ 6s²

Praseodymium (Pr): [Xe] 4f³ 6s²
Neodymium (Nd): [Xe] 4f⁴ 6s²

These configurations account for the placement of elements with

atomic numbers 58-71 in the periodic table.
Chlorides of Period 2 and 3 Elements

Patterns and Explanations

The table below shows the groups, formulae, and boiling
temperatures of chlorides for elements in Periods 2 and 3.

| Group | Period 2 | Formula of chloride | Boiling temperature of

chloride/°C | Period 3 | Formula of chloride | Boiling temperature of
chloride/°C |

| :----

| :-----------------

| :------------------

| :-----------------------------------

| :-----------------

| :------------------

| :----------------------------------- | | 1
| Li
| LiCl
| 1340
| Na
| NaCl
| 1413
||2
| Be
| BeCl₂
| 520
| Mg
| MgCl₂
| 1412
||3
|B
| BCl₃
| 13
| Al
| AlCl₃
| 423
||4
|C
| CCl₄
| 77
| Si
| SiCl₄
| 58
||5
|N
| NCl₃
| 71
|P
| PCl₃
| 76
||6
|O
| OCl₂
|4
|S
| S₂Cl₂
| 136
||0
| No entries
| | | No entries
|||

Absence of entries for Group 0: There are no entries for

Group 0 because noble gases do not readily form stable
chloride compounds due to their full valence shells.

Pattern of formulae in Periods 2 and 3:

The formulae of chlorides in Periods 2 and 3 show a

trend related to the valency or the number of bonds the
element can form, which generally increases from Group
1 to Group 4 and then decreases.

Pattern in boiling temperatures:

The boiling temperatures of the chlorides in Periods 2

and 3 generally increase from Group 1 to Group 2/3
(depending on the period) and then decrease. This trend
is influenced by the type of bonding and structure of the
chlorides.

Boiling Temperatures Explanation:

 The boiling temperatures initially increase due to a
change from ionic to covalent bonding, with the highest
boiling points observed for ionic chlorides (NaCl, MgCl2).
As the bonding becomes more covalent (AlCl3, SiCl4), the
boiling temperatures decrease because these
compounds form molecular structures with weaker
intermolecular forces.
Difference in Chloride Formation:

Phosphorus forms two chlorides (PCl₃, PCl₅), but nitrogen

only forms one stable chloride (NCl₃) due to differences
in their electron configurations. Phosphorus has
available d-orbitals that allow it to expand its valence
shell and form more bonds, while nitrogen lacks these d-
orbitals and is limited to forming a maximum of three
covalent bonds.

Atomic Number vs. Atomic Mass

Statement Analysis

Atomic Number as a Guide: The atomic number of an

element is a fundamental guide to its atomic structure and is
more useful in its classification than its relative atomic mass
because the atomic number defines the number of protons,
which determines the element's identity and chemical
properties.
Chemical Properties and Outer Shell Electrons: The chemical
properties of an element are largely determined by the number
of electrons in the outer shell of its atoms. Elements with the
same number of valence electrons exhibit similar chemical
behavior.

⚛️Investigating Structure and Bonding

⚛️

Different Levels of Meaning

The word "structure" has different levels of meaning:

Large scale: Engineers design the structures of buildings.

 Small scale: Chemists and physicists explore the inner
structure of atoms.

Models and Theories

Scientists use different models and theories to explain the structure
and properties of materials at these different levels.

No single model can be used to explain the properties of all

materials and compounds at all levels. Each model has its
advantages and limitations, and particular models are more
appropriate in different contexts.

Crystal Structures
Crystal structures are best explained using Dalton's model of atoms
and ions as discreet, tiny spheres. Metallic, ionic, and covalent
bonding are best explained using the model of electron shells.

X-Ray Diffraction
Sir Lawrence Bragg (1890-1971) realized that X-rays could be used to
investigate crystal structures because their wavelengths are about the
same as the distances between atoms in a crystal.

A narrow beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal of the substance

studied. The diffracted X-rays produce a pattern, and it is possible to
deduce the three-dimensional crystal structure by studying this
pattern. The image above depicts how X-rays are used to study the
structure of atoms in a crystal.

Structure, Bonding, and Properties

The links between structure, bonding, and properties help scientists
understand the uses of different materials.

Metals are used as conductors and in structures.

Graphite is used in pencils.

Simple Molecular Structures

Materials with giant structures form crystals in which all the atoms are
linked by a network of strong bonding extending throughout the
crystal. This strong bonding results in giant structures with high
melting and boiling temperatures.

Substances with simple molecular structures consist of small groups

of atoms. The covalent bonds linking the atoms in the molecules
(intramolecular forces) are relatively strong, but the forces between
molecules (intermolecular forces) are weak.

Simple molecular structures consist of groups of atoms held

together by covalent bonding within the molecules, but with
weak forces of attraction between molecules.

Intermolecular forces are weak attractive forces between

molecules.

