Scientific and Technical Writing

“The fundamental purpose of scientific discourse is not the mere presentation of information and
thought but rather its actual communication. It does not matter how pleased an author might be
to have converted all the right data into sentences and paragraphs; it matters only whether a
large majority of the reading audience accurately perceives what the author had in mind.”
--George Gopen and Judith Swan
The Science of Scientific Writing

The technicality of Science is often hard to comprehend and decipher. Most people assume that
its difficulties are born out of necessity, out of the extreme complexity of scientific concepts,
data and analysis. However, complexity of thought need not lead to impenetrability of
expression. The fundamental purpose of scientific discourse is not the mere presentation of
information and thought, but rather its actual communication. It does not matter how pleased an
author might be to have converted all the right data into sentences and paragraphs; it matters only
whether a large majority of the reading audience accurately perceives what the author had in
mind. With the coming of new age, there is a massive explosion of knowledge and information.
The advances in the fields of science, industry and information technology have opened new
vistas of knowledge for the mankind. This progress has been an outcome of new scientific
thought and experimentation. However, without the proper documentation and cross-fertilization
of these new ideas, these nascent discoveries would see the light of the day. To meet this target
exhaustive knowledge of scientific and technical writing comes into foreplay.
Scientific and Technical writing is a variant form of technical communication. It is a style of
writing used to effectively and accurately record and document information on specialized fields
and disciplines. The origins of technical writing have been variously attributed to antiquity.
However, a clear trend towards the discipline can be seen starting from the time of World War I,
growing out of the need for technology-based documentation in the military, manufacturing,
electronics, and aerospace industries. In 1953, two organizations concerned with improving the
practice of technical communication were founded in the United States: the Society of Technical
Writers, and the Association of Technical Writers and Editors. These organizations merged in
1957 to form the Society of Technical Writers and Editors, a predecessor of the current Society
for Technical Communication (STC).

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Types of Technical Documents
Technical writers use computers and other electronic communications equipment extensively in
performing their work. They also work regularly with publishing software and various authoring
environments to prepare material directly for the Internet. Technical writers frequently work with
word processing, graphic design, page layout, and multimedia software. The nature of technical
writing is evolving, and modern technical writers combine text, graphics, images, and sound into
their work.
Broadly speaking, technical documentation can be categorized into three types, depending on the
style of writing, the level of knowledge transferred, and the target audience:
a) End-user assistance: These information products help a user understand how to use a
technical software or hardware product. User manuals for computer software, hardware,
household products, medical equipment, cell phones, smart phones, and other consumer
electronics belong to this category.
b) Traditional technical documentation: Here the writer's objective is to communicate to a
specific audience. Maintenance guides, appliance or application repair manuals, engineering
specifications, research papers, reference works, annual reports and articles written for technical
journals belong in this category.
c) Marketing communication: Product catalogs, brochures, advertisements, introductory
pages for web sites, press releases, and advertising copy belong in this category.
Technical writing is often associated with online help and user manuals. They also create product
release notes, product troubleshooting guides, product user guides, tutorials (textual and
multimedia), installation guides, API programmers' guides, marketing documentation, E-learning
modules, web content, legal disclaimers, policies and procedures, business proposals, and white
papers, among others. Technical design and Technical Drawing are also considered forms of
technical communication.
Writing for the Audience
Readers do not simply read; they interpret. Any piece of prose, no matter how short, may
"mean", for e.g., in 10 different ways to 10 different readers. This methodology of reader
expectations is founded on the recognition that readers make many of their most important
interpretive decisions about the substance of prose based on clues they receive from its structure.
This underlying concept of reader expectation is perhaps most immediately evident at the level

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of the largest units of discourse i.e. anything with a beginning and an end: a clause, a sentence, a
section, an article, etc. A research article, for example, is generally divided into recognizable
sections, sometimes labeled Introduction, Experimental Methods, Results and Discussion. When
the sections are confused--when too much experimental detail is found in the Results section, or
when discussion and results intermingle--readers are often equally confused. In smaller units of
discourse the functional divisions are not so explicitly labeled, but readers have definite
expectations all the same, and they search for certain information in particular places. If these
structural expectations are continually violated, readers are forced to divert energy from
understanding the content of a passage to unraveling its structure. As the complexity of the
context increases moderately, the possibility of misinterpretation or non interpretation increases
dramatically. Therefore, it becomes highly essential to target your audience by identifying their
level of comprehension, their purpose in using the document, and their attitude toward both you
and the content of your document. These considerations will influence specific features of the
document, including organization, introductions, equations and mathematical models, graphics,
technical terms, and level of detail. These features, especially the level of detail, contribute to the
density of the document, the rate at which information is presented to the reader.
a) Writing for Experts
There are two types of experts: general experts and specific experts. Both kinds are readers with
extensive technical knowledge of the document's subject matter.
General experts possess extensive knowledge about a field in general, but they might be
unfamiliar with particular technical terms, specific equipment, or recent advances in your
document's subject matter. Specific experts, on the other hand, share or surpass the author’s
knowledge about a document's subject matter. If your audience consists solely of specific
experts, you may not need to give extensive background or define key technical terms or
acronyms. However, if your audience includes general experts, provide sufficient background
information and define any terms that they might be unfamiliar with. Do not just present a
concept to an expert. Also explain its parts and processes in detail.
b) Writing for Technicians
Technicians are the people who construct, operate, and fix things. An office worker expert in
desktop publishing is a technician, as is the person who repairs your telephone or washing
machine. Technicians are often more expert than anyone else in how a particular thing works or

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why it doesn't work. They are also usually familiar with the common technical terms associated
with the devices they use and the processes they perform. They may not be familiar, however,
with general or abstract concepts about a device or a process. While writing for technicians
introduction and background information may be kept brief. Use of graphs, tables and cross-
reference material may be made to explain a complex procedure.
c) Writing for Managers
Managers are always running short of time and need to use documents primarily as tools in
making decisions. Since managers read and review many documents, one may be brief and to the
point. Managers vary in their technical knowledge. Many managers, especially in technical
organizations, are general experts in a document's subject matter. Rarely, however, are managers
specific experts in the content of a document. Managers usually supervise a number of projects,
so they may not be familiar with every recent technological advance. Also, often managers are
specialists in fields such as marketing or management and have little detailed technical
knowledge. While writing for managers information can be distilled into an executive summary.
In general, information may be presented in order of importance. Segment information may be
provided to allow easy reading of parts of the document. Long, technical explanations can be put
into appendixes. Graphs and charts may be formed to make the communication of the research
easy and comprehendible.
d) Writing for Laypersons
A layperson is one who does not possess the technical knowledge of an expert or a technician.
Some lay audiences can be classified as novices, persons who do not yet possess technical
expertise in a field but are in the process of acquiring it. Technical textbooks at different levels,
for example, are written to audiences that are starting out as laypersons but may become experts.
While writing for laypersons one may present extensive background information and familiarize
the technical terminology. Extensive use of illustrations and instances can be made to involve
Scope and Functions of Technical Writing
a) Industry:
In the field of industry, Technical writing covers diverse genres such
as computer hardware and software, engineering, chemistry, the aerospace industry, robotics,
finance, consumer electronics, and biotechnology. The advancements in these fields needs to be
recorded and documented in a manner that future generation is able to utilize it for their benefit.

