B. A. (Hons.

) English – Semester I Core Course

Paper I : Indian Classical Literature Study Material

Unit-3
The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka

Edited by
Dr. Neeta Gupta
Department of English

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

University of Delhi
Paper-I : Indian Classical Literature
Unit-3
The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka

Edited by:
Dr. Neeta Gupta
School of Open Learning
University of Delhi
Delhi-110007

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Paper-I : Indian Classical Literature
Unit-3
The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka

Contents

S. No. Title Pg. No.

1.1 Learning Objectives 01
1.2 Introduction 01
1.3 Summary 03
1.4 Major Characters 07
1.5 Themes 09
1.6 Title 13
1.7 Model Questions 13
1.8 Reading List 14

Prepared by:
Simran Mittal

SCHOOL OF OPEN LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI
5, Cavalry Lane, Delhi-110007
 Unit-3

The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka

Translated by M. R. Kale
Simran Mittal

1.1 Learning Objectives

 To introduce the students to classical Indian drama, Sudraka, and the adaptation and
performance history of Mrichchhakatika.
 To give students an idea of the major characters in Mrichchhakatika.
 To analyse Mrichchhakatika as a prakarana, the elements of humour and
characterization, the contemporary society, and the treatment of women in the play.
1.2 Introduction
1.2.1 Classical Indian Drama
Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra, written in Sanskrit and considered to be the Fifth Veda or the
Naatya Veda, is the key source of information about performing arts in India, covering music,
dance, poetics, and theatre. The encyclopaedic compendium is comprised of 36 chapters in
6,000 poetic verses. The first chapter expresses the range of themes that can be found in
classical Indian drama: “There is no wise maxim, no learning, no art or craft, no device, no
action, that is not found in the drama” (Bharata 15). It was thus created with a didactic
purpose by Brahma so that gods could use it to propagate the Vedas to humanity.
As Kuljeet Singh points out, the Buddhist poet Asvaghosa’s plays verify that classical
Indian drama developed from Ujjain’s public literature during the Gupta period. Early
popular theatre and monologue plays contain references to the plays of Vishakhadatta,
Sudraka, and Kalidasa (xii).
Although seen as synonymous to “acting,” the literal meaning of abhinaya is “carrying
towards.” This implies that the actor “transacts the meaning of drama towards the audience,”
which puts emphasis on the visual part of performance more than anything else (Singh xii).
The actor reaches out to the spectators through the medium of acting. The audience gets a
taste of the sentiment being communicated by the actor. Natyashastra also gives the theory of
rasa, which refers to the “transaction of sentiment on stage.” In stressing on the role of
transaction on stage, Sanskrit drama differs from Western drama which is more concerned
with feeling sentiments. While Greek theory relies upon catharsis, the purging of pity and fear
by the actor and the character, Indian dramaturgy considers technique and skill to be more
important. The goal of the purging of emotions in Greek drama is to restore social order at the
end of the play, but Sanskrit drama is more concerned with establishing emotional harmony
within the audience.