Melting and Boiling Temperatures of Selected

Elements
| Element
| Melting temperature/K | Boiling temperature/K |

| :---------

| :--------------------

| :-------------------- | | Boron
| 2573
| 2823
| | Fluorine
| 53
| 85
| | Silicon
| 1683
| 2628
| | Sulfur
| 386
| 718
| | Manganese
| 1517
| 2235
| | Iodine
| 387
| 457
| | Sodium
| 371
| 1156
|

Giant Structures
The main types of giant structures are ionic solids, giant covalent
structures (including ceramics and glasses), as well as diamond and
graphite.

Ionic Bonding
The formation of ions is a key concept to understanding ionic
bonding:

Metals typically lose electrons to form positive ions (cations).

Non-metals gain electrons to form negative ions (anions).

For example, when sodium reacts with chlorine, each sodium atom
loses its one outer electron to form a sodium ion (Na⁺), which has the
same electron structure as the noble gas neon. Chlorine atoms gain
these electrons to form chloride ions (Cl ), with the same electron
configuration as the noble gas argon.

In the image above, we can see the transfer of an electron from

sodium to chlorine. This creates the sodium ion and chloride ion.

Chemists describe diagrams like that in Figure 2.7 as dot-and-cross

diagrams. Dot-and-cross diagrams are useful because they provide a
means of keeping track of the electrons when ionic compounds form.

Ionic Crystal Lattice

An ionic crystal is a three-dimensional lattice arrangement of ions
packed together in a regular pattern. In the lattice, each Na⁺ ion is
surrounded by Cl ions, and each Cl ion is surrounded by Na⁺ ions.

Ionic bonding refers to the electrostatic forces between

oppositely charged ions in a lattice.

Sodium chloride crystal lattice

In this image of a sodium chloride lattice, the green spheres represent

chlorine, and the grey spheres represent sodium.

Factors Affecting Electrostatic Attractions

The strength of the electrostatic attractions between ions depends on
the charges of the ions and their radii.

Ions with high charges and small radii produce the strongest
electrostatic attractions.

Q1×Q2
F ∝ d2
​

Properties of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds:

Are hard, brittle crystalline substances.

Have high melting and boiling temperatures.
Are often soluble in water and other polar solvents but
insoluble in nonpolar solvents.
Do not conduct electricity when solid because their ions cannot
move away from their fixed positions in the giant lattice.
Conduct electricity when they are melted or dissolved in water
because the charged ions are then free to move.

Electrolysis
When molten, sodium chloride conducts electricity. Ions in the
electrolyte move towards the electrodes.
 Positive sodium ions move towards the negative terminal
(cathode).
Negative chloride ions move towards the positive terminal
(anode).

Electrolysis reverses the changes that occur when an ionic compound

forms (Figure 2.6).

The compound that is decomposed is called the electrolyte,

and the process is described as electrolysis.

Ionic Radii
X-ray diffraction methods are used to study ionic structures, and from
diffraction patterns, it is possible to calculate the radii of individual
ions. The radius of the negative ion of an element is larger than its
atomic radius because electrons are added to the outer shell.

🤝 Covalent Bonding and Structures 🤝

Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond forms when atoms share electrons – a single
covalent bond consists of a shared pair of electrons.

The atoms are held together by the strong electrostatic attraction

between the positive charges on their nuclei and the negative charge
on the shared electrons.

Covalent bonding in a fluorine molecule

In the image above, we can see the two fluorine atoms sharing
electrons to form a covalent bond. The shared electrons give each
fluorine atom an electron configuration of [Ne].

Dot-and-Cross Diagrams
Dot-and-Cross diagrams, showing only the electrons in outer shells,
provide a simple way of representing covalent bonding.

Multiple Bonds
There is a double bond between the two oxygen atoms in an oxygen
molecule, and double bonds between both the oxygen atoms and the
carbon atom in carbon dioxide. With two electron pairs involved in the
bonding, there is a region of high electron density between atoms
joined by a double bond.

Lone Pairs of Electrons

Lone pairs of electrons are pairs of electrons which are not
involved in bonding.

Lone pairs of electrons:

Affect the shapes of molecules.

Are used to form dative covalent bonds.
Are important in the chemical reactions of some compounds,
including water and ammonia.

Dative Covalent Bonds

A dative covalent bond is a bond in which two atoms share a
pair of electrons, but both the electrons are donated by one
atom.

An alternative name for a dative covalent bond is a co-ordinate bond.

Bond Length and Bond Strength

Bond length refers to the distance between bonded atoms in a
molecule.

Bond length depends both on the size of the atoms involved and the
number of pairs of electrons shared. Larger atoms form longer bonds
because larger atoms have more electrons which shield the nuclei
and reduce the attraction for the electron cloud.

The strength of a bond varies inversely with its length. A short bond is
stronger with a greater bond energy.

Simple Molecular Structures

The covalent bonds holding atoms together within these simple
structures are strong, so the molecules do not break up into atoms
easily. However, the forces between the individual molecules
(intermolecular forces) are weak, so it is quite easy to separate them.
Properties of Simple Molecular Structures
Simple molecular structures:

Are usually gases, liquids, or soft solids at room temperature.

Have relatively low melting and boiling temperatures.
Do not conduct electricity as solids, liquids, or gases because
they have neither ions nor free electrons to carry the electric
charge.