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Technical reports are a useful means of communicating the facts of a situation or process; how
they arrived at, their significance, the conclusions that may be drawn from them, and the
recommendations that are being made.
b) Service:
Technical writers explain technology and related ideas to technical and non technical audiences.
This could mean, for example, telling a programmer how to use a software library or telling a
consumer how to operate a television remote control. It helps in reporting the results of industrial
development efficiently, thus, analyzing its progresses and failures. It bridges the gap between
scientists and common man. It ensures an effective communication of new ideas and inventions.
c) Education:
Technical writing can serve as a fruitful profession. Books on Technical writing, covering its
varied nuances, supply first hand information to the researchers and consumers alike. The
knowledge and experience of scientists, engineer or technologists in his own specialist field are
valuable to others and therefore, make a most acceptable article for a trade journal or an
interesting talk at a conference or society meeting.
d) Advertising:
Advertising is part of service industry. It assists the customer to find what he requires and also
helps to sell the product. Common form of technical advertising are: catalogues, brochures and
leaflets, press advertisements, film strips etc.
Exercises:
Q.1 Discuss the scope and importance of scientific and technical writing.
Q.2 Elucidate the characteristics of scientific and technical writing.
Q.3 Discuss the types of technical documents. Give examples.
Q.4 Based on your knowledge of technical writing differentiate between scientific and general
writing.
Q.5 Review a piece of scientific and technical writing based on the characteristics you have
read in the current chapter.

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 Forms of Scientific And Technical Writing

Scientific and technical writing is used in any branch of knowledge requiring a systematic study.
All forms of written communication follow certain rules and regulations to convey technical
information in an organized manner. It makes the process of communication of information
effective, clear and precise. A letter written by an organization to another or a memorandum
circulated within the organization may convey adequate information only if it has been
structured in a required format. If communication is comprehendible, information is conveyed
accurately. For prompt action and steady progress, the exchange of information needs to be
swift, flawless and effective.
Scientific and technical writing may take the form of reports, articles, papers, dissertations
and theses, manuals and correspondence etc. Mechanics of style and techniques of technical
writing are applied in all types of scientific and technical publications, books and journals.
Forms of Technical writing:
a) Reports
Reports are standard documents in all organizations. A report is a stand-alone document
that relays the results of a factual inquiry to other parties who have a professional interest in the
results, expert opinions, laboratory tests, policy issues, trips, and administrative details--anything
of importance to the professional organization. Because a report typically circulates as an
independent document, it will typically follow a standard format that begins with a front matter
section that orients the reader to the main purpose and content of the report. This section is
followed by a report body, which contains the factual content of the report, and the body is
followed by a section of end matter, which contains various references and secondary material.
Reports may be internal or external, informal or formal. They can also take the format of article,
research and form reports.
Informal report circulates within the local environment and is generally not written about
externally funded research. Informal reports are often short and concern administrative and
policy issues or perform the function of keeping others informed about your work.
Formal reports are generally tightly structured and extensively reviewed before they are
released. Report structure may vary according to the intended audience. They cover a longer

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stipulated time period and may involve bigger institutions and establishments. An annual report
of an organization falls under this category. It can take the form of a book and may be divided
into chapters to provide extensive information about the organization.
Research Reports
Research reports present the results of formal investigations into the properties, behavior,
structures, and principles of material and conceptual entities. Almost any physical phenomenon
or concept maybe investigated in a research framework. The presentation of the research and its
results in a rigorously formatted document that follows a conventional structure forms a research
report. It is a focused, coherent, concise and appropriate research document. Research reports
contain a standard set of elements that include front matter, body and end matter.
Form Reports
These reports are based on the results of a conducted survey or opinion. They are made of
a given proforma designed the concerned organization, institution or individual according to the
desired specifications. The report writer has to fill in the printed columns and give the required
facts under different heads and sub-heads. They give an objective statement of fact and data.
They are easy to draft and comprehend. The form reports in the objective assessment and
evaluation of a company, institution or an organization. Researchers use these reports to conduct
surveys or to gather opinion on a particular subject concerned with their research expertise. They
are common in the field of technical education, industry and scientific research.
Article Reports
Scientific and technical writing often takes the form of extensive articles. These articles
follow a required format. They are written with a purpose not only to convey information but
also for perpetuation and diffusion of new ideas. These articles are written by keeping the level
and comprehension of audience in mind. Based on the listeners, these articles are divided into
three categories:
b) Technical articles: These articles are written for highly specialized audience. They are
written using the jargon of a focused field of study. Extensive use of technical vocabulary and
scientific abbreviations is made. They can be understood only by the people belonging to a
particular field of knowledge. This limits their scope making it to be published only in special
interest journals and research books.

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c) Semi-technical Articles: These are meant for people working in analogous disciplines.
Therefore, the jargons used in these articles find a larger audience. There is a reduced use of
technical vocabulary and scientific abbreviations. The emphasis is on the communication of
information to a group of varied scientists and technicians. This provides it a wider scope and
coverage. They are published in scientific journals with broad readership.
d) Popular Articles: These are meant for educated people. Therefore, they are written in
simple yet effective English language. The use of jargons, technical vocabulary and scientific
abbreviations is avoided. The emphasis is on interesting and easy communication of information.
They have a much wider readership in the for of newspaper readers, magazine browsers etc.
They are published in journals of public interest.
2. Dissertations and Theses
The thesis or dissertation is an extended research report on a theoretical, experimental, or
design project. The thesis seeks to make some original contribution to the writer's field of
specialization. Written by college seniors, and by master's and Ph.D. candidates, theses are long,
sometimes immense--from 30 to 250 pages and more--a once-in-a-career effort. Although the
immediate audiences are mainly thesis committees, prospective employers also read theses.
Thesis work is good evidence of how you work on problems. The quality of a thesis indicates the
quality of an individual's thinking, organization, and powers of expression. Thesis work at the
master's and Ph.D. levels may be cited by other researchers, and some thesis work is condensed
and published in journal articles and reports. They are based on student’s research on a particular
subject or field of study. They conform to a specific format and design. They strictly adhere to
the rules of scientific and technical writing. They are written in the jargon of the concerned
subject. Due emphasis is made on the chapterization of concepts to provide effective
communication of research problem. They are prepared with much diligence and focus so that no
errors are committed. A proper bibliography is attached to inform the reader about the source
from which the information has been utilized.
3. Manuals, Instructions and Procedures
Information Brochures, instruction books, guidance booklets etc. provide information of a
particular product, industry of establishment. They are used by industrial establishments to
convey to the user the mechanics of a machine. In a teaching institution they are used to
convey to the student a difficult laboratory procedure or the mechanics of a specialized

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discipline. It is also used to convey guidelines to carry a specific task or procedure. A procedure
is a series of steps followed in a regular, definite order to achieve a specified result. The goal of a
written procedure is to enable a user to carry out an action with which he or she might not be
familiar. Procedures save the writer time, transfer expertise, ensure consistency, and prevent
errors and accidents. Procedures may amount to a single sheet for assembling a table, a
lengthy manual of operating routines for a nuclear reactor, or a computer manual full of routines
for using an operating system like UNIX or DOS.
A procedure is generally organized as follows:
a) Purpose and scope: It States what the procedure accomplishes and the extent of its
application.
b) Preliminary requirements: It identifies any items such as documents, personnel, special
tools, approvals, field preparations needed to perform the procedure.
c) Warnings: It includes any dangerous aspects in performing the procedure.
d) Steps: It provides a step-by-step series of actions to be carried out in completing the
procedure.
An important aspect of procedures is their extensive use of chunking and step-syntax.
Chunking is the sorting of parallel elements into prose sentences or elements that are easily
located on the page. Step-syntax is the use of special imperative sentences to identify the action
in each step of the procedure. A typical imperative begins with the action first, as follows:
Cut the end of the cable, as shown in Figure 2-1, removing any sharp wire ends that
protrude from the jacket.
4. Proposals
In a proposal, identify a specific problem and state how you will solve that problem. Most
organizations rely on successful proposal writing for their continued existence. You will most
likely spend a major part of your professional life writing proposals. Proposals are carefully
prepared and just as carefully reviewed by granting agencies. Proposals do not succeed
on the strength of a name or as a result of flashy rhetoric. Rather, successful proposals
demonstrate that you understand the scope of the problem (its background, theory, and
application) and, furthermore, that you have developed a valid and well- focused approach for
reaching proposed objectives. All proposals develop a plan of action in response to a
specific need or problem. Some proposals are external, written in response to a request for