1
 The ideal spectators of any given performance, as outlined in the Natyashastra, “are
possessed of [good] character, high birth, quiet behaviour and learning, are desirous of fame,
virtue, are impartial, advanced in age, proficient in drama in all its six limbs, alert, honest,
unaffected by passion, expert in playing the four kinds of musical instrument, very
virtuous…” (Bharata 523). When seen in the context of the caste system that has been
prevalent in India, it is evident that Sanskrit drama was not equally accessible to all castes.
Sanskrit drama was broadly classified into two kinds of plays – the nataka and the
prakarana. The nataka is considered to be the most superior type of drama as it deals with
historically royal figures and events. In contrast, the prakarana is created entirely from the
dramatist’s imagination without centralizing any noble figure. Mrichchhakatika comes under
the latter category, the prakarana, as it has a fictional storyline. Sanskrit drama, whether
nataka or prakarana, used a combination of poetry and prose in its dialogue.
Sanskrit was the dominant language of the day as it was used for religious rituals and at
court. Prakrit, on the other hand, was the language of the common man and existed in various
local dialects. Sanskrit drama was written in both Sanskrit and Prakrit, but Sanskrit was used
by the major male characters, ascetics, brahmin priests, and royal heroes. Prakrit was spoken
by women, low-caste characters, and children. This drama is never tragic in its conclusion;
the ending is always a happy one as the hero is supposed to attain the object of his desire.
1.2.2 Sudraka and Mrichchhakatika
Very little is known regarding the identity, date, and life of Sudraka. There are several
theories as to his identity. One sees him as a mythical figure, while another identifies him as a
third century Abhira king. Mrichchhakatika’s Prologue refers to him as a kshatriya king and
playwright. Three Sanskrit plays are attributed to Sudraka – Mrichchhakatika, a prakarana (a
play in ten acts); Vinavasavadatta; and Padmaprabhritaka, a bhana (a short one-act
monologue). The Prologue of Mrichchhakatika does not mention the country of which he is a
king, but tells that he died at the age of a hundred years and ten days. Several scholars have
established, however, that the Prologue is a later addition to the play, which casts doubt on its
authorship. It is doubtful how historically factual the information provided in the Prologue is.
Sudraka, Kalidasa, and Bhavabhuti are seen as the greatest Indian playwrights, while
Bhasa was the first Indian playwright and Sanskrit poet. Bhasa’s Daridra Carudatta (The
Poor Charudatta), a four-act fragment missing the first and final verses, is thought to be the
inspiration for Sudraka’s Mrichchhakatika. Van Buitenen theorizes that Bhasa’s play was
incomplete when Sudraka found and completed it. He also speculates that the title
Mrichchhakatika is a nod to Bhasa himself: “compared with Bhasa’s chariot, Sudraka's play
is just a fragile little cart of clay” (32).
Mrichchhakatika is a prakarana in ten acts. Set in Ujjayini, the play revolves around the
love story of a poor brahmin merchant Charudatta and a wealthy courtesan Vasantasena, and
how they overcome the obstacles posed by a vulgar courtier Sakara. The subplot comes from
the overthrow of king Palaka by an ordinary shepherd Aryaka. Rather than focusing on royal
lives, the play draws its characters from the everyday world, such as thieves, courtesans,
gamblers, etc. The play is written in a mix of prose and verse, Sanskrit and Prakrit, and is
fictional in nature instead of being based on epics or mythology.
2
1.2.3 Mrichchhakatika – Adaptation and Performance History
Habib Tanvir directed the first stage production of Sudraka’s Mrichchhakatika in 1958, titled
“Mitti Ki Gadi,” and adapted by Begum Qudsia Zaidi. This production was notable for its
cast of both folk and urban actors, lending the play a hybrid of modern and folk idiom.
Several productions, based on Mohan Rakesh’s translation titled “Mitti Ki Gadi,” have been
performed in Delhi in the last thirty years. The National School of Drama (NSD) produced
three of these, directed by Professor Devendra Raj Ankur in 1992, Professor Robin Das in
1998, and Professor K.S. Rajendran in 2008. Girish Karnad’s film Utsav (1985) was also an
adaptation of Mrichchhakatika. However, Singh observes that:
no major Indian theatre director has yet attempted to stage Sudraka's Mrichchhakatika
from the feminist perspective with a ganika (courtesan) as the nayika (heroine) of the
play either in classical or contemporary idiom. (xvii)
1.2.4 Check Your Progress
1. How does Sanskrit drama differ from Western drama?
2. Who is an ideal spectator according to the Natyashastra?
3. What are the various theories concerning the identity of Sudraka?
4. Comment on the adaptations of Mrichchhakatika.
1.3 Summary
1.3.1 Act I – “The Depositing of the Ornament”
The prologue opens with a benediction, as advised in the Natyashastra for the overcoming of
obstacles, followed by the Sutradhara introducing the author of the play. The benediction is in
verse form, meant to pay homage to a king, brahmin, or deity. The prologue compliments the
audience and reveals the title of the drama and its playwright. The Sutradhar and Nati set the
scene for the first act, thus facilitating a smooth transition between the reality of the audience
and the world of the play. The Prologue of Mrichchhakatika introduces Maitreya and
Charudatta, leading up to the first Act.
The Vidushaka, Maitreya, enters after the scene is set with a conversation between the
Sutradhara and his wife (Nati). A poor Brahmin, Maitreya, is a genuine friend of Charudatta,
a formerly wealthy resident of Ujjayini (having lost everything in altruistic deeds).
Churnavriddha, another friend of Charudatta, asks Maitreya to give a cloak to Charudatta,
who does so. The friends talk about how poor Charudatta is. Vasantasena enters the scene,
fleeing from Sakara (also called Samsthanaka, brother-in-law to king Palaka of Ujjayini, and
the villain). He is a vainglorious, degenerate coward, followed by Cheta and Vita. The three
of them plead, flatter, and threaten to force themselves upon Vasantasena, but she refuses
Sakara. While they chance upon Radanika and mistake her for Vasantasena, she escapes to
Charudatta’s house. Maitreya saves Radanika and introduces Vasantasena to Charudatta.
Having heard of his virtuous character, Vasantasena fell in love with him even though it was
uncharacteristic for a courtesan to love a poor man. In order to have an excuse to see him

