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Unit-01
ues→Explain the 5 Vs of Big Data in detail. Howdo they define the scope
Q
and complexity of modern data systems?
Ans:-)1.Volume
Refersto the massive amount of data generated everysecond from
→
varioussourcessuch associal media, sensors, transactions, machines, etc.
Organizations deal with terabytesto petabytes ofdata that traditionalsystems cannot
→
manage efficiently.→High volume requiresscalablestorage and distributed processing
systemslike Hadoop and Spark.
.Velocity
2
→Describesthe speed at which data is generated, collected,and processed.
Real-time or near-real-time processing is crucialfor timely decision-making
→
(e.g., fraud detection, recommendation engines).
→Technologieslike Kafka, Flink, and Storm are usedto handle high-velocity data streams.
.Variety
3
→Representsthe different forms of data:structured(databases),semi-structured (XML,
JSON), and unstructured (videos, images, audio).
Handling diverse data typesincreasesthe complexityofstorage,
→
integration, and analysis.→Requiresflexible systemscapable of handling
all formats.
.Veracity
4
→Relatesto the trustworthiness and accuracy of data.
→Data may be inconsistent, incomplete, or noisy,affecting the quality of insights.
→Data cleansing and validation mechanisms are essentialto improve reliability.
.Value
5
→Denotesthe usefulness of data in making informeddecisions.
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The main goal isto extract meaningful insightsthatadd business value.
→
→Techniqueslike data mining, analytics, and machinelearning help unlock this value.
ues→What are the major types of digital data? Classifyand explain with
Q
examples from real-world applications
Ans:-)1.Structured Data
Organized data that residesin fixed fields withinrecords or files, typically in
→
relational databases.→Easily searchable using SQL-basedqueries.
Examples:
→
– Bank transaction records(amount, date, account number)
– Employee detailsin an HR system (name, ID, department)
– Sensor data stored in rows and columns
.Semi-Structured Data
2
→Data that does not follow a strict tabular formatbut has a clear structure
through tags or markers.→Can be stored in NoSQLdatabases and parsed using
specific parsers.
Examples:
→
– JSON and XML files used in web APIs
– Email (with fieldslike To, From, Subject, Body)
– Logsfrom servers or IoT devices
.Unstructured Data
3
→Data without any predefined structure or format,making it difficult to process
and analyze directly.→Requires advanced toolsforstorage, processing, and
analysis(e.g., NLP, image recognition).→Examples:
– Social media posts(text, images, videos)
– Multimedia files(MP3, MP4, JPEG)
– Documents and PDFs containing mixed content
ues→Compare and contrast conventional data systemswith Big Data
Q
platforms. Why are traditional systems inadequate for today’s data?
Ans:-)
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FeatureConventional Data SystemsBig Data Platforms
Data VolumeHandles GBsto TBs of data Capable of handlingTBsto PBs and beyond
Data VarietyPrimarily structured data Handlesstructured,semi structured, and
unstructured data
Data VelocityProcesses data in batches(slower) Supportsreal-time and streaming data
processing
s erver)
calabilityLimited verticalscalability
S Horizontalscalability (adding more
(adding more power to a single machinesto the cluster)
Storage ArchitectureCentralized storage using RDBMSDistributed storage (e.g., HDFS,
NoSQL databases)
Processing ModelRelational model using SQL Distributedcomputing (e.g.,
MapReduce, Spark)
Cost-effective using commodity hardware
CostExpensive for large-scale data due to and open-source tools
high hardware/software cost
igh fault tolerance through replication and
H
ault ToleranceMinimal;system failure
F failover
often disrupts processing mechanisms
FlexibilityRigid schema design Schema-less or flexibleschema support
ues→Describe the architecture of a Big Data system.Highlight
Q
the role of each component and how they interact in a data
pipeline.
Ans:-)
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Component Role and Function
1. Data Sources→Origin of data such as web servers,sensors,applications,
logs,social media.
→Sends both real-time and historical data for
processing.
2. Data Storage→Storeslarge volumes of raw inputdata
(structured,semi-structured,
unstructured).
→Supports batch processing later. Common systems:
HDFS, cloud storage, NoSQL DBs.
3. Batch Processing→Processeslarge volumes of dataat once (non-real time).
→Used for historical trend analysis, data cleaning,
and aggregation.
→Outputs are written to the Analytical Data Store.
4. Real-time Message Ingestion→Captures and ingestsstreamingdata from live
sources.
→Toolslike Kafka, Flume, or NiFi are used here.
5. Stream Processing→Processes real-time data forinstant insights and decisions.
→Detects events or anomalies as data flowsin (e.g.,
fraud detection).
→Feeds processed data into the Analytical Data
Store.
6. Analytical Data Store→Central repository forstoring processed data from both batch
and stream paths.
→Optimized for querying, analytics, and business
intelligence tools.
7. Analytics and Reporting→Performs data analysis,visualizations,
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Tools: Tableau, Power BI, Apache Superset,
→
dashboards, and reporting. etc.
8. Orchestration→Manages workflows,scheduling, andcoordination across all
components.
→Ensuressmooth and timely execution of tasks.
Tools: Apache Airflow, Oozie.
Interaction in the Pipeline
Data Sourcessend input to two parallel paths:
→
→One path stores data forBatch Processing
→The other ingests data in real time viaMessageIngestion
→Batch ProcessingandStream Processingboth sendprocessed data to a shared
Analytical Data Store→Final data is retrieved fromtheAnalytical Storeby
Analytics and Reportingtoolsfor visualization→Orchestrationensures every step in
thisflow isscheduled, monitored, and managed properly
ues→Discuss the ethical challenges and privacyissues related to Big
Q
Data. How can compliance and auditing features be integrated into Big
Data frameworks?
Ans:-)Ethical Challenges and Privacy Issues in BigData
. Data Privacy Violation
1
→Big Data often collects personal and sensitive information(e.g., health, financial, location
data) without explicit consent.
→There is a risk of misuse, re-identification, andexposure of individuals' private data.
. Informed Consent
2
→Users are often unaware of how their data is beingcollected,stored, and analyzed.
→Consent forms are either vague or buried in longprivacy policies, violating ethical
transparency.
. Data Ownership and Control
3
→Unclear policies on who ownsthe data—users, datacollectors, or
third-party processors.→Lack of control by usersover their own data can
lead to exploitation.
. Data Discrimination and Bias
4
→Algorithmstrained on biased data may lead to unfairoutcomes(e.g., in
hiring, creditscoring).→Ethical concerns arise whenBig Data reinforcessocial
inequalities.
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. Surveillance and Monitoring
5
→Governments or corporations can use Big Data forcontinuoustracking, leading to
masssurveillance.→Raises concerns around freedom,autonomy, and civil rights.
. Data Security Risks
6
→Large datasets are prime targetsfor cyberattacks,breaches, and leaks.