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proposals or an invitation to bid that has been published by an external organization. Other
proposals are internal, written in response to a need within your own organization. In
either case, your proposals must show that you understand the nature of the problem and
that you have a specific and well-developed plan for arriving at a solution. Most proposals
share a general structure for identifying the motivating problem, the objectives, and the
proposed course of action. Proposals share a general document architecture, which is
usually modified to suit specific circumstances. The overall structure of a proposal can be
broken down into four parts:
1. Front matter
Body
2. Introduction
Technical approach
Management requirements
Work plan
3. End matter, or management requirements
5. Literature Reviews
Literature Review is summarizing existing printed or electronic information on a specific
subject. A literature review maybe a self-contained document, or it may be a section of a larger
report. Because literature reviews inform colleagues and managers of current information on a
subject, they prevent needless duplication of work and provide crucial information for current
projects. Literature reviews can, for example, inform colleagues of all current procedures for
synthesizing a compound or for caching World Wide Web pages. Literature reviews also can
inform both managers and team members about the costs, trade-offs, and efficacy of existing
solutions to a particular technical problem. Literature review is initiated with an introduction that
gives reader the context and scope of the specific topic. The review is concise and brief. It is
ended with a conclusion that summarizes the information that is most important to the reader.
All references in the appropriate format, in a bibliography or works-cited section are mentioned
at the end of the document.
6. Oral Presentations
Oral presentations can be formal or informal, depending upon their explicit and implicit
purposes and the delivery situation. An oral presentation can be almost any report type, such as a

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design review, a proposal, or a conference talk. Whatever the specific type, however, an effective
oral presentation is carefully planned with your objectives in mind and pays close attention to the
demands of your audience.
Oral presentations differ significantly from written documents in several ways.

Written Documents Oral Presentations

Publication permits potentially unlimited Audience generally limited to time and place of
audience over time and place. delivery.

No direct audience interaction. H High level of audience interaction is possible.

R Refined argumentative structure. S Simple presentation of main points.

Large volume of detailed information can

Limited information transfer.
be communicated.

Pr Precise syntax and diction. C Conversational syntax and diction.

E Emphasis on text. Emphasis on visuals.

R Reader controls pace of presentation. S Speaker controls pace of presentation.

7. Press Releases
A technical press release usually announces the development of a new product. The
audience for such a document consists of writers and editors of trade journals, where the product
may be reviewed and potential customers who might want to purchase the new product. A
technical press release contains the following elements:
a) A headline that identifies the product.
b) A lead paragraph giving key information that attempts to persuade the reader to investigate
the product further.
c) A graphic that will secure the reader's attention.
d) A description of the product.
e) An explanation of why the product is important.

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f) Information about whom to contact for further information.
8. Résumés
Almost all prospective employers meet your résumé before they meet you, and their
reaction to it usually determines whether or not they will consider you further by interviewing
you. In addition, your job interviews will often start with references to your résumé.
Consequently, spend considerable time in developing one or more versions of your résumé, each
one targeted for a specific type of job.
Effective résumés contain the following elements:
Heading
The heading should contain your name, full address, and phone number, including area code. If
you have them, you may also include a FAX number, an electronic mail address, and even your
World Wide Web page (if you are sure that you want all prospective employers to see it).
Professional or Job Objective
The objective statement is a short, one- or two-line description of the sort of job you want and
the specific fields in which you are interested. It does not have to be a complete sentence.
Educational History
Summarize your educational history in reverse chronological order, showing how it has prepared
you for the sort of job you want. List descriptive titles (but not course numbers) of all relevant
classes you have taken. If you have not yet received your bachelor's degree or if you have just
graduated, include the name of your high school, the city and state in which it is located, and the
dates you attended.
Work Experience
List all relevant work experiences in reverse chronological order, using action verbs to provide
vivid and specific descriptions of all activities that are connected with your job objective.
Relevant Skills, Activities, and Accomplishments
List any skill (such as proficiency in a foreign language or expertise in specific computer
applications) that may be relevant to the position. In addition, list any activity or accomplishment
that will provide a positive first impression of relevant personal qualities, such as your energy
level and initiative, your ability to work with diverse groups of people, and your communication
skills. Do not, however, list hobbies or memberships merely to fill out the résumé. Include only
activities and accomplishments that a prospective employer may find relevant to the position.

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 Reference Statement
In most cases, conclude your résumé with "References available on request." List the names of
your references only if doing so is customary in your profession and only if you have secured
explicit permission from each individual to include his or her name on your résumé. Most
résumés should not be more than one page. However, if you have extensive relevant experience
and skills, do not hesitate to extend your résumé to two pages.
Note: Your résumé must be readable, neat, and free of grammatical, spelling, and typographical
errors. Because it is so crucial in the job application process, edit your résumé carefully and
have someone else review it before you send it out.
8. Memoranda
Memoranda are brief, informal reports used to establish a record. They generalize the
communication process by transmitting the message from one or more authors to one or more
recipients. E-mail messages typically take the form of memoranda. The memorandum is among
the most versatile of organizational documents. From brief research reports and progress reports
to trip reports and thumbnail proposals, the memo form is widely used to communicate technical
and administrative information. Memoranda are written for numerous internal purposes—for
example, to request information, to make announcements, to outline policies, and to transmit
meeting minutes. Thus, in most organizations, memos play a crucial role in establishing a record
of decisions, requests, responsibilities, results, and concerns.

Sample Memo Format

Company Name
Company Address
Date of Memo
To: Recipient of Memo

From: Writer of Memo Writer's Initials*

Subject: Title of Memo in Initial Capitals

Body of the Memo

Attachments.

Copy to:
Name to Receive Copy
Name to Receive Copy

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9. Letters
Letters are used to communicate outside your organization. Whereas the memorandum is
the primary vehicle for communication within an organization, letters are often used to
communicate to individuals outside it, especially in formal and semiformal contexts. Letters are
an essential part of all business and technical communication because they are more formal and
reliable than electronic mail and more precise and permanent than telephone or face-to-face
conversations.
Types of Letters
Like memoranda, letters perform many functions in scientific and technical communication. The
following are some of the most common types of letters written by people in technical fields.
E.g. Job application letters, Acceptance letters, Transmittal letters, Inquiry letters, Technical-
information letters , Letters of recommendation etc.
Format of a Letter
Business letters are commonly either full-block formatted, with every line starting at the left
margin and usually a business letterhead at the top of the page, or modified-block formatted,
with the heading and the closing aligned at the center of the page.
Elements of a Letter
Business letters have the following elements:
Heading
Date
Recipient's address
Salutation
Body
Closing
End notations
Heading
If you are using letterhead stationery, include only the date two lines below the bottom of
the letterhead. If you are not using letterhead stationery, begin with your full address (city,
street, and zip code) 1to 1½ inches from the top of the page. Spell out address designations,
such as Street, Avenue, and West. Include the date aligned at left with the address, spelling
out the name of the month.