3
again, Vasantasena gives her ornaments to Charudatta for safekeeping. Charudatta escorts her
back to her place and puts Maitreya in charge of the ornaments.
Charudatta’s generosity is evident throughout the play in his dealings with every
character, but it does not extend to his wife. The abject status of courtesans in society is also
revealed in this Act through the derogatory comments on Vasantasena passed by Sakara and
his followers.
1.3.2 Act II – “Samvahaka, the Gambler”
Vasantasena confides her love for Charudatta to her maid Madanika and tells her why she left
her ornaments with him. Some gamblers are then introduced. Samvahaka, one of them, is
absconding from his debt and his creditor, Mathura, is pursuing him. Samvahaka escapes
with help from another gambler and takes refuge in Vasantasena’s house, who clears his debt
and saves him from his creditors. Samvahaka resolves to live as a Buddhist mendicant from
that point onwards and leaves. A servant narrates the story of how he just rescued Samvahaka
from an elephant, for which he was rewarded with a cloak by Charudatta. Vasantasena wears
the cloak herself out of her love for Charudatta.
1.3.3 Check Your Progress
1. How does Charudatta lose his ancestral wealth?
2. Why does Vasantasena fall in love with Charudatta?
3. Why does Vasantasena leave her ornaments with Charudatta?
4. Why does Samvahaka become a Buddhist?
1.3.4 Act III – “The Making of a Brach”
Sarvilaka, a poor Brahmin, is in love with one of Vasantasena's slave-maids, Madanika. He
steals Vasantasena's ornaments, which Maitreya was supposed to safeguard, from
Charudatta’s house to pay Madanika’s ransom and marry her. Upon the discovery of this
theft, Charudatta is extremely distressed as his honour is now in question. Dhuta, his wife,
gives him her own necklace of rare pearls out of nobility, to get him out of this problem.
Charudatta then asks Maitreya to offer Vasantasena his wife’s necklace in place of her own
jewellery, and to tell her that his master gambled away her ornaments, believing that they
were his.
1.3.5 Act IV – “Madanika and Sarvilaka”
When Sarvilaka tells Madanika that he will buy her out using those ornaments, she
recognises them and asks him to return them to their master. Sarvilaka is reluctant to face
Charudatta as a thief, so Madanika suggests that he offer them directly to Vasantasena under
the pretence that they have been sent by Charudatta himself. Vasantasena is not fooled, but
she grants freedom to Madanika. Sarvilaka leaves to aid his friend Aryaka, who has been
imprisoned by king Palaka out of the fear that he will replace him. Vasantasena is then called
upon by Maitreya, who does what Charudatta had asked him to in the previous act. She sees
it as further evidence of her beloved’s nobility, and she tells Maitreya that she would be
visiting Charudatta the same evening.

4
 In introducing the political subplot revolving around Aryaka in this Act, Sudraka departs
from his source material of Bhasa’s Daridra Carudatta. This storyline may have been
inspired from a contemporary reality of the times in which Sudraka lived. The revolution will
ultimately resolve Charudatta’s poverty as Aryaka bestows him with wealth upon taking over
the throne from king Palaka.
1.3.6 Act V – “A Stormy Day”
The author spends several verses describing the raging thunderstorm that evening, which
Vasantasena braves to visit Charudatta. She returns her ornaments to him claiming that she
too had lost Charudatta’s necklace, implying that she had realized his well-meant pretence.
The major plot of the play now reaches its culmination with the union of the two lovers.
This theatrical depiction and the lyrical verse of this storm would delight the audience.
The storm symbolizes Vasantasena's love for Charudatta and the pain of separation from her
lover. It serves the dramatic purpose of giving the audience an insight into Vasantasena’s
character as she metaphorically talks of her vulnerabilities and anxieties in her descriptions of
the storm. It could also be seen as a foreshadowing of the upheaval about to enter their lives
when Charudatta will be tried for Vasantasena’s murder.
1.3.7 Act VI – “The Exchange of the Carriages”
Vasantasena spends the night with Charudatta, and before leaving in the morning, he instructs
his servant to take her to the Pushpakarandaka garden. Charudatta’s son Rohasena is seen
crying because he wanted a golden toy cart to play with, but instead got merely an earthen toy
cart (Mrichchhakatika). Vasantasena asks him to get a toy-cart made out of her own
ornaments. This is the episode from which the title of the play is derived. Building upon this,
Sudraka also depicts the major turning point of the play in this act, which will turn the lives
of the two lovers upside down. Vardhamanaka, a servant, then announces that Vasantasena's
carriage is ready for departure and she requests him to wait a little. In the meantime, he goes
to fetch the carriage cushions he had forgotten earlier, and Sthavaraka, Sakara’s servant,
comes in, who is also taking his master’s carriage on the same route. Both Vasantasena and
Sakara being unaware of what has happened, she gets into his carriage and reaches the garden
late. Aryaka escapes from prison at this juncture and gets into Vardhamanaka’s carriage
while his back is turned. Believing that he is driving Vasantasena, Vardhamanaka starts on
his way, but the two city guards stop them to check the carriage. Chandanaka, one of the
guards, recognizes Aryaka and helps him get away by beating and driving off the other guard
Viraka. Vardhamanaka never realizes everything that has happened.
It is significant that the Act that hinges on the exchange of carriages should also
introduce the episode which gives the play its title.
1.3.8 Check Your Progress
1. What prompts Sarvilaka to steal Vasantasena’s ornaments?
2. How does Madanika ultimately get her freedom?
3. Describe the titular episode of the play.