Shapes of Molecules
Covalent bonds have a definite direction and a definite length. For
example, X-ray diffraction studies show that all the C−H bond lengths
in methane, CH₄, are 0.109 nm, and all the H−C−H bond angles are
109.5°.

Molecular Shapes and VSEPR Theory

Molecules are often represented with bonds to give a sense of their
3D structure. Bond lengths, like the C-H bond in methane, are around
0.109 nm.

VSEPR Theory Explained ⚛️

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory helps predict
the shapes of molecules.

VSEPR theory is based on the repulsion of electron pairs in the

outermost shell of a central atom, stating that electron pairs
repel each other and try to maximize their distance.

If a methane molecule were flat, the angle between carbon-hydrogen

bonds would be 90°. However, methane adopts a tetrahedral shape,
as seen in Figure 2.23, increasing the bond angle to 109.5° for
maximum separation and minimum repulsion between electron pairs.

Examples of Molecular Shapes 📐

Consider beryllium chloride (BeCl2) and boron trifluoride (BF3). In
BeCl2, beryllium has only two electron pairs in its outer shell, which
position themselves on opposite sides of the beryllium atom to
maximize separation. This results in a linear shape with a Cl−Be−Cl
bond angle of 180°.
 BeCl2 and BF3 Molecular Shapes

The image displays the molecular geometries of Beryllium Chloride

(BeCl2), which is linear, and Boron Trifluoride (BF3), which is trigonal
planar, illustrating how electron pairs arrange themselves to minimize
repulsion and define the shapes of these molecules.

Boron trifluoride (BF3) has three electron pairs in its outer shell. To
maximize their distance, they occupy the corners of a triangle around
the boron atom. This gives BF3 a trigonal planar shape with F−B−F
bond angles of 120°.

Ammonium Ion (NH4+) ➕

The ammonium ion (NH4+) has four electron pairs in its outer shell,
each bonded to a hydrogen atom. These electron pairs repel each
other, positioning the four hydrogen atoms at the corners of a
tetrahedron.

The H−N−H bond angles are 109.5°, and the shape of the NH4+ ion is
tetrahedral, similar to methane (CH4). Molecules with the same
number and arrangement of electrons are said to be isoelectronic.

Summary of Molecular Shapes 📝

Table 2.4 summarizes the shapes of molecules with two, three, four,
five, and six electron pairs, based on VSEPR theory. Electron pairs
repel each other as far as possible, and the table shows predicted
bond angles.

| Electron Pairs | Arrangement

| Shape
| Bond Angle
| Example |

| :--------------

| :-------------------

| :---------------------

| :----------------

| :------ | | 2
| Linear
| Linear
| 180°
| BeCl2
||3
| Trigonal Planar
| Trigonal Planar
| 120°
| BCl3
||4
| Tetrahedral
| Tetrahedral
| 109.5°
| CH4
||5
| Trigonal Bipyramidal | Trigonal Bipyramidal
| 90°, 120°, 180°
| PCl5
||6
| Octahedral
| Octahedral
| 90°, 180°
| SF6
|

Octet Rule and Exceptions ⚠️

Period 2 elements generally form a maximum of four bonds due to
the octet rule. However, elements in Period 3 and beyond can form
more than four bonds because they have d orbitals available for
bonding, which, along with s and p orbitals, allow more bonds to
form.

Lone Pairs and Their Effects 💔

Some molecules, like ammonia (NH3) and water (H2O), have lone
pairs of electrons in addition to bonding pairs.

Molecular Shapes with Lone Pairs

This image shows the impact of lone pairs on molecular geometry.

The progression from methane (tetrahedral) to ammonia (pyramidal)
to water (bent) illustrates how lone pairs influence bond angles and
molecular shape.
In methane, all four electron pairs are bonding pairs. In ammonia,
three pairs form N−H bonds, and one is a lone pair. In water, there
are two bonding pairs and two lone pairs. Electron pairs repel each
other into a tetrahedral shape around the central atom.

Molecular Shapes: Pyramidal vs. V-Shaped 🏛️

The shape of the ammonia (NH3) molecule is pyramidal, with a
nitrogen atom at the top and hydrogen atoms at the corners of its
base. The shape of the water molecule (H−O−H) is V-shaped or bent.

Lone pairs are held closer to the central atom and have a stronger
repelling effect than bonding pairs.

The strength of repulsion between electron pairs is:

lone \ pair–lone \ pair > lone \ pair–bonding \ pair > bonding \

pair–bonding \ pair

This explains why the bond angle in ammonia, with one lone pair, is
less than that in methane, and why the bond angle in water, with two
lone pairs, is less than that in ammonia.

Multiple Bonds 🔗
When predicting molecular shapes, double bonds and triple bonds
count as one center of negative charge (electron-pair repulsion axis)
and affect shapes similarly to electrons in single bonds.

All bonds (single, lone pairs, double, and triple) are regarded as
separate centers of negative charge when predicting molecular
shapes.

Molecular Shapes with Multiple Bonds

This image shows the structures of carbon dioxide (CO2), methanal

(H2CO), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). It illustrates how multiple bonds
influence the overall shape and geometry of molecules.