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 Recipient's Address
Two to four lines below the date, place the following items:
a) The recipient's title (such as Mr., Ms., or Dr.) and full name (address a woman who does
not have a professional title as Ms. unless you know she prefers Miss or Mrs.; if the recipient
does not have a title and you are unsure of his or her gender, omit the title).
b) The recipient's job title, if appropriate.
c) The name of the company or institution, if appropriate.
d) The full address, following the same format as for the address in the heading.
The recipient's address is always aligned on the left margin.
Salutation
Place the salutation two lines below the recipient's address. The salutation begins with the
word Dear/Respected, continues with the recipient's title and last name, and ends with a colon. If
you are unsure of the recipient's gender and the recipient have a professional title, omit the
title and, instead, use both the first and the last names in the salutation (Dear Leslie Perelman:).
Body
Start the letter two lines after the salutation. Body paragraphs should be single spaced with
a double space between paragraphs. (Indenting the first line of each paragraph is acceptable
but is more informal than the unindented style.)
Be concise, direct, and considerate. State the letter's purpose in the opening paragraph. Include
supporting information in a middle paragraph or two, and conclude your letter with a brief
paragraph that both establishes goodwill and expresses what needs to be done next. If a letter
requires more than one page, make sure there are at least two lines of body text on the final page.
Never use an entire page for just the closing. The second page and all subsequent pages must
include a heading with the recipient's name, the date, and the page number.
Closing Phrase
Write a complimentary closing phrase two lines below the final body paragraph. Yours truly,
sincerely, or Sincerely yours are common endings for professional letters. Capitalize the first
letter of the first word of your complimentary closing, and end the complimentary closing with a
comma. Four lines below the closing phrase, write your full name. If you are writing in an
official capacity that is not included in the stationery's letterhead, write your title on the next line.
Your signature goes above your typed name.

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 End Notations
At the bottom of the last page of a business letter, end notations may show who typed the letter,
whether any materials are enclosed with the letter, and who is receiving a copy of the letter. An
enclosure notation--Enclosure:, Encl., or Enc.—alerts the recipient that additional material (such
as a résumé or a technical article) is included with the letter. You can either identify the
enclosure or indicate how many pieces there are.
10. Electronic Documents
Electronic documents such as electronic mail, Web sites, and hypertext are rapidly becoming
major forms of communication. Electronic media offer many advantages for technical
communication, including almost instantaneous transmission of information, easy distribution to
a large number of recipients, and the ability to link one text to many others. There are, however,
many situations where printed documents are still the most appropriate form for technical
communication. Printed documents, for example, are often more private, secure, permanent, and
portable than are electronic documents. In deciding whether to put your document in electronic
or print form, consider your audience's purpose in reading the document, and when, where, and
how they will use it.
Electronic Mail
Electronic mail (e-mail) allows for the almost instantaneous transmission of a message from one
computer through a network to one or more other computers and is rapidly becoming one of the
main forms of both professional and personal communication.
Characteristics of E-Mail
Like a telephone conversation, e-mail is immediate and informal. Like a memorandum, it is more
precise than an oral conversation, it provides a record of the communication, and it can send a
single message to a large number of people. Unlike telephone conversations or memoranda, e-
mail should not be considered private. E- mail is sent through public networks where
messages are often copied multiple times during transmission. Whereas the basic unit of a
memorandum is the single 8½-by-11-inch page, the basic unit of an e-mail is the 22-line screen.
Consequently, e-mails should be kept short and concise. Finally, because e-mails are generated
so easily, many individuals receive scores of messages every day.
Guidelines for Writing Effective E-Mail

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e) As in other forms of communication, start with you--a statement acknowledging the
recipient.
f) Keep your message short.
g) Make heading clear and exact.
h) If something is urgent, mark it "Urgent."
i) Include a short introduction indicating exactly to what you are responding, even if the
original message is included.
j) If the e-mail is important, print it out and proofread it carefully before you send it.
k) Take time to cool off.
l) Remember that a message can end up anywhere.
m) Remember that electronic privacy doesn't exist.
n) E-mail etiquette is still evolving:
o) Avoid using all capital letters.
p) Do not forward an e-mail without permission.
q) Keep e-mail addresses confidential.
Web Sites
The World Wide Web supports the creation and transmission of an unlimited number of
multimedia documents composed of text, graphics, animation, video, and audio. Multimedia
Web documents are assembled and reside on computer servers scattered around the globe that
can be accessed by anyone, anywhere, at any time. Web communication is different from hard-
copy publication because hypertext and the Web support non sequential navigation through
online documents that are in essence "authored" by readers as they follow one of a potentially
unlimited number of pathways through a "document."
Guidelines for Composing Web Documents and Web Sites
a) Provide a graphical map of your Web site to help your audience conceptualize the
organization, extent, and usefulness of information available there.
b) Limit presentation of information to one screen whenever possible (unless you are
maintaining an online archive of reports originally published in hard copy).
c) Limit the size of video and audio files to be downloaded (downloading video clips even a
few minutes long can be a time-consuming process, turning the World Wide Web into the World
Wide Wait).

17
d) Follow the general guidelines for graphical representation when creating figures and other
static illustrations.
e) Show the context or reason for a link to another file or part of a file (or to another Web site)
so that your audience can decide beforehand if they want to go there.
Vast online archives of scientific and engineering reports are now available over the Web.
Hypertext
Hypertext is a compositional tool as well as a conceptual approach to communication. As a
compositional tool, hypertext markup languages allow the author of a hypertext to establish links
among the parts of a document, or between any number of complete documents, for ease of
reference or for amplification of an idea. Since the reader of a hypertext can choose to follow
these links or not (and in some contexts, such as a Web site, establish new links), hypertext tools
also permit the reader to become an "author" as well. The "final "hypertext document, therefore,
may take any number of forms, depending upon the needs of the audience. Hypertext technical
documents are very useful for training and for communicating instructions and procedures.
Guidelines for Creating Hypertext Links
a) Consider the audience for your document, their limitations and demands.
b) Let subject matter determine the kind and number of links between documents (or Web
sites). Unexplained and arbitrary links will make your audience feel "lost in hyperspace."
c) Structure the pathway of links in a coherent, useful way. Move your reader from general
principles or important first steps down into subsidiary elements of your topic.
d) Establish a context for a link when that link is to related but not crucial supporting material.
That way, readers can decide if they want to access that information at that time.
Exercises
Q.1 Elucidate the various forms of technical writing.
Q.2 Draft your own resume keeping in mind the points discussed in the chapter.
Q.3 Explain the difference between a memoranda and a letter with example.
Q.4 Discuss the various types of articles in scientific and technical writing.
Q.5 Differentiate between an oral presentation and a written document
Q.6 Write a literature review concerned with the topic of your research.
Q.7 Write a letter report assuming any data.
Q.8 Write an elaborated account on electronic documents and their need in modern day research.

18
Q.9 Classify various type of reports used for technical communication.
Q.10 Study a technical article and comment on its form, content and effectiveness.