5
1.3.9 Act VII – “The Escape of Aryaka”
Upon reaching the garden where Charudatta is waiting for Vasantasena, Aryaka steps out of
the carriage being driven by Vardhamanaka. Charudatta assures him protection and tells him
to take the same carriage further so as to avoid suspicion, and the two men part as friends.
Charudatta then leaves the garden without Vasantasena as he has virtually committed treason
and doesn’t want to be witnessed there by anyone. This meeting is significant as it will lend
him the support of the would-be king, who will restore Charudatta’s former prosperity,
granting stability to the relationship between him and Vasantasena.
1.3.10 Act VIII – “The Killing of Vasantasena”
Samvahaka, now a Bhikshu, goes to the garden to clean his robes and is instead harassed and
sent away by Sakara. He is pleasantly surprised to find Vasantasena getting out of his
carriage. He decides to murder her as punishment for rejecting him again. When his followers
Cheta and Vita refuse to kill her, Sakara strangles Vasantasena himself. She faints and falls
down while he believes she is dead. When Sakara brags about the event to his followers, Vita
leaves him in revulsion and joins the party formed by Aryaka. Sakara tells Cheta to depart for
his house, where he plans to keep him imprisoned to avoid the discovery of his crime.
Afterwards, Sakara decided to pin the murder on Charudatta as revenge. The Bhikshu comes
back after Sakara leaves and revives Vasantasena.
The sudden, criminal turn of events here would lead to turmoil within the audience, but it
sets the stage for the change of regime from a corrupt and inhumane king to a more
compassionate and fairer one. The fact that Cheta and Vita refuse to kill Vasantasena for
Sakara also reveals their individuality and ethics, rather than being docile cogs in the
machinery of the state.
1.3.11 Act IX – “The Trial”
Sakara accuses Charudatta of enticing and murdering Vasantasena for her ornaments in front
of a Judge and two assessors. The Judge calls Vasantasena’s mother, who confirms the love
affair between Charudatta and her daughter. When Charudatta is questioned, he says he is not
aware of Vasantasena's whereabouts. Viraka then arrives to file a complaint against
Chandanaka, who had assaulted the former while he was checking Charudatta’s carriage, in
which Vasantasena was presumed to go to the garden. On the Judge’s command, Viraka goes
to the garden to verify whether there is a dead woman there, and finds a woman who died
under a fallen tree. Charudatta is officially charged with the murder, and he doesn’t try to
protest, as he is grieving at the death of his beloved. He also believes that he wouldn’t be
given a fair hearing due to his poverty. In fact, the Judge is fair but bound by the evidence
before him. In addition to Charudatta’s damning silence, Maitreya brings to the court
Vasantasena’s ornaments which she had gifted to Rohasena. The fact that they came from
Charudatta’s house completes the chain of evidence. The judge is forced to affirm his guilt,
and king Palaka announces that Charudatta is to be impaled in the cemetery as a warning to
other criminals.
This act provides detailed insight into the law and judiciary of the time. The judge knows
well enough how evil Sakara is and tries to give a fair trial to Charudatta, but he is rendered