→Poor security practices can compromise the privacyof millions.
Integrating Compliance and Auditing in Big Data Frameworks
. Data Governance Policies
1
→Implementstrict data governance models definingaccess, retention,
and usage policies.→Define roles and responsibilitiesfordata
custodianship.
. Regulatory Compliance
2
→Align data processing practices with lawslike GDPR,HIPAA, CCPA, etc.
→Include consent tracking, right-to-be-forgotten,and data minimization in system design.
3. Data Auditing Mechanisms
→Maintain logs of data access, processing, and sharing.
→Use automated auditing toolsto trace who accessedwhat data, when, and why.
. Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)
4
→Enforce fine-grained access policies, allowing onlyauthorized usersto
accessspecific datasets.→Combine with encryptionand anonymization to
protectsensitive information.
. Data Anonymization and Masking
5
→Apply techniquesto obscure identifiable informationwhile preserving
analytical value.→Reducesthe risk of data re-identification.
. Encryption and Secure Storage
6
→Ensure all data at rest and in transit is encrypted.
→Use secure storage systems and key management practices.
. Transparency and Reporting
7
→Provide clear disclosures on data usage and privacypractices.
→Offer users accessto their own data and summariesof how it's being used.
ues→Big Data is often referred to as a disruptiveinnovation. Trace
Q
the history of Big Data evolution and explain the technological and
business drivers behind its rise.
Ans:-)Evolution of Big Data
. Pre-Big Data Era (1960s–1990s)
1
→Data was processed using traditional RDBMS (RelationalDatabase
Management Systems).→Systems were built for structureddata with
limited volume and slower generation rates.→Technologies:COBOL, IBM
mainframes, and early SQL databases.
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. Internet and Web Era (1990s–2005)
2
→The rise of the internet led to rapid data generation(web pages, emails,
e-commerce logs).→Organizations began collectinguser data, leading to data
warehouses and businessintelligence tools.→Technologies:Oracle, MySQL,
Teradata, ETL tools.
. Emergence of Big Data (2005–2010)
3
→Explosion of unstructured data from social media,sensors,videos, and mobile apps.
→Google introducedMapReduceandGFS (Google FileSystem)to handle
web-scale data.→Apache Hadoop (2006) adopted theseideas, making Big Data
processing open-source and scalable.
. Modern Big Data Era (2010–Present)
4
→Real-time data analytics became important (IoT,fintech, e-health).
→TechnologieslikeApache Spark,Kafka,NoSQL, andcloud platforms
gained popularity.→Machine learning, AI, and predictiveanalytics became
central to Big Data ecosystems.
Technological Drivers Behind Big Data Rise
. Storage Advancements
1
→Cheap and scalable storage (e.g., HDFS, Amazon S3)made it feasible to store massive
datasets.
. Distributed Computing
2
→Technologieslike Hadoop and Spark enabled parallelprocessing across clusters of
machines.
. Cloud Computing
3
→Platformslike AWS, Google Cloud, and Azure madeBig Data infrastructure more accessible
and cost-effective.
. NoSQL Databases
4
→Support for semi-structured and unstructured data(e.g., MongoDB, Cassandra).
. Open-source Ecosystem
5
→Rapid development due to community-driven projectslikeHadoop, Hive, Pig, and Flink.
. Real-Time Processing
6
→Toolslike Apache Kafka and Storm allowed handlingstreaming data for
instant decision-making.Business Drivers Behind BigData Rise
. Customer-Centric Strategies
1
→Companies use Big Data to understand consumer behavior,personalize
marketing, and improve user experience.
. Competitive Advantage
2
→Data-driven insights help firmsinnovate faster andoutperform competitors.
. Operational Efficiency
3
→Optimization ofsupply chains, manufacturing, andresource management using data
analytics.
. Risk Management
4
→Fraud detection, predictive maintenance, and financialrisk modeling using Big Data tools.
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. Monetization of Data
5
→Businessesincreasingly see data as a valuable assetthat can be sold, traded, or used to
generate revenue.
ues→Differentiate between analysis and reportingin the context of
Q
Big Data. Why is analysis considered more critical in intelligent systems?
Ans:-)Difference Between Analysis and Reporting inBig Data
CategoryAnalysisReporting
discover patterns, trends.
Definition→In-depth examination of data to
Purpose→To extract insights, make
predictions, and support Systems
decisions.
. Decision-Making Support
1
→Summarizing data to present factsin a
Nature→Exploratory, diagnostic, predictive,
readable format.
and prescriptive.
→To communicate historical data and
ools Used→Machine learning, data mining,
T
performance.
statistical models.
utput→Actionable insights,
O
→Descriptive and historical in nature.
recommendations, forecasts.
→Dashboards, BI tools(Tableau, Power BI).
ser→Data scientists, analysts,
U
decision-makers.
→Tables, charts, graphs, summary reports.
utomation→Involves advanced algorithms
A
→Managers, business users, stakeholders.
and dynamic processing.
→Often automated, butstatic in nature.
omplexity→High; requires deep
C
understanding of data and tools.
Low to moderate; focuses on presentation
→
of data.
Why Analysis Is More Critical in Intelligent
Intelligentsystems rely on analysisto make data-drivendecisionsin real-time (e.g.,
→
autonomous vehicles, fraud detection).
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. Predictive and Adaptive Behavior
2
→Analysis helpssystemslearn from past data and adaptto new situations using predictive
models.
3. Enables Automation
→Intelligent automation (like recommendation enginesor chatbots) depends on continuous
analysis of user data.
. Drives Personalization
4
→Systems analyze user preferences and behaviorstoprovide tailored experiences.
. Core to AI and Machine Learning
5
→Analysisisthe foundation of training models, detectingpatterns, and improving over time.
Ques→List any five Big Data platforms.
Ans:-)List of Five Big Data Platforms
➤
Apache Hadoop
➤Apache Spark
➤
Apache Flink
➤Google BigQuery
➤Amazon EMR (Elastic MapReduce)
Ques→Write any two industry examples for Big Data
Ans:-)Industry Examples of Big Data
➤
Healthcare Industry
→Big Data is used to analyze patient records, treatmenthistories, and diagnostic reportsto
improve healthcare outcomes and personalize treatment plans.
➤
Retail Industry
→Big Data helpsin customer behavior analysis, inventorymanagement, and targeted
marketing by analyzing large volumes ofsales and customer interaction data.
Unit-02
h i d l i i hi d h f h d
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Ques→What is Hadoop? Explain its history and thecomponents of the
Hadoop ecosystem.Ans:-)
Hadoop:-
Hadoop is anopen-source frameworkdeveloped byApachefor storing and
→
processing large datasetsin adistributed computingenvironment.
→It enables reliable,scalable, and efficient datastorage and processing using
c ommodity hardware.→Hadoop uses adistributed file system(HDFS) and a
processing model called MapReduce.