Elements of Research Process

19
Initiating the Research Process
e) Identify and develop your topic.
 It is usually helpful to state your topic as a question. For example: "What are the
similarities and differences between the secondary education system in Britain and the
United States?"
 Once you have identified your topic, brainstorm for all the keywords you can think of that
are associated with your topic. In the above topic, keywords might include the following:
similarities, differences, comparison, contrast, high school, secondary education etc.
f) Find background information.
Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias and other reference books.
These will give you some solid background information on your topic, and may also help you
come up with other keywords to look for. Also pay attention to the bibliographies or list of
references at the end of articles, as these may help you find other sources for your research.
g) Use the library catalog to find books.
 Use keyword searching for a narrow or complex search topic.
 Use subject searching to help you narrow down a broad subject.
 Print out or write down the citation (author, title, etc.) and the location information (call
number and library).
 Note the circulation status.
 When you pull the book from the shelf, USE THE INDEX AND TABLE OF
CONTENTS to locate specific pages of useful information.
h) Use research databases or print indexes to find citations and abstracts for journal and
newspaper articles.
 You can find general article databases through the articles link on the library home page.
 Find subject-specific databases, through the Databases by Subject page.
 For additional help selecting periodical databases, ask at the Research Assistance Desk.
 If the article is not full text online in your database, check the library catalog .
 Find Internet resources, then track down the primary sources they are based on
 If you can't find the original sources, be sure you evaluate the web sites carefully before
deciding whether or not to use them in your project.
 Evaluate all of your resources.

20
 Cite what you find using a standard format.
Structuring the Research work
1. Preliminary pages
The preliminary pages must include the title page, the certificates, acknowledgements, abstract
and table of contents. Dedications should not be given.
a) Title page
The title page should be printed exactly in accordance with the samples given at the end of the
chapter. The date appearing on the title page must be the year in which the thesis/dissertation is
submitted along with the copyright for IPR (Intellectual Property Rights)
b) Certificates
Certificates of completion of work and approval of the thesis/dissertation by the Examining
Committee should be included in the preliminary pages. These two certificates must be included
on two separate pages.
c) Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements should be brief (a single page). This should follow the title page and is
assumed to be page iv, but the number is not typed on page. Care should be taken to avoid the
social obligations in this section. All those who rendered the help in technical matters should be
acknowledged.
d) Abstract
One page abstract, not exceeding 250 words should be included.
e) Table of contents
Except the title page, certificates, acknowledgements and abstract, all other major divisions of
the thesis/dissertation should be listed in the table of contents. These division and sub-divisions,
if any, must agree in wording and style with the text.
2. Main body of the thesis/dissertation
a) Text
The detailed organization of the text will vary with theses in different subjects, but a consistent
style must be followed. In general, the text is divided into: (i) Introduction, (ii) Review of
Literature, (iii) Material and Methods, (iv) Results and Discussion, (v) Summary and (vi)
References. The text of the thesis may also include certain materials such as illustrations, tables,
photographs, chemical and mathematical formulae and footnotes.

21
b) Tables
Tables should be self-explanatory. Headings and the column/row entries should be clearly
related. Tables less than half a page should be preceded or followed by the text. All tables should
be numbered with Arabic numerals, consecutively throughout the thesis.
c) Formulae
Mathematical and chemical formulae should be carefully made out by computer. Complex
mathematical formulae of two or more lines should not be included in text lines, but should be
placed in the proper position in the centre of the page between lines of text.
d) Scientific names
Give generic names in full at the first mention, e.g. Myzuspersicae (Sulzer). Thereafter
abbreviate them in the text, e.g. M. persiacae.
e) Illustrations
Illustrations used in the thesis must appear in all the copies. Illustrative materials may be Arabic
line drawings or photographs. Illustrations may be inserted wherever needed in the text,
numbered in Arabic numerals typed on a thesis paper below the illustration. The illustrations
must be prepared using computer. The size of illustrations could be reduced
photographically.
f) Paper to be used
The original thesis/dissertation as well as the photocopies should be prepared on a good quality
white bond paper of A4 size. All pages must have 1.5” margin on the left and 1” on the right
and on the top and bottom, with no gutter.
g) Typing
The general text of the manuscript should be typed in 1.5-space and tables/long quotations/foot
notes/Abstract in single space. The general text should be typed using 11- font size with Times
New Roman. Printing should be done on both sides of the page.
h) Pagination
Certificates of approval, title page, acknowledgements and abstract should not be given any page
number. The first page of the table of contents is numbered page vi. For text, Arabic numerals
are used beginning with the first page of the text and continued throughout the rest of the
thesis/dissertation including the figures, tables and references. Suppress the page number in first
page of each chapter.The pages on which the corrections have been suggested by the External

22
Examiner will have to be retyped. It may happen in a few cases that the external examiner
suggests adding new material: this would disturb the paging of the thesis and is, therefore,
required to be corrected accordingly. Numbering pages like 15a, 15b, 15c etc. would not be
permitted.
3. References in the text should be cited as under:
Bhatt (1940) and Beriet al (1980) … reported the results or results have been reported by several
workers (Vij 1952, Smith et al 1958). Refer to unpublished work only in the text (Smith A B
unpublished), Brown C D (pers. comm.) and not in the reference section.
4. Appendices
Appendices should be avoided as far as possible. Any material like test forms, blank record
forms, apparatus etc. may be included under Material and Methods.
5. Vita
The Vita should be given at the end of the thesis/dissertation on a separate page.
6. Resubmission of thesis/dissertation
If a thesis/dissertation is not accepted, the candidate may be allowed to re-submit it after making
modifications in the light of remarks of the Examination Committee. Resubmission is allowed
after a lapse of not less than one full semester. Resubmission will be processed in the same
manner as the original submission.
Writing the Abstract
An Abstract summarizes the major aspects of a paper. It is usually one paragraph long, and
should succinctly summarize the purpose of the paper, the methods used, the major results, and
the author’s interpretations and conclusions. Readers use the Abstract to decide whether they
want to read the rest of a paper. It must contain enough information for them to understand the
work, and for them to decide whether it applies to their project or not. Usually, an Abstract is
200 - 300 words, and should follow this format:
Idea 1: The problem to be investigated. This should be 1-2 sentences that sum up why this
study
was conducted.
For example: “Several studies have suggested that rampart craters on Mars form in regions
with high soil volatile contents - namely, water ice.”
Idea 2: The purpose of the study. This should be 1 - 2 sentences that explicitly state what this

23
study investigated and how it differs from similar studies.
For example: “This study is the first to use data from Mars Odyssey‘s Gamma Ray
Spectrometer to correlate the distributions of water ice and rampart impact craters on Mars. We
hypothesized that if rampart craters form due to high volatile content in the soil, then regions
with more sub-surface water should show a higher percentage of rampart impact craters.”
Idea 3: The methods. This should be 1 - 2 sentences that summarize the important methods
used to
investigate the problem.
For example: “We plotted the distribution of rampart impact craters on Mars and the water
ice concentrations obtained by the Mars Odyssey‘s Gamma Ray Spectrometer, then used
statistical tests to determine if there was a correlation.”
Idea 4: The major results. This should be 1 - 2 sentences that summarize the major results - not
all
of the results - just the important ones.
For example: “We found that regions with high sub-surface water ice concentrations had a
higher percentage of rampart impact craters than regions with low sub-surface water ice
concentrations. For example, 87% of impact craters in Acidalia Planitia, a very water rich area,
were designated rampart craters; however, only 23% of craters in water-poor Syrtis Major were
designated rampart.”
Idea 5: The interpretations. This should be 1 - 2 sentences that summarize the author’s
interpretations of the results. For example: “These results lend support to the idea that the
fluidized ejecta morphology that characterizes rampart craters is caused by a high water ice
concentration in the sub-surface.”
Idea 6: The implications. This should be one sentence that summarizes the meaning of these
interpretations, i.e., why do we care about this. For example: “Understanding the factors that
influence crater formation and morphology will allow us to better age-date the Martian surface,
and mapping the distribution of ancient rampart craters may help us estimate sub-surface volatile
concentrations from the Martian past.”
The Abstract should NOT contain:
- Lengthy background information - that belongs in the Introduction
- Lengthy methods discussion - that belongs in the Methods section