6
helpless by the power wielded by king Palaka and his family. The prevailing status quo
privileges only those with power and money, thus condemning Charudatta to death and
creating an atmosphere of despair.
1.3.12 Act X – “The Conclusion”
Two Chandalas, unhappy with their job, are taking Charudatta to the cemetery to execute
him. Maitreya gets Rohasena so that Charudatta could look at his son one last time; he also
pleads with the Chandalas to let him go but they cannot do that. The imprisoned Cheta, upon
hearing the public proclamation of Charudatta’s death sentence, leaps into the street to
declare the truth. He announces that Sakara is the murderer but Sakara manages to convince
everyone that Cheta’s words are unreliable because he is a thief and liar. As Charudatta is
about to be executed, Vasantasena arrives at the cemetery with Samvahaka. Sakara’s guilt
and Charudatta’s innocence is affirmed with their arrival. Sarvilaka comes on to the scene
and reveals that Aryaka has slain king Palaka and taken his throne. Charudatta is given the
kingdom of Kusavati as reward for helping Aryaka. Vasantasena is given the title of a ‘wife’
so she is not followed by the stigma of being a courtesan anymore. Chandanaka, the
Chandalas, Sthavaraka, and Samvahaka are also honoured suitably. Even Sakara is rewarded
as Charudatta does not hold a grudge. The play ends on a happy note, with a Bharatavakya
which expresses kindness for everyone and suffering for none. As discussed in the
Introduction above, this happy ending fulfils the technical requirements of Sanskrit drama
being meant for entertainment purposes, as laid down by the Natyashastra.
1.3.13 Check Your Progress
1. How does Aryaka escape the guards?
2. Why does Sakara attempt to murder Vasantasena?
3. What is Charudatta accused of? Why?
4. How is Charudatta’s innocence finally established?
1.4 Major Characters
1.4.1 Charudatta
Charudatta, a young brahmin merchant of Ujjayini, values his honour more than his life and
wealth, which he only wants to use for the good of others. He spent all his ancestral wealth in
acts of private and public charity. He is portrayed as “the beau-ideal of a gentleman…to
whom by common consent was applied the title of Arya, the ‘noble one’” (Kale 52).
Charudatta’s poverty drags him into the morally ambiguous world of the lower classes, yet he
remains as generous as he was while he still had his fortunes. Van Buitenen points out that
his “character is that of the ineffectual rich man’s son who was so nice when he was rich, and
is now so undeservedly poor, that good sense demands that his fortunes be returned” (36).
Although Charudatta bemoans his poverty, he doesn’t seem to be doing anything about his
misfortunes. Kale justifies this attitude, saying that Charudatta “mourns his condition, not
because he wants money for enjoyment, but because he is thereby deprived of the
opportunities of doing good to others” (62). He says in Act I: “What pains me is that guests
avoid coming to my house because it has lost its riches” (66). His generosity becomes further
7
evident when he gifts his own cloak (since he has nothing valuable to offer) to a servant as
reward for rescuing Samvahaka from an elephant in Act II. Banerjee sees him as “a man of
culture,” arguing that “the third act projects him not only as a keen lover of music but also as
one conversant with the science of music” (49). His knowledge of music is clearly displayed
when he talks about “the cadence of the notes of [Master Rebhila’s] sweet voice; and to those
well-blended notes of the lute, high-pitched when following up with the harmonious swell
and fall of the sounds of te syllables of the song, but low towards the close” (100). In
opposition to Ryder who thinks Charudatta is unfit to be a hero due to his lack of bold
reciprocation of Vasantasena’s love, Banerjee opines that Charudatta is in fact a consistent
character in his caution, consideration, and response. In the character of Charudatta,
therefore, Sudraka has created a well-rounded hero who acts as the moral consciousness of
the play.
1.4.2 Vasantasena
Van Buitenen highlights the abundance in literature of men ruining themselves for women.
Mrichchhakatika restores that balance to a certain extent through Vasantasena, a rich
courtesan passionately in love with Charudatta and extremely charitable with her belongings
(37). Three kinds of heroines are listed in the Natyashastra – a common woman or a celestial
nymph, a woman enraptured by the hero but not married to him, and a loyal, legal wife of the
hero. A public woman, Vasantasena is wise, witty, and constant, a difficult trait to have as a
courtesan. Comparing her with Sita and Shakuntala who are the embodiment of self-sacrifice
and self-denial as expected from their epic figures, Banerjee reflects that Vasantasena’s
course of life as a courtesan is quite contrary to her profession (51-52). She rejects the
advances of Sakara, a royal suitor, and instead falls in love with a poor brahmin for his noble
character. Ryder notes the similarities between the hetaerae of ancient Greece, the geishas of
Japan, and the courtesans of India, implying that courtesans could in fact lead a respectful
life. Yet, Vasantasena dreams of transcending her class limitations and becoming a legal wife
(xx-xxi). Her wit, consistency, sincerity, self-sacrifice, compassion, and beauty make her an
unforgettable and better heroine than those in other Sanskrit dramas. She repeatedly rejects
the advances of Sakara out of her love for Charudatta even though she is almost killed for it.
Her descriptions of the storm in Act V illustrate how witty and poetic she is: “Co-wife in the
form of the night is blocking my path in anger, forbidding me now and again with its
thundering, as though saying – You foolish woman, what business have you here when your
lover sports with me alone, possessing plump payodharas?” (138).
1.4.3 Maitreya
Maitreya is the Vidushaka of the play, similar to a jester. A member of the dramatic troupe,
the clown/jester in Sanskrit drama is typically a brahmin. He is a valuable source of laughter
in the play. Since love and laughter are closely connected, and love and heroism are the major
themes of Sanskrit drama, the Vidushaka is the companion of the hero. His intelligent
humour is laced with erotic subtexts and his social background allows him a certain degree of
mobility in social hierarchies. Though lazy, he is close friend/ servant of the male hero. The
Vidushaka is the only character allowed to make social and political commentaries in the
play. Further, he is supposed to be rogue, ugly, and vulgar.