History of Hadoop
Hadoop was created byDoug CuttingandMike Cafarellain 2005.
→
→It wasinspired by Google's File System (GFS) andthe MapReduce
programming model.→Initially part of the ApacheNutch project (web
crawler).
Yahoo! contributed Hadoop to the Apache SoftwareFoundation in 2008.
→
→Firststable release: Hadoop 1.0.0 in December 2011.
Components of the Hadoop Ecosystem
Core Components:
HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System):
→
Storeslarge files across multiple machines with replication and fault tolerance.
MapReduce:
→
A programming model for processing large datasetsin parallel across a Hadoop cluster.
YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator):
→
Manages and schedules resources acrossthe Hadoop cluster.
→Hadoop Common:
Providesshared libraries and utilities used by other Hadoop components.
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Supporting Ecosystem Tools:
Hive:
→
Data warehousing tool that allows SQL-like queries on large datasets.
Pig:
→
A high-levelscripting language (Pig Latin) for analyzing large data sets.
→HBase:
A column-oriented NoSQL database built on top of HDFS.
Sqoop:
→
Used for transferring data between Hadoop and relational databases.
Flume:
→
Collects and transportslarge amounts of log or streaming data into HDFS.
Oozie:
→
Workflow scheduler to manage Hadoop jobs.
→Zookeeper:
A coordination service for managing distributed applications.
Mahout:
→
A library for scalable machine learning algorithms on Hadoop.
ues→Describe the Hadoop Distributed File System(HDFS). What are its
Q
core features and how does it store data across nodes?
Ans:-)
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)
HDFS standsforHadoop Distributed File System, theprimary storage system
→
of Hadoop.→It is designed tostore very large filesreliably acrossmultiple
machinesin a distributed manner.→It follows amaster-slavearchitectureand
is highlyfault-tolerant.
Core Features of HDFS
→Distributed Storage:
Stores data across multiple machinesto ensure scalability and parallel access.
→Fault Tolerance:
ata is automatically replicated across multiple nodes(default: 3 copies) to prevent data
D
loss during hardware failure.
High Throughput:
→
Optimized for large data sets with batch processing, providing high data accessspeed.
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Scalability:
→
Can scale up by adding more machines without changing the data or applications.
Write-Once, Read-Many Model:
→
Files are written once and read multiple times, which simplifies data consistency and
replication.
→Data Locality Optimization:
Moves computation close to the data to reduce network congestion and increase speed.
Support for Large Files:
→
Efficiently handlesfiles ofsize in GBs or TBs.
How HDFS Stores Data Across Nodes
1.Architecture:
NameNode (Master):
→
Stores metadata (file names, block locations, permissions) but not the actual data.
DataNodes (Slaves):
→
Store the actual data blocks. They report to the NameNode periodically.
2.Data Storage Process:
When a file is uploaded to HDFS, it issplit intoblocks(default block size: 128
→
MB or 64 MB).→Each block isreplicated(default:3 copies) and distributed to
different DataNodesforreliability.→TheNameNodemaintainsthe record of
which block is stored on which DataNode.→If a DataNodefails, the
NameNode ensuresthe lost replica is recreated on another DataNode.
3.Accessing Data:
When a user wantsto read a file, the client contactstheNameNode to get
→
the block locations.→Then the client directly readsthedata from the
respective DataNodes.
ues→Explain the basic working of the MapReduce frameworkwith the
Q
help of a suitable example.
Ans:-)
MapReduce
MapReduce is aprogramming modelandprocessingenginein Hadoop for processing
→
large-scale data in aparallel and distributedmanner.
→It consists of two main phases:MapandReduce.
Basic Working of MapReduce
1.
I nput Splitting:
→Input data issplit into smaller chunks(blocks),which are processed in parallel.
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2.
apping Phase:
M
→The Mapper function processes each split and producesintermediate
ey-value pairs. 3.
k
huffling and Sorting:
S
→The frameworkgroups all valuesbased on their keysandsends them
to the Reducers.4.
Reducing Phase:
→The Reducer processes each key and itslist of valuesand generatesthe final output.
Example: Word Count Program
Problem:Count the frequency of each word in a
large text file.Step 1: Input File
Input.txt:
Hello world
Hello Hadoop
Step 2: Map Phase
→The Mapper readsline by line and breaksit
into words: Map Output (Key, Value):
("Hello", 1)
("world", 1)
("Hello", 1)
("Hadoop", 1)
Step 3: Shuffle and Sort
→Group values by keys:
Grouped:
("Hadoop", [1])
("Hello", [1, 1])
("world", [1])
Step 4: Reduce Phase
→Sum the valuesfor each key:
Reduce Output:
("Hadoop", 1)
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("Hello", 2)
("world", 1)
Final Output (Word Count Result):
Hadoop 1
Hello 2
world 1
ues→What is shuffle and sort in MapReduce? Why isit a critical
Q
phase in the job lifecycle?
Ans:-)
What is Shuffle and Sort in MapReduce?
Shuffle and Sortis anintermediate phasein theMapReduce framework that occurs
→
between the Map and Reduce phases.
It is automatically handled by the Hadoop frameworkand is responsible for
→
transferring,sorting,andgroupingintermediate dataoutput by Mappers before it
reachesthe Reducers.
Working of Shuffle and Sort
After theMap phase, the output is a series of unsortedkey-value pairs.
→
→TheShuffleprocesssendsthese pairsfrom the Mapperstothe appropriate Reducers
based on the key.→During thistransfer,all valuesfor the same key are grouped
together.
Simultaneously, the data issorted by key,so theReducer receives
→
keysin sorted order.→Thissorted and grouped dataisthen passed to the
Reducefunction.
Why Shuffle and Sort is a Critical Phase
Ensures Correctness:
→
The Reducer expects all valuesfor a given key to arrive together;shuffle and sort
guaranteesthis.
Handles Large-Scale Data Movement:
→
It efficiently managesthe transfer of large volumes of intermediate data acrossthe network.
Optimizes Performance:
→
Sorting reducesthe complexity of the Reducer’sjob by providing already ordered data.
Enables Scalability:
→
It allows Hadoop to process massive data sets across distributed nodes effectively.
→Supports Fault Tolerance:
The framework handles retries and failures during shuffle without affecting the final result.
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ues→Compare and contrast Hadoop Streaming and HadoopPipes. In
Q
what scenarios is each preferred?