Double bonds exert slightly greater repulsion on other bonding pairs

than single bonds do, increasing the bond angle around the double
bond. For instance, the H−C−O bond angle in methanal is 121°,
slightly more than the expected 120° in trigonal planar molecules like
BCl3.
Spectrum of Bonding 🌈

Polar Bonds ⚡
In a polar covalent bond, electrons are not shared equally between
two atoms because one atom's nucleus attracts electrons more
strongly than the other.

The atom with the stronger pull has a slight excess of negative charge
(δ−), while the other end has a partial positive charge (δ+). This charge
separation is a polar covalent bond.

Polar Covalent Bond

This image illustrates a polar covalent bond between two atoms with
unequal electronegativity, resulting in partial positive (δ+) and partial
negative (δ-) charges.

In ionic compounds where cations are small and highly charged, these
cations distort the electron clouds of the anions in a process called
polarization.

Polarization increases electron density between the ions,

leading to some sharing of electrons and partial covalency.

Electronegativity Defined 🧲
Electronegativity measures an atom's ability to attract the electrons
it shares with other atoms in a covalent bond. The higher an atom's
electronegativity, the more strongly it attracts shared electrons.
Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, resulting in an O−H
bond with a slight negative charge on oxygen and a slight positive
charge on hydrogen.

Electronegativity Trends in the Periodic Table

The image displays electronegativity trends in the s- and p-block

elements, where electronegativity increases across periods and
decreases down groups, illustrating how the ability of an atom to
attract electrons changes within the periodic table.

Highly electronegative elements, such as fluorine and oxygen, are

found in the top right of the periodic table, while the least
electronegative elements, such as caesium, are in the bottom left.

Electronegativity increases across a period because the nuclear

charge increases while the number of shielding electrons remains
constant, increasing the attraction for shared electron pairs.

Electronegativity decreases down a group because, despite the

increasing nuclear charge, the number of shielding electrons
increases, and the shared electron pair is further from the nucleus,
reducing the attraction.

A compound's bonding becomes ionic when the electronegativity

difference is great enough for the more electronegative element to
remove electrons completely from the other element.

Nonpolar Molecules with Polar Bonds ⚖️

Molecules with polar bonds can be nonpolar overall if the bonds are
arranged symmetrically around the central atom and cancel each
other out, as seen in tetrachloromethane (CCl4).

Polar Bonds in Molecules

This image contrasts the polar bonds in dichloromethane (CH2Cl2)

with a flat representation that might suggest cancellation. The 3D
structure shows the bonds do not fully cancel, resulting in an overall
dipole moment, illustrating the importance of molecular geometry in
determining polarity.

Dipoles Defined 🧲
Dipoles are positive and negative electric poles in polar molecules.

In an electric field, dipoles tend to align. By measuring the alignment

of molecules between two electrodes, dipole moments can be
calculated in debye units, named after Peter Debye.

Intermolecular Forces 🤝
Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules. Covalent bonds
link atoms within a molecule.

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.

Without these intermolecular forces, there would be no liquids or
solids.

London Forces 💫
London forces are weak, short-range attractions between all
molecules, including nonpolar molecules.

London forces arise from temporary instantaneous dipoles and

the fleeting dipoles they induce in neighboring molecules.

Temporary displacements of electrons lead to temporary dipoles,

which can induce dipoles in neighboring molecules. These
instantaneous and induced dipoles give molecules a tendency to stick
together.

Bigger molecules with more electrons have higher polarisability and

greater potential for temporary, induced dipoles.

Polarisability Defined ⚡
Polarisability refers to the extent to which the electron cloud of
a molecule (or an ion) can be distorted by a nearby electric
charge.

London forces are responsible for the increasing boiling temperatures

of elements down Group 7 (halogens) and Group 0 (noble gases).

Dipole-Dipole Attractions ➕➖
Dipole-dipole attractions occur between polar molecules. These
forces arise when the positive pole of one molecule attracts the
negative poles of others.

Dipole-Dipole Attractions

This image illustrates dipole-dipole interactions between polar

molecules, where positive and negative ends align, contributing to the
overall intermolecular forces.

Boiling temperatures can be used to deduce the contribution of each

type of force to the overall intermolecular forces.

Hydrogen Bonding 💧
Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong type of intermolecular
force that occurs in molecules where hydrogen is covalently bonded
to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.

Hydrogen Bonding

This image shows hydrogen bonding in water, where each water

molecule can form up to four hydrogen bonds, contributing to the
substance's unique properties such as high boiling point and surface
tension.

The hydrogen atom is very electron deficient (δ+), resulting in a strong

intermolecular force between this δ+ hydrogen atom and a lone pair
of electrons on the δ− fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen atom of a nearby
molecule.

In water, hydrogen bonding accounts for:

The open structure and low density of ice

The solubility of simple alcohols in water
The pairing of bases in a DNA double helix

Solubility and Intermolecular Forces

Saturated Solutions
A saturated solution is one that contains the maximum
amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent at a specific
temperature.

In a saturated solution, the solute's concentration reaches its

solubility maximum.
No chemical is completely soluble or insoluble.
Solubility measures the concentration of a saturated solution
at a given temperature, commonly recorded as 'mol per 100g
water' or 'g per 100g water' at 25°C (298K).