8
 Sudraka retains the stock attributes of a jester in Maitreya – the desire for good food, a
comfortable and pleasurable life, and a bumbling affection for his friend – but does not make
him a glutton or a fool. Instead, he is a down to earth and spirited friend, refined by his quirky
humour and willingness to accompany Charudatta even to his death (Ryder xxi). Maitreya
defends Charudatta passionately during the trial in Act IX and even offers to die in his stead.
More than his jokes, it is his blunders which evoke laughter among the audience (Kale 65).
He attacks Sakara during Charudatta’s trial for falsely accusing his friend of murder. During
the scuffle, the stolen ornaments fall out of Maitreya’s pocket, which the judge sees as
enough evidence to convict Charudatta. Maitreya’s love for Charudatta thus becomes his
friend’s downfall. Sudraka’s distinctive representation of the jester gives “life to the dry
bones of a rhetorical definition” (Ryder xxi). Nowhere in Sanskrit drama is there such a
passionate, sentimental jester as shown by Sudraka in Mrichchhakatika.
1.4.4 Samsthanaka/ Sakara/ Shakara
Sakara, the brother-in-law of the king and the villain of the play, is believed to be the greatest
character created by Sudraka (Kale 52). He is initially portrayed as a dimwit, but as the play
goes on one realizes that this ignorance is feigned, because he turns out to be quite cunning
when necessary. Sakara’s character as the villain and the fool rolled into one, makes him “a
character unique in Sanskrit dramatic literature” (Kale 63). He is originally named
Samsthanaka, but is called Sakara because of the dialect he uses, shakari, which is a kind of
Magadhi Prakrit. A Shakara is supposed to be of low origin, powerful only due to his
relationship with the king. Kale notes with regard to Sudraka’s Sakara that his “very
mannerisms of speech are sufficient to cause laughter; prominent among these are:- his
substitution of ‘Sh’ for S, his habit of using redundant words, his absurd mythology, his
inversion of the order of words, and his quaint similes” (63). In the first Act, for instance, he
commits a mythological blunder while chasing Vasantasena: “Mixing up the sounds made by
your numerous jingling ornaments, why do you fly away like Draupadi afraid of Rama?”
(69). Draupadi and Rama figure in two different Hindu epics, i.e., Mahabharata and
Ramayana respectively, but Sakara mixes up the two. His deep cunning is established in the
way he attempts to frame Charudatta for the murder of Vasantasena. He is also revealed as a
coward at the end when he throws himself at the mercy of Charudatta and Aryaka, whom he
had despised from the very beginning.
1.4.5 Check Your Progress
1. Describe the character of Charudatta/ Vasantasena/ Maitreya/ Sakara.
1.5 Themes
1.5.1 Mrichchhakatika as a Prakarana
Ten major kinds of plays are listed in the Natyashastra: nataka, prakarana, anka, vyayoga,
bhana, samvakara, vithi, prathasana, dima, and thamrga. Although this is not an exhaustive
list, the Natyashastra focuses only on the nataka and the prakarana. Merely two prakarana
and a few nataka have survived, making it difficult to differentiate between the two types of
drama. Farley P. Richmond discusses the characteristics of both. A nataka centres around the
legendary exploits of either a king or a royal sage, stemming from sacred puranas and epics

9
like Mahabharata and Ramayana. It is dominated by the sentiment of either love or heroism,
has five to seven acts, and contains divine elements. A nataka follows the lives of nobility,
providing ideal heroes for people to emulate. This elitism however marginalises the lives of
ordinary people, which is better represented in prakarana. Bhavabhuti’s The Latter History of
Rama, Bhasa’s The Vision of Vasavadatta, and Kalidasa’s Sakuntala are the most prominent
nataka in Sanskrit literature. A prakarana, in contrast, is a drama about material life invented
by the author in five to ten acts, with a brahmin, a minister, or a merchant as its male
protagonist and a courtesan as its female protagonist. Love is the predominant sentiment.
Sudraka’s Mrichchhakatika is the finest example of a prakarana (67).
Mrichchhakatika fulfils the condition of invention for a prakarana quite well, and as
expected, is written in ten acts. Shringara or love is the chief rasa (sentiment); a noble and
serene brahmin is the hero; and Vasantasena, a public woman, and Dhuta, a noble woman,
are the two heroines. The presence of two heroines makes the play a samkirna (mixed) kind
of prakarana. Another attribute of a prakarana is that a character other than the hero must
cause the denouement of the plot. This requirement is also fulfilled as it is the activities of
Sakara, the villain, that propel the love affair between Charudatta and Vasantasena. The
composition of the play is thus broadly aligned with the Natyashastra, but there are some
important rules that Sudraka disregards as well (Banerjee 16).
The fictional storyline of Mrichchhakatika makes it stand out among most extant
Sanskrit plays which are typically based on the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Its
cast also includes several middle and lower caste characters, which is a departure from the
guidelines set down in the Natyashastra that maintain that the protagonists should be from
the nobility (Singh xvi).
According to the Natyashastra, the title of a fictional play must contain the names of the
hero and the heroine. Sudraka, however, goes against that rule and names his play
Mrichchhakatika, which could possibly be a reference to the source text by Bhasa, as Van
Buitenen postulated. The hero is supposed to be present in all Acts, but Charudatta does not
make any appearance in Acts II, IV, VI, and VIII. Some other characters like the courtier,
Maitreya, and Vasantasena also do not follow the rules laid down in the Natyashastra (Ryder
xix). Additionally, Biswanath Banerjee observes that the kulastri (the noble heroine), i.e.,
Charudatta’s wife Dhuta, meets the ganika (the public woman), i.e., Vasantasena, in the tenth
Act. The meeting of the kulastri and the ganika is expressly prohibited in the Natyashastra as
the two are supposed to remain within their respective spheres of the domestic and the public
(16-17). Sudraka’s flouting of the canonical conventions for Sanskrit drama, however, is one
of the crucial elements that made his play attractive to the audience.
1.5.2 Humour
Within Western literature, the comic is split into the three elements of wit, humour, and
satire, which are used to provoke laughter, comic relief, or dramatic interest. In Sanskrit
literature, however, all these components are covered by hasya-rasa, i.e., laughter. The
Natyashastra states that hasya-rasa originates from shringara (love) and the absurdities of
human life. In most Sanskrit dramas, humour revolves around the Jester’s character, but
Sudraka’s humour goes far beyond any single character (Banerjee 81). Sudraka is excellent in