Ans:-)
FeatureHadoop StreamingHadoop Pipes
ver stdin/stdout
o
efinitionUsesstandard input/outputto
D AC++ interfaceto write
allow programs written inany MapReduce programsfor Hadoop
language(e.g., Python, Perl,
Ruby) to be used in MapReduce
jobs
C++ only
anguage SupportAny language
L
thatsupportsstdin and stdout
Binary protocol over sockets
Interface TypeText-based communication
Ease of UseEasy to write and debug More complex toimplement and debug
PerformanceMay beslowerdue to text parsingFasterdue to binary protocol
I ntegration with Hadoop When to Prefer Each
Externalscript/program interacts with
Hadoop Hadoop Streamingis preferred when:
→
Native integration with Hadoop core
se Case SimplicityIdeal for quick
U
prototyping or using existing scripts Best for performance-critical C++ applications
You want touse existing scriptswritten in languageslikePython, Ruby, or Perl.
→
→You need toprototype or test ideas quickly.
→You are working ontext-based dataand ease of developmentis more important than
speed.
Hadoop Pipesis preferred when:
→
→You want to writehigh-performanceMapReduce codeinC++.
→Your application iscompute-intensiveand requiresfasterdata handling.
→You needtighter integrationwith the Hadoop ecosystem.
Ques→Differentiate “Scale up and Scale out” Explainwith an example
How Hadoop uses Scale out feature to improve the Performance.
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Ans:-)
Difference Between Scale Up and Scale Out
Aspect Scale Up Scale Out
that takes 10 hours on one server.
efinition Increasing the capacity of a
D
Scale Up:
→
single machine
→You upgrade the server’s RAM and CPU.
ardware Dependency Requires powerful Now the job finishesin 6 hours.→Scale Out:
H
(high-end) hardware
Adding more machines/nodes to the
system
Cost Expensivedue to high-end systems
Uses commodity (low-cost) hardware
erformance Limited by the capability of a
P
single machine
Cost-effectiveas more
inexpensive nodes are added
Failure Impact Single point of failure can
affect the system
Improved performance through parallel
processing
Example Upgrading RAM or CPU of a
server
Distributed systems reduce failure impact
Adding more nodes to a Hadoop cluster
Example to Understand the Concept
→Suppose you have a data processing job
You add 3 more similar machines and distribute thetask. Now the job finishesin 2.5
→
hours due toparallel processing.
How Hadoop Uses Scale Out to Improve Performance
→Hadoop isdesigned based on the Scale Out model.
→Itsplits data into blocksand storesthem acrossmultiple nodesin the
cluster using HDFS.→Each node processes a part ofthe data
simultaneouslyusing theMapReducemodel.
As more data is added, instead of upgrading machines,Hadoop canadd more nodesto
→
the cluster to maintain performance.
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This parallel and distributed architecture enablesHadoop tohandle petabytes of data
→
efficiently, ensuring bothscalability and fault tolerance.
Unit-03
Ques-Explain the design and architecture of HDFS.
Ans:-)
1. Master Node (Resource Manager)
➤
TheMaster Nodeis responsible for managing resourcesand scheduling tasks
acrossthe cluster.➤TheResource Managercomponentinside it handles:
→Allocation ofsystem resourcesto various applications.
→Monitoring cluster utilization and load balancing.
2. Slave Nodes (Node Managers)
➤
EachSlave Noderuns aNode Manager,which is responsible for:
→Monitoring resource usage (CPU, memory) on thatnode.
→Reporting node health and availability to the ResourceManager.
→Managing containers where actual task executionhappens.
➤
Slave Nodes are theexecution layer,where MapReducejobs or other computation tasks
run.
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3. Communication
➤
TheResource Managercommunicates with allNodeManagersto:
→Assign jobs
→Track task progress
→Handle failures and reassign resources as needed
Relation with HDFS
Although the diagram emphasizesYARN resource management,in HDFS:
➤
NameNode(typically part of the Master) managesmetadata about file storage.
➤DataNodes(typically part of Slave Nodes)store theactual data blocks.
I n practice,Node Managers and DataNodesoften runon the same machinesto support
bothcomputation and storage.
Ques-What are the challenges and benefits of using HDFS in big data
environments? Ans:-)Benefits of Using HDFS
➤
Scalability
→HDFS can store and process petabytes of data byscaling across multiple machines.
➤
Fault Tolerance
→Data is replicated across different nodesto ensureavailability in case of failure.
➤
Cost-Effective Storage
→Uses commodity hardware, reducing infrastructurecosts.
➤High Throughput
→Optimized for batch processing and large datasetswith sequential read/write operations.
➤
Data Locality Optimization
→Moves computation close to where the data resides,reducing network traffic.
Challenges of Using HDFS
➤
Not Suitable for Small Files
→HDFS is optimized for large files; managing a largenumber ofsmall filesisinefficient.
➤High Latency for Random Access
→Not ideal for real-time or low-latency accesssince it is designed for batch processing.
➤
Complexity in Management
→Requiresskilled administratorsfor setup, configuration,and monitoring.
➤
Security Concerns
→By default, lacksstrong authentication and encryptionwithout additional configuration
(like Kerberos).
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➤
Single Point of Failure (NameNode)
→If the NameNode fails(without HA configuration),the entire system is disrupted.
Ques-Discuss the role of Flume and Sqoop in data ingestion. How do they
work with HDFS? Ans:-)Apache Flume
➤
Purpose
→Flume is designed for collecting, aggregating, andmoving large volumes oflog or
event datafrom various sourcesto HDFS.
➤
How It Works
→Flume uses a data flow structure withSource→Channel→Sink.
→TheSourcecollects data (e.g., from web servers),
→TheChanneltemporarily storesit (like a buffer),
→TheSinkdeliversthe data toHDFSor other destinations.
➤
Integration with HDFS
→The Flume sink writes data directly into HDFS usinga specified directory path and
format (e.g., text,sequence file).
Apache Sqoop
➤
Purpose
→Sqoop is used for efficiently transferringstructureddatabetweenrelational databases
(MySQL, Oracle, etc.) andHDFS.
➤
How It Works
→Sqoop generates MapReduce jobsthat parallelly import/exportdata.
→Forimport, it extracts data from RDBMS and writesintoHDFS in formatslike
Avro, Parquet, or text.→Forexport, it takes HDFSdata and pushesit back to a
database table.
➤
Integration with HDFS
→Sqoop directly writesthe imported data into HDFSdirectories.
→It also supportsimporting into Hive tables and HBase.
ues-What are the various file-based data structures and serialization
Q
formats supported in Hadoop?
Ans:-)File-Based Data Structures
➤
Text Files
→Simple flat files containing plain text data; usedfor small or basic datasets.
➤
Sequence Files
→Binary filesstoring key-value pairs; useful forintermediate MapReduce data.
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➤
MapFiles
→Sorted SequenceFiles with an index for fast lookups.
➤
Avro Files
→Row-based storage format;supportsschema evolutionand compactserialization.
➤
Parquet Files
→Columnar storage format; optimized for complex dataand
read-heavy workloads.Serialization Formats
➤
Writable
→Default Hadoop serialization format for key-valuepairsin MapReduce.