Qualitative Solubility Descriptions

Solubility can be qualitatively described based on observations when
shaking a solid with water in a test tube:
 Very soluble: Plenty of the solid dissolves (e.g., potassium
nitrate).
Soluble: Crystals visibly dissolve to a significant extent (e.g.,
copper(II) sulfate).
Sparingly or slightly soluble: Little solid dissolves, but the
solution's pH changes (e.g., calcium hydroxide).
Insoluble: No sign of material dissolving (e.g., iron(III) oxide).

A similar classification applies to gases dissolving in water. For

example, ammonia and hydrogen chloride are very soluble, sulfur
dioxide is soluble, sulfur dioxide is slightly soluble, and helium is
insoluble.

Intermolecular Forces and Solubility

The dissolving of a molecular solute involves breaking intermolecular
forces between solute molecules and solvent molecules, and forming
new intermolecular forces between solute and solvent molecules.

All the intermolecular forces involved:

The intermolecular forces between solute molecules.

The intermolecular forces between solvent molecules.
The intermolecular forces between solute and solvent
molecules.

All the intermolecular forces involved are about the same as

the energy as the solute forms new intermolecular forces with
the solvent.

Non-Polar Substances
Non-polar substances, such as wax, dissolve and mix freely with non-
polar liquids like cyclohexane.

Cyclohexane acts as a non-aqueous solvent in this case.

The intermolecular forces involved are London forces.

Non-polar molecules like hydrocarbons do not dissolve in water

because their intermolecular forces are relatively weak. Strong
hydrogen bonding between water molecules acts as a barrier.

Polar Organic Molecules

Polar organic molecules, like halogenoalkanes, are also insoluble in
water.

Weak dipole-dipole forces between the organic molecules allow

them to separate fairly easily.
They cannot form hydrogen bonds with water and, therefore,
remain separate.

Organic molecules that can form hydrogen bonds, such as alcohols,

dissolve and mix with water. Ethanol molecules can break the
hydrogen-bonded structure of water by forming new hydrogen bonds
between ethanol and water molecules; thus, ethanol (C2H5OH) and
water are miscible.

Alcohols with longer hydrocarbon chains are less miscible with

water.

Miscible: Liquids that mix in all proportions. Oil and water are
immiscible.

Ionic Salts in Water

Ionic salts separate and dissolve in water, with the energy needed to
separate ions from a crystal compensated by the energy released
when ions are strongly hydrated by polar water molecules.

Water molecules cluster around the ions and bind to them.

The bonding between the ions and the water molecules is

electrostatic attraction. Water molecules are polar, so they are
attracted to both positive and negative ions.

Hydrated ions in water

Figure 2.47 shown above depicts how water molecules surround ions
in solution. Water molecules are attracted to both positive and
negative ions due to electrostatic forces. This process, called
hydration, helps to stabilize the ions in solution.

Enthalpy Change of Solution

The overall enthalpy change of solution can be endothermic. The
overall energy change, considering other factors like the disorder
created as solute particles move apart into the solvent, is called the
Gibbs free energy change.
Giant Covalent Structures 💎

Properties
A few non-metal elements, including carbon and silicon, and some
compounds of non-metals, such as silicon dioxide and boron nitride,
exist as giant covalent structures.

The covalent bonds in these structures are strong, making giant

covalent substances very hard and have very high melting
temperatures.

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)

Silicon dioxide exists as a giant covalent structure, with each silicon
atom bonded to four oxygen atoms, and each oxygen atom bonded to
two silicon atoms.

Silicon Dioxide Structure

Figure 2.48 shows that each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen
atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms. This
arrangement results in the empirical formula of SiO2 and gives silicon
dioxide its strong, stable structure.

Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropes are different forms of the same element in the
same physical state.

Carbon can exist in different solid forms – diamond, graphite,

fullerenes, and graphene. These forms of carbon illustrate the
connections between structure and bonding of materials, their
properties, and hence their uses. All these forms of carbon are held
together by strong covalent bonds with a definite length and
direction.

Diamond
Diamond is a giant covalent structure with strong bonds, accounting
for it being the hardest naturally occurring substance with a high
sublimation point.

Diamonds are valued for their brilliance as gemstones.

 Diamonds are also used industrially as abrasives for cutting
and grinding hard materials such as glass and stone.
Diamond conducts thermal energy very well – five times better
than copper.

The rigidity of the strong covalent bonds in diamond means that as

the atoms close to the tip of a cutting tool get hotter and move faster,
vibrations move rapidly throughout the giant structure.

Diamond-Studded Saw

As seen in Figure 2.50, diamonds that cannot be used as gemstones

are used in glass-cutting, such as diamond-studded saws.

Graphite
Graphite is used to make crucibles for molten metals. It can withstand
temperatures up to 3650 °C. Graphite blocks are used to line
industrial furnaces. X-ray diffraction studies show that the atoms are
held together in extended layers of atoms.

Each layer contains carbon atoms arranged in hexagons.

Each carbon atom is held strongly in a layer by strong covalent
bonds to three other carbon atoms.
The distance between neighboring carbon atoms in the same
layer is only 0.14 nm, but the distance between layers is 0.34
nm.