10
his use of humour, an element typically overlooked in Sanskrit drama. His humour is both
literary and situational, but never vulgar or coarse. To that extent, it is quite different from the
humour in Bhanas (one-act Sanskrit drama) which revolve around licentious jokes (Kale 51).
Ryder also notes that Sudraka's humour is distinctly American in flavour. The word play
might not be adequately translated from Sanskrit to English, but the situations are not
necessarily tethered to the language. “And Shudraka’s humor runs the whole gamut, from
grim to farcical, from satirical to quaint. Its variety and keenness are such that King Shudraka
need not fear a comparison with the greatest of Occidental writers of comedies” (51). The
Prologue itself introduces the humorous elements in the play. Nati gives a list of food items
to a hungry Sutradhara, her husband, giving him the impression that all these things are
available for him to eat. When he starts wondering how these are available in a poor man’s
home, she tells him that they are available but in the shop. He then gets furious when she tells
him that she wants to feed a brahmin so that she can get a handsome husband in the next
birth. He points out to the audience how inconsiderate his wife is being in wishing for another
husband at his own cost. Another instance of humor in the play would be Sakara’s
mythological blunders, discussed above.
1.5.3 Characterization
The characters of Mrichchhakatika come alive in a way that even Dushyanta and Rama do
not, particularly from a Western viewpoint. According to Ryder, what distinguishes Sudraka
from the rest of the Sanskrit playwrights is that his “men are better individualized than his
women” (xix). His characters come from every walk of life, not just the nobility. The minor
characters have been painted with as much sympathy as the major characters. He has created
“almost a cosmopolitan crowd; it comprises a learned Brahmana, a rich courtesan, robbers,
gamblers, and headsmen, portly judges and royal rakes” (Kale 52). Madanika, Vasantasena’s
maid, is truer to life as a character than Vasantasena, the heroine of the play (xx). Madanika
is extremely distressed to learn that her lover Sarvilaka has stolen ornaments to pay her
ransom so that they can get married. She insists that he return the ornaments to Charudatta,
the man her mistress loves. When she finally gets married to him, she is forced to suffer the
pangs of separation as her husband goes off to organize a revolution. Yet in the final act, she
does not get any credit while all other characters get a happy resolution.
1.5.4 Society
Any literary work is a reflection of the various facets of its contemporary society.
Accordingly, Mrichchhakatika too is a minefield of information about Indian life at the time
when Sudraka was writing. The plot of the play delineates social issues such as “the progress
of state-craft, the miscarriage of justice, the nature of villains and the inevitable course of
destiny” (Banerjee 91). The characters are drawn from both the upper and the lower classes,
and the play gives a fair idea of the law and governance systems in place at the time. The
king is merely referred to in the play, not actually introduced. He seems to have been a tyrant,
leading to discontent and armed rebellion as seen in Mrichchhakatika. The ninth act, which
deals with the trial of Charudatta, provides a glimpse into the judiciary of the time. Justice is
meted out quickly and fairly, as the judge follows established protocols and considers the
available evidence before him (Kale 59-60).