24
- References to other literature
- Abbreviations or acronyms
- Figures, images, or references to them
Writing the Introduction
An Introduction must provide the reader with all the information he/she will need to understand
the rest of the paper. The author must summarize the problem to be addressed, give background
on the subject, discuss previous research done on the topic, and explain in no uncertain terms
exactly what this paper will address, why, and how. An Introduction is usually 300 to 500 words,
but may be more, depending on the journal and the topic. They usually follow this general
format:
Idea 1: The broad topic: problem and background. The author should take an entire
paragraph to
state the problem to be investigated, and to give background on that problem. At the end of the
first paragraph, the reader should know the broad topic that this paper will address. Later
paragraphs will fill in the specifics.
Idea 2: Narrower topic: background and problem. Next, the author should zero in on the
specific
problem his/her paper will address. This should be done as bluntly as possible, i.e.: “This study
examines . . .” or “This paper focuses on . . .”
Idea 3: Clear Statement of Hypothesis. This is the “If-Then” statement that underlies the
author’s
whole study. If rampart craters on Mars form because of groundwater then we should see a
correlation between groundwater and rampart crater distributions. Most authors forget this. The
author need not write “We hypothesized that…”. The hypothesis can be something as simple as
an If-Then statement of what they were looking for.
Idea 4: Previous Research. The author should summarize the results and findings of other
studies
in this area. What research has been done on this topic? How will this study differ? What other
studies on similar topics might influence this study? The author should provide enough
discussion on previous research for the reader to understand the bigger picture, but not too much.
This is not a review paper - the author should only discuss those papers that truly are relevant to

25
his/her study. Depending on the topic, the discussion of previous research might run for two
paragraphs or two pages. _
Idea 5: Explanation of Concepts. In different journals, this means different things. For
example, in
a journal that specializes in gene therapy research, an author need not explain basic theories.
Idea 3: Motivation for Research. The final paragraph of the Introduction should be a summary
of
“Why should we care?” Why is the research important? Why is this problem important? How
will answering this problem advance research in this area, in industry, in policy, or in people’s
lives?
Writing the Discussion Section
The purpose of a Discussion section is to interpret the results, relating them to previous studies
that the author and other authors have done. The author should begin the Discussion section by
re-stating the hypothesis he/she was testing. Then he/she may begin interpreting the results in
light of this hypothesis. To interpret the results, the author should address the following
questions:
1. Did the results provide answers to the (testable) hypotheses?
2. If so, what does this mean for the hypothesis?
3. If not, do the results suggest an alternative hypothesis? What is it? Why do the results suggest
it? What further results might solidify this hypothesis? Have others proposed it before?
4. Do these results agree with what others have shown? If so, do other authors suggest an
alternative
explanation to explain the results? If not, how does this experiment differ from others? Is there a
design flaw in this experiment? In others?
5. How do these results fit in with results from other studies? Do results from related studies
affect the way these results are being interpreted?
In addition to simply interpreting the results, the author should discuss the following questions
(though the order may vary):
1. What factors or sources of error might have influenced these results?
2. What anomalous data turned up and how can it be explained? Is it explained by the author’s
theory? Someone else’s theory? Error?

26
3. Was this experiment the most effective way to test this hypothesis? (Obviously the author
thought so at the beginning, but does he/she still think so?) How could the experiment be
improved to gain further insight?
4. How have the results and conclusions of this study influenced our knowledge or understanding
of the problem being examined? What would be the next step in this study?
5. What experiments could be run (or data found) that would lend further support to the author’s
hypothesis? (Either the original hypothesis, or the new one designed to explain the results). What
experiments could be run (or data found) that would disprove the author’s hypothesis?
This section should synthesize the whole paper. The author should re-address the major issues
he/she discussed in the Introduction, and re-interpret them in light of the results.

Writing a Literature Review

A literature review addresses a specific topic by evaluating research that others have done on it.
As an author, you will weave your review article around a certain thesis or problem you wish to
address, evaluate the quality and the meaning of the studies done before, and arrives at a
conclusion about the problem based on the studies evaluated. A literature review is not a
summary, and it is not a list. The author cannot simply cite the studies that have been done and
the results that have been obtained. If you describe past research without evaluating it, then your
“review” is little more than a book report. A literature review must be a synthesis of the results of
your search, organized around your chosen theme. The article should be your evaluation of the
literature and of the issue at stake. This is a challenging piece of work. You must:
1. Organize information and relate it to your thesis or research question
2. Synthesize results into a summary of what is and isn’t known
3. Identify contradictions, inconsistencies, and gaps in the research
4. Identify and analyze controversy when it appears in the literature
5. Develop questions for further research
6. Draw conclusions based on your evaluation of the studies presented
Literature Review vs. Research Article
A literature review surveys research done by others in a particular area. You will read and
evaluate studies done by others, instead of conducting a new study yourself. Research articles, on

27
the other hand, present research that you have conducted yourself. A research article should
contain enough background information and literature evaluation to shed light on the your study,
but the ultimate purpose of the paper is to report research done by you.
Writing a Literature Review: Preliminary Research
Writing a literature review starts weeks to months before you ever begin the article.
Before writing, you must:
1. Select a topic. This can be challenging. Unless you are already very well read in your area,
you probably will not be able to just dream up a topic that is both interesting and narrow enough.
Pick a general field, and then start reading through the literature until you find a controversy or
topic that is interesting.
The topic should be:
a) In a well-studied field.
An area of science that is well-studied will give you more topics to choose from (e.g., more
series of studies on the same problem). It will also have many more authors, perspectives,
theories, and controversies than a field that only a few people study.
b) Of current interest.
You should pick a topic that is currently being researched, not an issue that no one has touched
in thirty years. Though many of your sources may be old, you should be able to find research
being done on this topic today.
c) Of interest to you.
Don’t just pick a topic because it’s a hot field of study. Pick one that you are personally
interested or involved in.
d) Length.
Estimate how long of a review you want to produce. Are you aiming for 10 pages? For 20? If
you pick a topic that is too broad (e.g., “Impact craters”), then you will find literally thousands of
studies and your review will flounder.
e) Controversial or diverse (opinion-wise).
Make sure you have something to evaluate. If everyone agrees about a topic, then there’s not
much to evaluate (unless you disagree!). You should pick a topic that has at least two completing
hypothesis to explain/test it. Then you will be able to compare, contrast, and analyze.
Writing a Literature Review: Analyzing the Literature

28
One of the hardest parts of a literature review is analyzing studies done by others. You must be
able to evaluate the techniques used, results obtained, conclusions drawn, and errors present in
each study, and then apply your evaluation to your topic. Below are some questions to help you
start thinking about each study. For each research study you read, ask yourself:
1. Has the author formulated a thesis? What is the problem or issue being addressed? Is this
problem relevant to my review?
2. Is the problem clearly stated? Is the significance of the problem discussed? (i.e., why should
the reader care about this study?)
3. What are the strengths and limitations of the way the author has formulated the problem?
Could the problem be approached more effectively from another perspective?
4. Is this paper primarily theoretical, experimental, interpretive, clinical? A combination? Could
the study have been better if conducted in a different framework? (i.e., could a theoretical study
have been strengthened by actual experiment? Was a clinical study crippled by a lack of
theoretical work?)
5. What is the author's theoretical framework (e.g., psychoanalytic, developmental, feminist)?
For example, in the field of Mars geology, many authors build their papers on the idea that Mars
was once a warm, wet planet, instead of the cold, dry planet we see today. Others start with the
assumption that Mars has always been cold and dry. The theories to which the authors subscribe
manifest themselves through their assumptions, interpretations, and conclusions. What
assumptions have your authors made? And how do those assumptions affect the conclusions they
draw?
6. Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue? Does the author discuss
studies that contradict his/her thesis as well as those that support it?
7. How effective is the study’s design? Is the method for investigating the problem appropriate?
What errors does the method introduce? How accurate and valid are the measurements?
8. Is the analysis of the data accurate and relevant to the research question? Are the conclusions
validly based upon the data and analysis?
9. Has the author objectively carried out the study, or only “proved” what he already believes?
10. Does this study contribute to our understanding of the problem? How is it useful to us?