Each carbon atom in graphite uses three of its normal covalent bonds
with three other carbon atoms. The fourth outer shell electron on
each carbon atom forms part of a delocalized system of electrons
spread out over each layer. Because of these delocalized electrons,
graphite conducts electricity well.

Graphite Structure

The image above depicts how each carbon atom in graphite uses
three of its normal covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms.
The fourth outer shell electron on each carbon atom forms part of a
delocalized system of electrons spread out over each layer, allowing
the structure to conduct electricity well.
The covalent bonds between carbon atoms within the layers of
graphite are so strong that many modern composites incorporate
graphite fibers to give plastics greater tensile strength. The bonding
between the well-separated layers is relatively weak, allowing the
layers to slide over each other.

Fullerenes
In 1985, Harry Kroto of Sussex, working with teams led by Bob Curl
and Richard Smalley, discovered buckminsterfullerene, C60 – a black
solid with a simple structure. At the molecular level, the fullerenes
mimic the geodesic dome invented by the American engineer Robert
Buckminster.

Other fullerenes have the formulae C32, C50 and C240. Fullerenes are
fundamentally different from diamond and graphite: they are
molecular forms of carbon, rather than infinite giant structures.
Fullerenes are black solids which are soluble in various solvents
because of their molecular structure, and the bonding at each carbon
atom in fullerenes resembles that in graphite.

Fullerenes are good electrical insulators because the delocalized

electrons cannot move between molecules. However, metals in
Groups 1 and 2 can react with C60 to form superconductors at very
low temperatures. The reaction produces a rare type of salt where
electrons transferred to the C60 move around the whole salt in the
same way as electrons move in a metal.

3Rb(s) + C60(s) → (Rb+)3 C 603− (s)

​

Chemists can produce fullerenes in the form of tubes as well as

spheres. These 'buckytubes' or carbon nanotubes are not only the
narrowest tubes ever made, they are the strongest and toughest
weight for weight. These carbon nanotubes have enormous potential
in very diverse applications, from the replacement of graphite fibres
in golf clubs and fishing rods to use in medicine as vehicles for
carrying drugs into specific body cells.

Graphene
Graphene, first isolated in 2003 in Manchester by Andre Geim and
Kostya Novoselov, is a two-dimensional material with a huge number
of possible applications.

It is the thinnest material known but is also one of the

strongest.
Graphene-plastic composites are extremely strong but very
lightweight and have potential uses in aircraft and cars. Graphene is
as good a conductor of electricity as copper and is also a better
conductor of heat than any other material. Graphene's transparency,
flexibility, and conductivity raise the possibility of its use in
touchscreens for mobile devices and is being investigated for use in
ultrasensitive chemical sensors and photocells.

Graphene Model

The computer model of the molecular structure of graphene, seen

above in Figure 2.55, demonstrates the arrangement of carbon atoms
in a single layer.

Metallic Bonding and Structures 🔩

Close Packing
Most metals are packed together as closely as possible. This is called
'close packing'.

When a second layer is placed on top of the first, atoms in the second
layer sink into the dips between atoms in the first layer. This packing
arrangement allows atoms in one layer to get as close to those in the
next layer, so the structure of most metals is a giant lattice of closely
packed atoms in a regular pattern.

Metallic Bonding
In this giant lattice, the electrons in the outer shell of each metal atom
are free to drift through the structure. These electrons do not have
fixed positions – they are 'delocalized electrons'.

Metallic bonding consists of positive ions with delocalized

electrons moving around and between them as a 'sea' of
delocalized negative charge.

The strong electrostatic attractions between the positive metal ions

and the 'sea' of delocalized electrons result in strong forces between
the metal atoms.

Metallic Bonding Model

Figure 2.58 shows the metallic bonding model, highlighting the
attractions between positive metal ions and the surrounding sea of
delocalized electrons. This strong attraction is responsible for many of
the characteristic properties of metals.

Properties of Metals
High melting and boiling temperatures
High densities
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable

Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between positive

ions and the 'sea' of delocalized electrons.

High melting and boiling temperatures – metal atoms are

closely packed with strong forces of attraction between the
positive ions and delocalized electrons.
High densities – the atoms are close packed with as little space
between them as possible.
Good conductors of heat – when a metal is heated, energy is
transferred to the electrons. The delocalized electrons in the
heated region move faster and conduct the heat (energy)
rapidly to other parts of the metal.
Good conductors of electricity – when a potential difference
is applied to a metal, the delocalized electrons are attracted to
the positive electrode and flow through the metal. This flow of
electrons is an electric current.
Malleable – the bonds between metal atoms are strong, but
they are non-directional because the delocalized electrons can
drift throughout the lattice and attract any of the positive ions.
When a force is applied to a metal, lines or layers of atoms can
slide over each other.

Alloys
Adding other metals or carbon to the lattice can make metals harder.
Atoms of different sizes in the lattice disrupt the layers of atoms and
make it more difficult for layers to slide over each other. These
mixtures are called alloys and have important uses.
For example, the addition of a few percent of tungsten and
molybdenum produces harder steel used for high-speed drill bits.

Chemical Reactions: Oxidation and

Reduction
Oxidation and reduction reactions are fundamental in chemistry,
involving the transfer of electrons between chemical species.