11
 Sudraka’s society fully recognises the hierarchical caste system which puts brahmins at
the top. They had the privilege of exemption from capital punishment, and even a thief would
hesitate in robbing a brahmin, as we see with Sarvilaka. Studying Vedas was the exclusive
right of brahmins, and women were not allowed to speak in Sanskrit. Though caste
stratification was a major determining factor, there appears to have been some room for
mobility. Charudatta is a brahmin, but his ancestral wealth was accumulated by the trade his
grandfather engaged in, and he himself is the head of the traders’ guild. Viraka and
Chandanaka, barber and cobbler by birth respectively, are high state-officials, positions
typically given to the kshatriyas. Such an unconventional set-up makes Sylvain Levi think
that Sudraka’s portrayal was not in keeping with the realities of the orthodox Indian society
of the time (Banerjee 92-93).
Slavery was rampantly practiced, with the buying, selling, and ransoming of slaves being
acceptable. Madanika, the slave-maid of Vasantasena, is not free to pursue any romantic
interests unless her ransom is paid. Gambling was legal and overseen by an organized
association, which is evident in the arc of Samvahaka the gambler (Kale 61).
Banerjee further observes that the play provides an insight into the food habits of the
time. In the Prologue, the housewife of the stage manager talks about rice boiled with curd,
ghee, molasses, and so on. The fourth Act depicts an extensively stocked kitchen at
Vasantasena’s house. Brahmins are also seen partaking in eating meat cooked with a variety
of spices. Both men and women are seen drinking wine, variously known as asava, sura,
madira, sidhu, etc. (96-97).
The society believes in Vedic religious practices and worships gods like Rudra/Shiva,
Indra, Hara, Vishnu, and Brahma either privately or publicly. Vasantasena’s first sighting of
her beloved Charudatta happens at the temple of the god of love, Kama. Although a primarily
Brahmanical society, Buddhism is also seen thriving. Bhikshus were respected by the people,
as seen in the character of Samvahaka. Charudatta contributed liberally to the construction of
Buddhist monasteries, yet he considers the sight of a Buddhist recluse (Shramana) to be
ominous, indicating a current of prejudice against Buddhists. The play therefore depicts a
conflict between the two religions (Banerjee 101).
1.5.5 Women
The play affirms that it was a conventionally patriarchal society, with family as the smallest
unit and a man as the head of the family. Courtesans were considered to be ignoble as
opposed to the respect held by legally wedded wives. However, the granting of the status of a
wife to Vasantasena at the end suggests that mixed marriages were not uncommon (Kale 61).
A polygamous society is depicted as Charudatta ends up marrying Vasantasena, and Dhuta
easily accepts a co-wife.
Vasantasena may be the heroine, but the play is about her lover Charudatta. Dibyajyoti
Sharma, however, sees her as a progressive character, for taking Charudatta as her sole lover
despite being a courtesan. He argues that Sudraka’s portrayal of Vasantasena is a romantic
one as there is “a wish to change the reality of courtesans. But the wish is, in most part,
rhetorical.” Being from an oppressed class, moreover, there is a “duality of disposition
between reality and romance,” which “marks a strong point of departure in the character of
12
Vasantasena.” Dhuta is represented as the ideal woman of her times, self-sacrificing to
protect her husband’s honour and even ready to become a sati.
The use of language also illustrates the hierarchy between men and women. All women,
and lower-class men, were supposed to speak in Prakrit. Being an upper-class man, thus, even
a gambler like Darudra can speak in Sanskrit, but not an intelligent, well-versed woman like
Vasantasena. Even Dhuta, Charudatta’s wife and hence belonging to the brahmin community,
is not allowed to use Sanskrit.
Women were confined within the four walls of the house and had no place in public
affairs. As a result, no credit is given to Vasantasena’s mother’s account of Charudatta’s
innocence. Madanika is a slave-maid to Vasantasena, and is not allowed to get married unless
her ransom is paid. Though Sarvilaka’s love for Madanika is genuine, he feels no remorse in
abandoning his newly married wife when he decides to go help Aryaka (Sharma).
1.6 Title
Natyashastra mandates that a prakarana should be titled after the hero and heroine or a
significant event in the play. But Sudraka has not followed the norms in titling his play
Mrichchhakatika as it is named after a seemingly minor action of the heroine. Vasantasena
fills the little toy-cart of Rohasena, the son of Charudatta, with her own ornaments so that the
child may buy a golden toy cart as per his desires in the sixth Act. She performs this act out
of her love for Charudatta here, but these very ornaments later condemn Charudatta to the
gallows. This incident therefore serves as the link between the initial union of the lovers and
the later trial of Charudatta for Vasantasena’s murder. The toy-cart can also be seen as a
metaphor for the actual carriages which are mistakenly exchanged in the same Act, leading to
Vasantasena’s encounter with Sakara and attempted murder. This minor incident, then, is not
so minor after all and plays a crucial role in the development of the plot.
1.7 Summing Up
Sudraka’s Mrichchhakatika is a masterpiece among the surviving Sanskrit dramas. It broadly
adheres to the rules of a prakarana as laid down in the Natyashastra, but also flouts several
norms, adding to its popularity. Additionally, this lesson deals with the themes of humour,
characterization, society, and the treatment of women as depicted in Mrichchhakatika.
1.8 Model Questions
1. Describe classical Indian drama with reference to Mrichchhakatika.
2. Write a brief note on the author of Mrichchhakatika.
3. Write a character sketch of Charudatta/ Vasantasena/ Maitreya/ Sakara.
4. To what extent can Mrichchhakatika be seen as a prakarana play?
5. Discuss the state of women in Sudraka’s contemporary society with reference to
Mrichchhakatika.
6. Comment on Sudraka’s use of humour in Mrichchhakatika.
7. Does Mrichchhakatika adequately reflect its contemporary society?
8. Comment on the title of Mrichchhakatika.

13
1.9 Reading List
Banerjee, Biswanath. Makers of Indian Literature: Shudraka. Sahitya Akademi, 1999.
Bharata, Natyashastra. Translated by Manomohan Ghosh, Granthalaya Private Limited,
1967.
Kale, M. R. Introduction. The Mirichchhakatika of Sudraka, by Sudraka, Booksellers’
Publishing Co., 1962.
Richmond, Farley P., et al, editors. Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 1993.
Ryder, Arthur William, translator. The Little Clay Cart (Mrcchakatika). By Sudraka, Harvard
U, 1905.
Sharma, Dibyajyoti. “The Woman as Commodity: A Study of Sudraka’s The Little Clay
Cart.” Muse India, vol. 37, 2011, museindia.com/Home/AuthorContentDataView.
Singh, Kuljeet. Introduction. The Mrichchhakatika of Sudraka, translated by M. R. Kale,
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited/Worldview Publications, 2015, pp. xi-
xxi.
Sudraka. Mrichchhakatika, translated by M. R. Kale, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited/Worldview Publications, 2015.
Van Buitenen, J.A.B. Two Plays of Ancient India: The Little Clay Cart, The Minister’s Seal.
Columbia UP, 1968.

14