➤
Avro
→Supports rich data structures, compact format, andschema definition in JSON.
➤
Protocol Buffers
→Language-neutral format developed by Google; efficientand extensible.
➤
Thrift
→Cross-language serialization and RPC framework usedfor data serialization.
➤
JSON and XML
→Human-readable formats; used for configuration,logs, and lightweight data exchange.
Ques-Explain the steps involved in setting up and configuring a secure
Hadoop cluster. Ans:-)Steps Involved in Setting Upand Configuring a Secure
Hadoop Cluster
1. Install and Configure Hadoop
➤Download and install Hadoop on all nodes
➤
Configure environment variables(e.g., HADOOP_HOME, JAVA_HOME)
➤Edit core-site.xml, hdfs-site.xml, yarn-site.xmlfor cluster setup
2. Set Up SSH and Networking
➤
Enable passwordless SSH between all nodes
➤Configure hostnames and /etc/hostsfor name resolution
➤Test connectivity between nodes
3. Enable HDFS Permissions and User Authentication
➤
Enable file-level permissionsin hdfs-site.xml
➤Create Hadoop users and groups
➤Set up directory ownership and access control
4. Configure Kerberos Authentication
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➤
Install and configure Kerberosserver (KDC)
➤Generate keytabsfor Hadoop services and users
➤Modify Hadoop configuration filesto use Kerberos
5. Enable Data Encryption
➤
Enable data encryption at rest using TransparentData Encryption (TDE)
➤Enable data encryption in transit using HTTPS orSASL
6. Set Up Service-Level Authorization
➤
Enable service-level authorization in core-site.xml
➤Define policiesin hadoop-policy.xml
7. Configure Audit Logging and Monitoring
➤
Enable audit logsfor HDFS and other components
➤Integrate with monitoring toolslike Ambari or Prometheus
Ques-Examine how a client read and write data in HDFS.
Ans:-)1. Write Operation in HDFS
➤
Step 1: Client Request
→Client contactstheNameNodeto request permissionto write a file.
➤
Step 2: Block Allocation
→NameNode checks namespace and responds with theaddresses of DataNodesfor each
block of the file.
➤
Step 3: Data Streaming
→Clientsplitsthe file into blocks and startssendingthe data to thefirst DataNodein the
pipeline.
➤Step 4: Data Pipelining
Each DataNode forwardsthe block to thenext DataNode(replicas are created in the
→
process).
➤
Step 5: Acknowledgment
→Once all DataNodes have written the block, acknowledgmentsare sent
back to the client.2. Read Operation in HDFS
➤
Step 1: Client Request
→Clientsends a request to theNameNodefor readinga file.
➤
Step 2: Metadata Response
→NameNode responds with thelocations of DataNodescontaining the blocks of the
requested file.
➤
Step 3: Data Fetching
→Client directly contactsthenearest DataNodetoread the data blocks.
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➤
Step 4: Data Assembly
→Blocks are fetched andreassembledby the clientto form the complete file.
Unit-04
Ques→Explain the architecture of YARN and its rolein Hadoop .
Ans:-)
YARN
➤
YARN standsforYet Another Resource Negotiator.
➤It istheresource management layerof the Hadoopecosystem, introduced in Hadoop 2.x
to improve scalability and performance.
➤It decouplesresource managementandjob schedulingfrom the MapReduce
programming model.Core Components of YARN Architecture
. ResourceManager (RM)
1
➤Central authority that manages cluster resourcesand schedules applications.
➤Consists of two main components:
➤Scheduler–Allocates resources based on constraintslikememory and CPU.
➤ApplicationManager–Managesjob submissions andnegotiates containers with
NodeManagers.
. NodeManager (NM)
2
➤Runs on each node in the cluster.
➤Responsible for monitoring resources and containerlifecycle
management on the node.➤Reports node and containerstatusto
ResourceManager.
. ApplicationMaster (AM)
3
➤Created for each application/job.
➤Handles execution, task scheduling, and coordinationof itsspecific job.
➤Requests resourcesfrom ResourceManager and interactswith NodeManagers.
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. Containers
4
➤Logical units of resource allocation (e.g., memory+ CPU).
➤Actual tasks of an application run inside containerson different nodes.
Role of YARN in Hadoop
➤
Resource Management
➤Efficient allocation of resources(CPU, memory) acrossthecluster.
➤
Multi-Framework Support
➤Allows Hadoop to run multiple processing engines(e.g.,MapReduce, Apache Spark,
Tez, Flink) on the same cluster.
➤
Improved Scalability
➤Decentralized application managementsupportsthousandsof concurrent applications.
➤
Better Utilization
➤Fine-grained and dynamic allocation improves clusterutilization.
➤Fault Tolerance
➤Isolated application execution enables recoverywithout affecting others.
ues→What are NoSQL databases? Discuss the key differences
Q
between NoSQL and traditional RDBMS.
Ans:-)
NoSQL Databases
➤
NoSQL (Not Only SQL)databases are non-relationaldatabases designed to
handle large volumes of unstructured,semi-structured, or structured data.
➤
They providehigh scalability,flexibility in datamodeling, and are well-suited for
distributed architecturesandBig Dataapplications.
➤NoSQL databases can store data in variousformatslikekey-value pairs,documents,
wide-columns,orgraphs.➤Examples:MongoDB, Cassandra,Redis, CouchDB, Neo4j
Key Differences Between NoSQL and RDBMS
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Aspect RDBMS (Relational DB)NoSQL (Non-RelationalDB)
Consistency, Isolation,
ata Model Structured data with
D urability)
D
Flexible schemas (document, key-value,
predefined schemas (tables,
graph, column family)
rows)
ynamic schema; can change structure
D
chema Fixed schema; changes require
S
without affecting others
altering the database structure
orizontal (scale-out by adding more
H
servers)
calability Vertical (scale-up by adding
S
power to a single server)
aries (MongoDB uses
V
BSON/JSON-like queries, Cassandra uses
uery Language SQL (Structured Query
Q
CQL)
Language)
enerally avoids joins to maintain
G
performance
J oins Support Supports joins between
multiple tables
ay relax ACID for better performance
M
and availability
ACID Compliance Strong ACID (Atomicity,
Performance with Big Data Can struggle with huge datasets Designed for high
performance at web-scale
MongoDB, Cassandra, Redis, CouchDB,
Examples MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, HBase
SQL Server
Ques→Write a detailed note on MongoDB document operations
Ans:-)
MongoDB Document Operations
ongoDB stores data in the form ofdocuments, whichare similar to JSON objects but use
M
BSON (Binary JSON) format internally. Document operations refer to actionsthat can be
performed on these documents within a MongoDB collection.
1. Insert Operations
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➤
insertOne()
➤Inserts a single document into a collection.