Burning and rusting are common examples of oxidation.

Oxidation: The addition of oxygen to an element or compound.

Older definitions include the loss of hydrogen.

Reduction: The opposite of oxidation. Metal oxides are reduced

during the extraction of metals from their ores. Older
definitions include the gain of hydrogen.

Recognizing Oxidation and Reduction

| Reaction Type | Definition
|

| :----------------

| :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | |
Oxidation
| Loss of electrons, increase in oxidation number, becomes more
positive or less negative
| | Reduction
| Gain of electrons, decrease in oxidation number, becomes less
positive or more negative
|

Balanced Symbol Equations

Before writing a balanced chemical equation, it's important to know
the identities of the reactants and products.
The sparks from a sparkler, like the one held by the girl in this picture,
are bits of burning magnesium. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to
form white magnesium oxide.

Steps for Writing Balanced Equations

1. Write a word equation for the reaction.

2. Write symbols and formulae for the elements and
compounds. Remember that oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
halogens are diatomic (O2, H2, N2, etc.).
3. Balance the equation by adding coefficients in front of the
symbols and formulae. Never change a formula to balance an
equation.
4. Add state symbols to indicate the state of each substance: (s)
for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas, and (aq) for aqueous solution.

Balanced chemical equations indicate the relative numbers of atoms

and molecules and allow the calculation of the amounts of chemical
substances involved.

Electron Transfer
In reactions involving electron transfer, one substance is oxidized
(loses electrons) and another is reduced (gains electrons).

For example, when magnesium reacts with oxygen:

Magnesium atoms give up two electrons, turning into

magnesium ions: $2Mg → 2Mg^{2+} + 4e^−$
Oxygen takes up the electrons from the magnesium, producing
oxide ions: $O_2 + 4e^− → 2O^{2-}$

Magnesium is oxidized, and oxygen is reduced. Oxidation and

reduction go together in these redox reactions.

Common Ions
| Charge | Cations
| Anions
|

| :-------

| :------------------------------------------------

| :-------------------------------------------------- | | 1+
| Sodium, Potassium, Silver, Copper(I), Hydrogen, Ammonium |
Chloride, Bromide, Iodide, Hydroxide, Nitrite, Nitrate
| | 2+
| Magnesium, Calcium, Zinc, Copper(II), Iron(II)
| Oxide, Sulfide, Sulfite, Sulfate, Carbonate
| | 3+
| Aluminum, Iron(III)
| Nitride, Phosphate
|

Some metals can form more than one ion (e.g., copper and iron), and
some non-metal ions are compound ions (oxoanions).

Oxoanion: An ion with the formula $XxOy^{z-}$, where X is an

element, and O is oxygen.

Ionic Half-Equations
A half-equation describes either the oxidation or reduction process
during a reaction. Two half-equations combine to give the overall
equation.

For example, zinc metal can reduce copper ions to copper:

Electron gain (reduction): $Cu^{2+}(aq) + 2e^− → Cu(s)$

Electron loss (oxidation): $Zn(s) → Zn^{2+}(aq) + 2e^−$

Adding the two half-equations leads to the full ionic equation:

$Cu^{2+}(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn^{2+}(aq)$

Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation numbers are used to track electron distribution during
chemical changes.

Oxidation: A change that makes the oxidation number of an

element more positive or less negative.
 Reduction: A change that makes the oxidation number of an
element less positive or more negative.

The oxidation number of an uncombined element is zero. In a simple

ion, the oxidation number of the element is the charge on the ion.

This graph visualizes the oxidation of magnesium by chlorine. It shows

how magnesium loses electrons to become $Mg^{2+}$, while chlorine
gains electrons to form $2Cl^−$. Magnesium acts as the reducing
agent, and chlorine acts as the oxidizing agent.

Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

1. The oxidation number of all uncombined elements is zero.

2. In a simple ion, the oxidation number is the charge on the ion.

3. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is

zero.

4. The sum of the oxidation numbers in an ion is the charge on

the ion.

5. Some elements have fixed oxidation numbers in all their

compounds:

Group 1 metals: +1
Group 2 metals: +2
Aluminum: +3
Fluorine: -1
Oxygen: -2 (except in peroxides and compounds with
fluorine)
Hydrogen: +1 (except in metal hydrides)
Chlorine: -1 (except in compounds with oxygen and
fluorine)
Oxidation Numbers in Molecules
In most molecules, the oxidation number of an atom corresponds to
the number of electrons from that atom that are in covalent bonds.
The more electronegative atom has the negative oxidation state.

Oxidation Numbers and the Chemistry of

Bromine
Oxidation numbers help to make sense of the chemistry of an
element, such as bromine:

BrO3-: +5
BrO-: +1
Br2: 0
Br-: -1

The most positive oxidation number for each element corresponds to

the number of electrons in the outer shell of its atoms.

Names of Compounds
The names of inorganic compounds are based on oxidation numbers.

The more electronegative element comes last in the name.

Roman numerals indicate the oxidation numbers of elements.
Traditional names of oxoacids end in ‘-ic’ or ‘-ous’.
Traditional endings for the salts of oxoacids are ‘-ate’ and ‘-ite’.