29
11. How does this study fit into my review? How does its problem relate to the problem I will
address? How will I use its conclusions, methods, or imitations to illustrate the point I am trying
to make?
12. Does this study support my thesis or not? Do I need to re-evaluate my thesis?
Writing a Literature Review: Structure & Writing
Your whole article should revolve around your thesis. Since no two theses are alike, no two
review articles will be structured exactly alike; however, there is a general format that review
articles should follow:
1. Abstract: A brief summary of your thesis, the major studies investigated, and
conclusions drawn.
2. Introduction: This section should introduce the topic and your thesis, and should discuss
why this topic is significant. It should clearly define exactly what this
article will discuss, outline the order in which you will discuss it, and give
the reader any background information needed to understand the coming
sections.
3. Body: The body of your article depends on your topic. For example, if your topic
discusses and evaluates three different methodologies, you might divide
the body of the article into three sections, each discussing one of the methods.
In these sections, be sure to describe and evaluate the studies in detail,
comparing them and discussing their implications.
4. Discussion and Conclusions: You should conclude your review by restating your thesis and
the purpose of the article, then discussing the conclusions you have drawn.
You should also discuss the implications of your study and where you
think research in this field should go from here.
5. References: Literature reviews published in professional journals usually cite 50 to 100
studies. A short literature review usually requires 20 or more.
6. Length: A short literature review is usually 7 to 10 pages long (single spaced). Most
reviews, however, need to be longer to address all the material that needs
to be discussed. Writing a good review is not about quantity, though – it’s about
quality. Weed out the unimportant and make your writing and logic tight.
In evaluating studies, describe them briefly, then discuss the relevant areas

30
 (e.g., research assumptions, theories tested, hypotheses stated,
methodology, variables examined, results, interpretations, speculations, etc.) All
studies have strengths and weaknesses. Identify them and discuss how
they are relevant to your thesis. Be sure to compare the study with others that you have
discussed.

Drafting Figures, Tables, Equations, and References

Figures & Tables
Terminology
A table presents lists of numbers or text in columns, and should be used to illustrate differences,
but not to represent relationships. A figure is any visual presentation of results or illustration of
concepts/methods, including: graphs, images, diagrams of set-ups, drawings, maps, etc.
Referencing Figures & Tables
All Figures and Tables are numbered sequentially: Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Table 1, Table
2, Table 3. The author should number them in the order they are called, so, for example, Figure 9
should never be referenced before Figure 1.
Captions
Captions are one of the most important elements of a good manuscript. Often, a reader will flip
through a paper, read the captions, and decide if it is worth the read. A caption should be clear
and succinct, yet detailed. It should convey all the information needed for a reader to understand
the figure, without reading the whole manuscript. For example, a good caption of a graph would
tell the reader what the graph illustrates, what samples were used, if any (not just “Sample B-
12”, but “Sample B-12, the potassium-rich feldspar”), and the relationship displayed. This last
one is very important – a caption should tell the reader the meaning of the figure or table. Does
the table illustrate a trend that the reader should be noting? Does this figure illustrate the sample
site, and, if so, what are the features of note at this site? Captions have a lot of information to
relay, so they must be longer than one or two sentences. They shouldn’t be longer than about 10
sentences.
Sample Title Page

MANAGEMENT OF TOBACCO LEAF CURL VIRUS

31
 (TLCV) IN TOMATO

Thesis

Submitted to the Punjab Agricultural University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
PLANT PATHOLOGY
(Minor Subject: Entomology)

By
ABC
(L-2006-A-102-M)
Department of Plant Pathology
College of Agriculture
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
LUDHIANA-141004
2008
Exercises
Q.1 Discuss the process of writing a literature review citing relevant examples.
Q.2 Write a literature review of the topic of your research.
Q.3 Chart the characteristics of a good literature review.
Q.4 What is the need for literature review. Explain with examples.
Q.5 Write a note on the preliminary research required before writing a literature review.

32
 Editing & Proof Reading

The Proofreading Process

Proofreading is one of the most important steps in the writing process. The following tips will
help make your self-editing job easier.
1. Run spell check on your word processor, but keep in mind that spell check can only
compare your document to words listed in its dictionary. Keep a dictionary handy so that you can
check words that spell check does not recognize. Also remember that spell check does not know
what you intended to say. If you used the wrong word but that word happens to be spelled
correctly, spell check will not know the difference.
2. After running spell check, reread your work to look for obvious errors. Check for spelling
errors that spell check might have missed. Check for grammatical errors. Check to see how well
your writing flows. (Does it sound good when you read it or does it sound choppy?) A good way
to check the flow is to read your work out loud. Your ears will often catch problems that your
eyes missed.
3. Use proofreaders’ marks. Proofreaders’ marks are universal symbols originally used by
journalists and publishers. Now they are more widely used and can be found anywhere from the
classroom to the boardroom. The symbols are not only a time-saving device for self-editing, but
will also ensure that you understand the suggestions made by anyone else who proofreads your
work.
4. After you have completed an initial proof of your work, it is time to do a more thorough
rereading. If it is possible, put your work aside for a few days (or least for a few hours) before
you complete this step. You are more likely to catch your own errors if your mind has had a
chance to clear. After you have spent hours writing something, your words are etched into your
mind. When you proofread your own work, your eyes can sometimes see what you intended to
say instead of what you actually did say. If you put your work aside for a space of time, you are
more likely to see what you wrote, instead of what you think you wrote.
Punctuation
Punctuation is the art of dividing groups of words so as to convey the meaning of the hole,
correctly and clearly. In order to help the reader understand the meaning of a sentence

33
completely certain stops or marks of punctuation are inserted. The following are the main marks
of punctuation:
i) Full stop (.)
j) Comma (,)
k) Semicolon (;)
l) Colon (:)
m) Inverted commas ( “ ” )
n) Question marks ( ? )
o) Apostrophe (‘)
p) Hyphen (-)
q) Dash ( ----- )
r) Brackets or Parenthesis ( )
s) Marks of exclamation ( ! )
Usage of Full stop:
t) Use the full stop to denote a full stop at the end of a statement. The period (.) is one of the
most commonly used punctuation marks. E.g. The accessibility of the computer has increased
tremendously over the past several years.
u) Use the Full stop to indicate abbreviations: E.g. Member of Parliament - M.P.
Usage of Question Mark:
The question mark (?) used at the end of a sentence, suggests an interrogatory remark or inquiry.
E.g. What has humanity done about the growing concern of global warming?
Usage of Exclamation:
The exclamation point (exclamation mark, shout mark)( ! ) suggests excitement or emphasis in a
sentence. E.g. I can't believe how difficult the exam was! This punctuation mark is never used in
Scientific and Technical writing.
Usage of Semicolon:
The semicolon (;) has a few uses.
v) Use a semicolon to separate two related but independent clauses.
E.g. People continue to worry about the future; our failure to conserve resources has put the
world at risk.