Example:
db.students.insertOne({ name: "Alice", age: 22, course: "B.Tech" })
➤
insertMany()
➤Inserts multiple documents at once.
Example:
db.students.insertMany([
{ name: "Bob", age: 23 },
{ name: "Carol", age: 21 }
])
2. Read Operations (Queries)
➤find()
➤Returns all documentsthat match a query.
Example:
db.students.find({ age: 22 })
➤
findOne()
➤Returnsthe first document that matches a query.
Example:
db.students.findOne({ name: "Alice" })
➤
Query Operators
➤Use operatorslike $gt, $lt, $eq, etc.
Example:
db.students.find({ age:{ $gt: 21 }})
3. Update Operations
➤
updateOne()
➤Updatesthe first document that matchesthe query.
Example:
db.students.updateOne(
{ name: "Alice" },
{ $set:{ course: "M.Tech" }}
)
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➤
updateMany()
➤Updates all matching documents.
Example:
db.students.updateMany(
{ course: "B.Tech" },
{ $set:{ status: "active" }}
)
➤
replaceOne()
➤Replacesthe entire document with a
new one.Example:
db.students.replaceOne(
{ name: "Bob" },
{ name: "Bob", age: 25, course: "MBA" }
)
4. Delete Operations
➤deleteOne()
➤
Deletesthe first document that
matchesthe query.Example:
db.students.deleteOne({ name: "Carol" })
➤
deleteMany()
➤Deletes all documents matching
the query.Example:
db.students.deleteMany({ status:
"inactive" })5. Additional Useful
Operations
➤
countDocuments()
➤Returnsthe count of documentsthat
match a query.Example:
db.students.countDocuments({ course: "B.Tech" })
➤
sort()
➤Sorts documents based on one or
more fields.Example:
db.students.find().sort({ age: -1 })// Descendingorder
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➤
limit()
➤Limitsthe number of documents returned.
Example:
db.students.find().limit(2)
Ques→Explain the anatomy of a Spark job run.
Ans:-)Anatomy of a Spark Job Run
. Driver Program Initialization
1
➤The application starts with theDriver Program,which containsthe main()
function and defines transformations and actions on RDDs or DataFrames.
. SparkContext Creation
2
➤The Driver creates aSparkContext, which establishesa connection with theCluster
Manager(like YARN, Mesos, or Standalone).
. Resource Request from Cluster Manager
3
➤The SparkContext requests resourcesfrom the clustermanager to launchExecutor processes
on worker nodes.
4. Executors Launch
➤
Executors are launched on worker nodes. They areresponsible for executing tasks and
storing data (caching if needed).
. Task Scheduling by DAG Scheduler
5
➤TheDAG Schedulerbuilds aDirected Acyclic Graph(DAG)ofstages based on the lineage of
transformations.
6. Stage Division by Task Scheduler
➤The DAG is broken intostages, where each stagecontainstasksbased on data partitions.
. Task Execution by Executors
7
➤Tasks are sent to the executors.
➤Transformationsare lazily evaluated and executedonly when anactionis called.
. Data Shuffling
8
➤Between stages, data may need to beshuffled(redistributedacross nodes) for
operationslike groupByKey or reduceByKey.
. Job Completion
9
➤After all tasksfinish, theresults are returnedto the Driver or written to externalstorage (like
HDFS, S3, DB).
0. Clean-Up
1
➤Spark releases resources(executors) and the jobends.
ues→Compare and contrast Hadoop MapReduce v1 andYARN (MRv2).
Q
How does YARN improve over MRv1?
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Ans:-)
Aspect MapReduce v1 (MRv1) YARN (MRv2)
rchitecture Monolithic: JobTracker and
A
TaskTracker Fault Tolerance Failure of JobTracker
affects the whole system
Modular: ResourceManager,
Job Management Single JobTracker NodeManager, and
manages resources and job scheduling ApplicationMaster
calability Limited due to single
S eparate ResourceManager and
S
JobTracker ApplicationMaster
esource Utilization Inefficient; tied to
R ighly scalable due to distributed
H
MapReduce tasks only architecture
fficient; supports multiple types of
E ailures are isolated;
F
applications (e.g., Spark) components can recover independently
Support for Other Models Only supports MapReduce Supports MapReduce, Spark,
Tez, Flink, etc.
esource Scheduling Coarse-grained,
R ➤
Separation of Concerns
Fine-grained, dynamic resource
static allocation
allocation
How YARN Improves Over MRv1
→JobTracker responsibilities are split intoResourceManager(cluster resource
anagement) andApplicationMaster(application execution),improving
m
manageability.
➤Better Scalability
→MRv1’sJobTracker became a bottleneck in large clusters.YARN decentralizesjob
scheduling, allowing thousands of jobsto run concurrently.
➤Multi-Framework Support
→YARN supportsnon-MapReduceprocessing modelslikeApache Spark, Tez, and Flink,
enabling more flexibility and modern workloads.
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➤Improved Resource Utilization
→YARN providesfine-grained controlover resources(CPU,memory), allowing better
utilization and reduced waste.
➤Fault Isolation and Recovery
→Failuresin one job’s ApplicationMaster do not affectothers, unlike MRv1 where
JobTracker failure could crash the whole system.
Ques→What are the key components of the Hadoop ecosystem?
Ans:-)
Key Components of the Hadoop Ecosystem
➤HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System)
Storeslarge volumes of data across multiple machines with replication for fault tolerance.
➤
MapReduce
A programming model for processing large data setsin parallel using map and reduce
functions.
➤YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator)
Manages resources and schedulestasks acrossthe Hadoop cluster.
➤
Hive
A data warehouse system built on Hadoop that allows querying and managing large
datasets using a SQL-like language called HiveQL.
➤
Pig
A platform for analyzing large datasets using a high-levelscripting language called Pig Latin.
➤
HBase
A NoSQL database built on HDFS that provides real-time read/write accessto large datasets.
➤
Sqoop
Used to transfer bulk data between Hadoop and structured data storeslike RDBMS.
➤
Flume
Used for collecting, aggregating, and moving large amounts of log data into HDFS.
➤
Oozie
A workflow scheduler system to manage Hadoop jobs.
➤
Zookeeper
A coordination service for distributed applications, ensuring synchronization across nodes.
➤
Mahout
A machine learning library for building scalable ML applications on top of Hadoop.
➤
Ambari
A web-based tool for provisioning, managing, and monitoring Hadoop clusters.
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Ques→Discuss Scala’s functional programming features
with examples. Ans:-)
Scala’s Functional Programming Features
➤
First-Class and Higher-Order Functions
Functions are treated as values and can be assigned to variables, passed as parameters, or
returned from other functions.