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

Oxidizing agent (oxidant): A chemical reagent that oxidizes
other substances by taking electrons from them. Common
oxidizing agents include oxygen, chlorine, nitric acid, potassium
manganate(VII), potassium dichromate(VI), and hydrogen
peroxide. The oxidizing agent gains electrons and is reduced.
Reducing agent (reductant): A chemical reagent that reduces
other substances by giving them electrons. Common reducing
agents include hydrogen, sulfur dioxide, and zinc or iron in acid.
The reducing agent loses electrons and is oxidized.

Disproportionation
 Disproportionation: A reaction in which the same element is
both oxidized and reduced.

This image illustrates that in disproportionation reactions, one part of

a substance is oxidized and another part is reduced simultaneously.
For example, in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide $2H_2O_2(aq)
→ 2H_2O + O_2$, half of the oxygen is reduced to water, and the other
half is oxidized to oxygen gas.

Balancing Redox Equations Using Half-Equations

1. Write down the given information about the half-equations.
2. Balance the hydrogen and oxygen (in acid solution, use $H^+$
and $H_2O$).
3. Balance the electric charges by adding electrons.

4. If necessary, multiply one half-equation so that the numbers of

electrons in each half-equation are the same, then add them.
5. If necessary, simplify the equation by canceling molecules that
appear on both sides.

Balancing Redox Equations Using Oxidation

Numbers
1. Write down the formulae for the molecules and ions.
2. Identify the elements that change in oxidation number and the
extent of change.
3. Balance so that the total increase in oxidation number of one
element equals the total decrease of the other element.
4. Balance for oxygen and hydrogen.
5. Add the state symbols.

Thermal Decomposition of Lead(II) Nitrate

Heating lead(II) nitrate produces lead(II) oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and
oxygen. Nitrogen dioxide molecules pair up to form N2O4.

Heating lead(II) nitrate to collect N2O4

Heating lead(II) nitrate in a fume cupboard allows for the collection of

$N_2O_4$ gas.

Chemical Reactions & Equations

Balancing Chemical Equations

The lecture includes several exercises focused on balancing
chemical equations, which is essential for quantitative
chemistry.

Oxidation Numbers
Several examples are provided to determine the oxidation
numbers of nitrogen in various molecules, such as N2, NH3,
N2H4, HNO3, HNO2, NH2OH, and NF3.
Oxidation numbers help track electron transfer in redox
reactions.

Half-Equations
Writing half-equations for redox changes involves separating
the oxidation and reduction processes.
Examples include:

Cobalt(II) ions turning into cobalt(III) ions

Sulfur dioxide molecules in acid solution turning into
hydrogen sulfide molecules
Hydroxide ions turning into oxygen and water molecules
Hydrogen molecules turning into hydrogen ions

Identifying whether each half-equation represents oxidation or

reduction is a key step. Oxidation is the loss of electrons, while
reduction is the gain of electrons.

Redox Reactions
 Redox reactions involve both oxidation and reduction
processes.
Balancing redox equations is crucial for understanding the
stoichiometry of the reactions.

Definitions of Oxidation and Reduction

Four definitions of oxidation and reduction are mentioned,
which include:

Oxidation as the loss of electrons

Reduction as the gain of electrons

The lecture also touches on the application of these definitions

in various reactions, such as:

Reaction of hydrogen gas with hot sodium metal to form

sodium hydride
Reaction of hydrogen peroxide with potassium iodide in
acid solution to form water and iodine
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to form oxygen
and water

Oxoanions of Sulfur
The lecture discusses oxoanions of sulfur, including sulfite,
thiosulfate, tetrathionate, and sulfate ions.
Determining oxidation states of sulfur in sulfite and sulfate ions
is emphasized.

Thermal Decomposition
Thermal decomposition: The breakdown of a chemical
compound into simpler substances when heated.

Example: Copper(II) carbonate decomposes into copper(II)

oxide and carbon dioxide: CuCO3 (s) → CuO(s) + CO2 (g)
​ ​

Hydrated compounds like copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O )

​ ​

decompose upon heating, releasing water: CuSO4 ⋅ ​

5H2 O(s) → CuSO4 (s) + 5H2 O(g)

​ ​ ​
Acids and Ionic Equations
Acids react with water to produce aqueous hydrogen ions (
H + (aq)).

Ionic equations show ions in solution, excluding spectator ions.

Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas and a metal
salt. For example, magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid:
M g(s) + 2H + (aq) → M g 2+ (aq) + H2 (g) ​

Acids react with metal oxides to form a salt and water.

Neutralization reactions occur between acids and alkalis to
form a salt and water: H + (aq) + OH − (aq) → H2 O (l) ​

Acids react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide, water,

and a salt: CO32− (s) + 2H + (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2 O (l)
​ ​ ​

Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions occur when mixing two solutions of
soluble ionic compounds results in an insoluble precipitate.
Example: Lead(II) nitrate reacts with potassium iodide to form
lead(II) iodide: P b2+ (aq) + 2I − (aq) → P bI2 (s)
​

Solubility Rules
These rules predict whether a precipitate will form:

| Category | Solubility Rules