34
w) Use a semicolon to separate a complex series of items, especially those that contain
commas.
E.g. I went to the show with Jake, my close friend; his friend, Jane; and her best friend,
Jenna.
Usage of Colon:
The colon (:) has multiple uses.
a) Use the colon to introduce a list. Be careful not to use a colon when denoting a regular
series.
b) Usually, the word following suggests the use of a colon. Use only after a full sentence
which ends in a noun.
E.g. The professor has given me three options: to retake the exam, to accept the extra credit
assignment, or to fail the class.
Usage of Hyphen and dash:
x) Use a hyphen when adding a prefix to some words. The purpose of this hyphen is to make
the word easier to read. If you were to leave the hyphen out of a word like re-examine, it would
be reexamine, which would be harder to read. Understand that some words do not require a
hyphen to separate the prefix from the word, such as restate, pretest, and undo.
y) When you use a hyphen, the two words have to rely on each other. Example: re-arrange.
z) Use hyphens when creating compound words from separate words. E.g. The up-to-date
newspaper
reporters were quick to jump on the latest scandal.
aa) Use a hyphen when writing numbers out as words. Separate the two words of any number
under one hundred with a hyphen. E.g. There are fifty-two playing cards in a deck.
bb) Be careful with spelling out numbers above one hundred — if the number is used as an
adjective, it is completely hyphenated, since all compound adjectives are hyphenated (This is the
one-hundredth episode.). Otherwise, a hyphen should only occur if a number greater than 100
occurs within the larger number. E.g. He lived to be one hundred twenty-one.
cc) The dash (-- or —) should be used when making a brief interruption within a statement, a
sudden change of thought, an additional comment, or a dramatic qualification. It can also be used
to add a parenthetical statement, such as for further clarification, but should still be relevant to
the sentence. Otherwise, use parentheses. Keep in mind that the rest of the sentence should still

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flow naturally. Try to remove the statement within the dash from the sentence; if the sentence
appears disjointed or does not make sense, then you may need to revise. There should be spaces
before and after the dash in British English. E.g. An introductory clause is a brief phrase that
comes — yes, you guessed it — at the beginning of a sentence.
Usage of double quotation mark and single quotation mark/apostrophe:
The double quotation ( " ) encloses a direct quotation, whether made by a person or taken from a
piece of literature. E.g. "I can't wait to see him perform!" John exclaimed.
Usage of the single quotation mark or apostrophe ( ' ):
dd) Use the apostrophe together with the letter s to indicate possession. Be aware of the
difference in using an apostrophe with singular or plural nouns. A singular noun will use’s,
whereas the plural version of that singular noun will use s'. Also, be mindful of nouns that are
always considered to be plural, such as children and people — here, you should use’s.
ee) Be aware of pronouns that are already possessive and do not require apostrophes, such as
hers and its (it's is used only for the contractions of it is and it has). There is possessive without
apostrophe or s, except as a predicate adjective, where it becomes theirs. E.g. The hamster's
water tube needs to be refilled.
ff) A singular noun with possession. E.g. In the pet store, the hamsters' bedding needed to be
changed.
gg) A pluralized singular noun with possession. E.g. These children's test scores are the highest
in the nation.
hh) A plural noun with possession. E.g. Friends of hers explained it's her idea, not theirs, to
refill the hamster's water tube and change its bedding.
ii) Possessive pronouns (hers, theirs, its), contraction of it is, and a singular noun with
possession.
jj) Use the apostrophe to combine two words to make a contraction. For example, cannot
becomes can't, you are becomes you're, and they have becomes they've. Be sure to use correctly
possessive pronoun your and contraction you're — it is one of the most common mistakes to
confuse them!
kk) Use the single quotation mark within a regular quotation to indicate a quotation within a
quotation. E.g. Ali said, "Anna told me, 'I wasn't sure if you wanted to come!'"

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ll) Note that an apostrophe is not used with s to make a plural noun from a singular. This is a
very common mistake and should be avoided. E.g. It is an apple not apple's
Usage of comma (,):
mm) Use the comma when denoting an appositive, or a break within a sentence that supplements
and adds information to the subject. E.g. Bill Gates, CEO of Microsoft, is the developer of the
operating system known as Windows.
nn) Use the comma when denoting a series. This is a set of three or more "list" items within a
sentence. Many writers omit the last comma as "and" is also a connective ("The basket contained
apples, bananas and oranges.").
oo) Use a comma if your subject has two or more adjectives describing it. This is somewhat
similar to a series, except that it is incorrect to place a comma after the final adjective.
CORRECT - The powerful, resonating sound caught our attention.
INCORRECT - The powerful, resonating, sound caught our attention.
pp) Use a comma when referring to a city and state. It is also necessary to use a comma to
separate the city and state from the rest of the sentence. E.g. I am originally from Ventnor, NJ.
qq) Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase (which is usually one or more
prepositional phrases) from the rest of the sentence. An introductory phrase briefly introduces the
sentence, but is not part of the sentence's subject or predicate, and it therefore should be
separated from the main clause by a comma. E.g. After the show, John and I went out to dinner.
rr) Use the comma to separate two independent clauses. Having two independent clauses in a
sentence simply means that you can split the sentence into two. If your sentence contains two
independent clauses that are separated by a conjunction (such as and, as, but, for, nor, so, or yet),
place a comma before the conjunction. E.g. Ryan went to the beach yesterday, but he forgot his
sunscreen.
ss) Use a comma when making a direct address. When calling one's attention by name,
separate the person's name and the rest of the statement with a comma. Note that this kind of
comma is used rarely in writing, because this is something that we do normally while speaking.
E.g. Amber, could you come here for a moment?
tt) Use a comma to separate direct quotations. A comma should come after the last word
before a quotation that is being introduced. It is not necessary to use a comma in an indirect

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quote. A comma is usually not necessary if you are not quoting an entire statement. E.g. While I
was at his house, John asked me if I wanted anything to eat.
uu) An indirect quotation that does not require a comma. E.g. While I was at his house, John
asked, "Do you want anything to eat?"
vv) A direct quotation. E.g. According to the client, the lawyer was "lazy and incompetent."
ww) A partial direct quotation that does not require a comma.
Usage of parentheses, brackets, and braces:
xx) Use parentheses ( ) to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a personal comment. Be
sure to include the period after the closing parenthesis, except in the case that the entire sentence
is within parentheses. e.g. Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner
board of directors in 2005.
yy) Used for clarification. Here, commas can replace the parentheses.
e.g. You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).
zz) An afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parentheses — not before
the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable
here, and is better off with a period or a semicolon.
aaa) Use brackets ( [ ] ) to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You can also use
brackets to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it appeals to your own writing.
e.g."[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith, a local bystander at the scene of
the incident.
e.g. "It was absolutely devastating!" – the actual quote by Susan Smith.
bbb) Braces ({ } ) are most widely used in denoting a numeric set in mathematics. Though
generally uncommon, braces can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal,
independent choices.
{ 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }
Choose your favorite utensil { fork, knife, spoon } and bring it to me.
Usage of slash ( / ) :
ccc) Use the slash to separate and and or, when appropriate. The phrase and/or suggests that a
series of options are not mutually exclusive.
e.g.To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate.

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ddd) The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Be sure to add
spaces between your slashes here.
e.g. Row, row, row your boat / Gently down the stream. / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, /
Life is but a dream.
eee) The slash can replace the word and to join two nouns. By replacing and with a slash, you
suggest that there is equal importance to both characteristics. Use these replacements in
moderation to place greater emphasis where and may not do so — as well as not to confuse the
reader. You can also do the same for or, as in his/her. However, you should not use the slash to
separate independent clauses, as shown below.
CORRECT:
"The student and part-time employee has very little free time."
"The student/part-time employee has very little free time."
INCORRECT:
"Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?"
"Do you want to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall?"

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