Example:
val add = (x: Int, y: Int) => x + y
def applyFunc(f: (Int, Int) => Int, a: Int, b: Int): Int = f(a, b)
println(applyFunc(add, 5, 3)) // Output: 8
➤Immutable Data
cala encourages using immutable variables(using val) and immutable collectionsto
S
avoid side effects.Example:
val list = List(1, 2, 3)
// list(0) = 10 // Not allowed, List isimmutable
val newList = list.map(_ * 2)
println(newList) // Output: List(2, 4, 6)
➤
Pure Functions
Functionsthat always produce the same output for the same input and
have no side effects.Example:
defsquare(x: Int): Int = x * x
println(square(4)) // Output: 16
➤
Pattern Matching
A powerful feature to match data structures and decompose them. Similar to switch-case
but more expressive.Example:
def describe(x: Any): String = x match {
case 0 => "zero"
case s: String => s"String of length ${s.length}"
case _ => "something else"
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}
println(describe("hello")) // Output: String of length 5
➤Anonymous Functions (Lambdas)
Functions without a name, often used as argumentsto higher-order functions.
Example:
val nums = List(1, 2, 3, 4)
val doubled = nums.map(x => x * 2)
println(doubled) // Output: List(2, 4, 6, 8)
➤
Closures
Functionsthat capture variablesfrom their environment.
Example:
var factor = 3
val multiplier = (x: Int) => x * factor
println(multiplier(4)) // Output: 12
➤
Lazy Evaluation
Expressions are evaluated only when needed. Useful to improve performance and handle
infinite data structures.Example:
lazy val x = { println("Evaluated"); 42 }
println("Before accessing x")
println(x) //"Evaluated"is printed here, then 42
Unit-05
Ques→Differentiate between Map-Reduce, PIG and HIVE
Ans:-)
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featureMapReducePigHive
processing sing Pig Latin
u
efinitionLow-level
D large data Data warehousing tool with
High-levelscripting platform SQL-like interface
programming model for
anguage UsedJava, Python, C++ Pig Latin HiveQL (SQL-like)
L
Ease of UseComplex and verbose Easier Easiest; user-friendly for SQL users
than MapReduce; scripting based
Manualschema management Converts HiveQL to
Execution EngineNative Converts Pig Latin to MapReduce / Tez / Spark
MapReduce engine MapReduce
ata querying,
D
se CasesCustom and
U TL (Extract, Transform,
E summarization, and reporting
complex data processing Load)
trictly schema-based like
S
RDBMS
Schema Support emi-structured;
S
optionalschema
Ques→Explore various execution
models of PIG. Ans:-)1. Local Mode
➤
Execution Environment
→Pig scripts run on asingle local machine.
→Data is read from and written to thelocal filesystem.
➤
Use Case
→Ideal fortesting,development, and small datasets.
➤Command to Run→pig -x local
2. MapReduce Mode (Default Mode)
➤
Execution Environment
→Pig scripts are translated intoMapReduce jobsandrun on a
Hadoop cluster.→Data is processed usingHDFS.
➤
Use Case
→Best forlarge-scale production environments.
➤Command to Run→pig -x mapreduce
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3. Tez Mode
➤
Execution Environment
→Pig scripts are converted to tasksthat run usingtheApache Tez
execution engine.→Tez isfaster and more efficientthan traditional
MapReduce.
➤
Use Case
→Used forimproved performancein iterative and interactivePig queries.
➤Command to Run→pig -x tez
4. Spark Mode (Experimental)
➤
Execution Environment
→Allows Pig scriptsto execute on theApache Sparkengine.
➤Use Case
→Useful for users already using Spark and exploringfaster execution.
➤Status
→Stillexperimental and less stablethan MapReduceand Tez.
5. Grunt Shell (Interactive Mode)
➤
Execution Environment
→Interactive command-line shell where users can writeand execute Pig Latin statements
step-by-step.
➤
Use Case
→Helpful fordebugging,testing,andlearningPigsyntax.
➤Command to Start→pig
Ques→Design and explain the detailed architectureof HIVE
Ans:-)
LePic
Architecture of Hive
pache Hive is adata warehouse infrastructurebuilton top of Hadoop. It allows
A
usersto query and analyze large datasetsstored in HDFS using aSQL-like language called
HiveQL.
1. Hive Client
➤
Thrift, JDBC, and ODBC Applications
→Usersinteract with Hive using different interfaces.
→These clientssend queriestoHiveServer2.
➤
JDBC/ODBC/Beeline Clients
→Allow connectionsfrom Java/ODBC-based applications.
→Beeline isthe command-line interface for Hive.
2. Hive Services
➤
HiveServer2
→Manages connections and handles requestsfrom multipleclients.
→Provides a secure and multi-user environment.
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➤
Driver
→Actslike a controller, managing the execution flowof HiveQL statements.
➤
Compiler
→Parsesthe query and convertsit into a logical plan.
➤
Optimizer
→Optimizesthe query plan (e.g., rearranging joins,filtering early).
➤
Metastore
→Stores metadata about tables, columns, data types,
partitions, etc.→Uses a relational database like
MySQL or Derby.
3. Processing & Resource Management
➤
MapReduce/YARN
→Hive converts queriesinto MapReduce jobs(or Tez/Sparkin
newer setups).→YARNhandlesjob scheduling and resource
management.
4. Distributed Storage
➤
HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System)
→Actual data isstored in HDFS.
→Hive only stores metadata; it queriesthe data inHDFS.
Working Flow
➤Step 1: Query Submission
→A HiveQL query issubmitted via a client (e.g., Beeline, JDBC, Thrift).
➤
Step 2: HiveServer2 Receives the Query
→Passesit to theDrivercomponent for processing.
➤
Step 3: Compilation
→TheCompilercheckssyntax, performssemantic analysis,and creates a query plan.
➤
Step 4: Optimization
→TheOptimizerimprovesthe query plan (e.g., filtersearly, reducesshuffle).
➤
Step 5: Execution Plan Generation
→The final physical plan is generated (as MapReduce,Tez, or Spark jobs).
➤
Step 6: Metadata Access
→TheDriverconsultstheMetastorefor schema andpartition information.
➤
Step 7: Job Execution via YARN
→Jobs are submitted to theYARNresource managerfor execution on the cluster.
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➤
Step 8: Data Retrieval from HDFS
→Input data isfetched fromHDFS, processed, and resultsare written back to HDFS or sent to
the client.
➤
Step 9: Result Return
→The Driver collectsthe final output and sendsitto the client.
Ques→What are the key features of HBase and how doesit differ
from RDBMS? Ans:-)
Key Features of HBase
➤
Column-Oriented Storage
➤Stores data in column families rather than rows,which is efficient for read/write operations
on large datasets.
➤Built on HDFS
➤Uses Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) asitsstoragelayer, allowing it to handle
massive volumes of data.
➤Scalability
➤
Horizontally scalable across commodity hardware;new nodes can be added easily without
downtime.
➤Real-Time Read/Write Access
➤
Unlike HDFS, which is optimized for batch processing,HBase allows real-time random
read/write access.
➤No Fixed Schema
➤Schema-less design where each row can have a differentsetof columns, offering high
flexibility.
➤
Automatic Sharding
➤Data is automatically split intoregions, and eachregion isserved by aRegionServerfor
load balancing.
➤
Strong Consistency
➤Providesstrong consistency on reads and writes perrow.
Differences Between HBase and RDBMS
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Aspect HBase RDBMS
t ransactions
ata Model Column-family based
D Table-based with rows and columns
(NoSQL) (Relational)
chema Flexible schema; dynamic
S Fixed schema; predefined columns
columns
SQL (Structured Query Language)
uery Language No SQL; uses Java
Q
APIs or REST/Thrift ully ACID compliant with
F
transaction support
Transactions No multi-row ACID
Scalability Horizontally scalable Typically scales vertically
Structured data with
se Case Big data, random
U relationships, complex queries
read/write, sparse data
Joins Support Not supported Supported
Indexing Limited (manual creation) Automatic and optimized indexing
examples.
Performance Goal High Data integrity and complex
throughput, low latency for large queries
datasets
Ques→Explain HiveQL with
Ans:-)➤HiveQL (HQL)isthequery language of Apache Hive, designed to manage and
query structured data stored in Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).
➤It issimilar toSQL,making it easy for databaseprofessionalsto analyze big data
using familiar syntax.Basic HiveQL Syntax and Examples
LePic
6.Group By
1.Creating a Table
7.Join Example
CREATE TABLE students (
id INT,
name STRING,
2.Loading Data into a Table
marks INT
)
ROW FORMAT DELIMITED
3. Selecting Data
FIELDS TERMINATED BY ',';
4.Using WHERE Clause
LOAD DATA LOCAL INPATH
'/home/user/students.csv' INTO
TABLE students;
5.Grouping and Aggregation
students; (Aggregation)
SELECT * FROM students;
SELECT marks, COUNT(*) FROM
students GROUP BY marks;
SELECT name, marks FROM students
WHERE marks > 70;
SELECT s.id, s.name, m.subject
FROM students s
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM students;
(Grouping) JOIN marks_table m ON (s.id =
m.student_id);
SELECT AVG(marks) FROM
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HiveQL vs Traditional SQL
featureHiveQLTraditional SQL
rocessing
p
xecution Engine Converts to
E Direct execution on RDBMS
MapReduce/Tez/Spark
ast due to indexing and
F
Speed Slower due to batch transaction
Schema Handling Schema-on-Read Schema-on-Write
Ques→Discuss Zookeeper in detail.
Ans:-)
➤
Apache Zookeeperis acentralized serviceused formaintainingconfiguration
information,naming,synchronization, andgroup servicesin distributed systems.
➤
It is acoordination servicethat allows distributedapplicationsto work together by
providing reliable and consistentservices.
Key Features
➤High Availability
→Ensuresthat configuration and coordination data are always available across nodes.
➤
Consistency
→All clientssee the same view of the system, evenduring updates.
➤
Reliability
→Uses replication and logging to ensure data durabilityand recovery.
➤
Fast Reads
→Read operations are very fast asthey are servedfrom memory.
Architecture
➤
Client-Server Model
→Clients(applications) interact with the Zookeeperservice to read or update data.
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➤
Zookeeper Ensemble
→A group ofservers(usually odd in number, like 3,5, or 7) form the
Zookeeper cluster.→One acts astheLeader, and theothers are
Followers.
➤
ZNodes
→The data in Zookeeper isstored in ahierarchicaltree-like
structure,similar to a file system.→Each node iscalled aZNode, and it can
hold data and children.
Core Services
➤
Naming Service
→Helpsidentify nodesin a cluster using unique names(ZNodepaths).
➤Configuration Management
→Stores configuration filesthat can be accessed orupdated by clients.
➤Synchronization
Helps manage locks, barriers, and other synchronizationprimitivesin distributed
→
applications.
➤Leader Election
→Helps elect a master node among a group of nodes,which is critical for
systemslike Hadoop.Use Cases in Hadoop Ecosystem
➤
HBase
→Uses Zookeeper for region server coordination, failover,and leader election.
➤
Kafka
→Uses Zookeeper for broker coordination, topic configuration,and consumer offsets.
➤YARN (Hadoop)
→Can use Zookeeper for High Availability of ResourceManager.
Limitations
➤
Notsuitable forlarge-scale data storage.
➤Designed forcoordination and small configurationdata,not heavy workloads.
Ques→Discuss the different types of data that canbe
handled with HIVE. Ans:-)1. Structured Data
➤
Data that follows a strictschema (rows and columns).
→Example: TablesfromRDBMSlike MySQL, Oracle.
→Handled efficiently usingHiveQLfor querying andanalysis.
2. Semi-Structured Data
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➤
Data that does not follow a strictschema butstillhassome structure.
→Example:JSON, XML, Avrofiles.
→Hive supports parsing and querying semi-structuredformats usingSerDe
(Serializer/Deserializer).3. Unstructured Data
➤
Data without a predefined model or organization.
→Example:Text files, logs, images, videos.
→Hive can process and querylog/text filesusingcustom input formats
or externalscripts.4. Time-Series or Event Data
➤
Logs or records with time-stamped events(e.g., clickstreams,sensordata).
→Suitable for partitioning bydate/time fieldstoimprove performance.
→Common in web analytics and monitoring applications.
5. Flat Files (Delimited Files)
➤
CSV, TSV, and otherdelimitedfiles.
→Hive can directly load and query such files usingsimple table definitions.
Ques→Describe schema.
Ans:-)➤Aschemaisthestructure or blueprintthatdefinestheorganization of datain a
dataset or database.→It describesthefields, theirnames, data types,and relationships.
Types of Schema
➤
1. Structured Schema
→Predefined schema with a fixed format (e.g., RDBMS).
→Example: Tables with specific columnslike ID (int),Name (string), Age (int).
➤2. Semi-Structured Schema
Partially defined schema that allowsflexibility.
→
→Example: JSON, XML.
➤
3. Schema-on-Write
→Schema is appliedwhen data is writtento storage(e.g., RDBMS, Hive).
→Data must match the schema upfront.
➤
4. Schema-on-Read
→Schema is appliedwhen data is read or queried(commonin Hadoop).
→Example: Hive or Pig accessing raw log files.
Schema in Hadoop Ecosystem
➤InHive,schema is defined using HiveQL during tablecreation.
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➤InPig,schema is optional but can be defined usingAS clause in LOAD statements.
➤InHBase,schema defines column families but allowsdynamic columns within them.
Importance of Schema
➤
Helpsindata validationand consistency.
➤Enables efficientquerying and data processing.
➤Assistsindata interpretationand metadata management.
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