Terms to remember:

• Index mineral
• Isograd
• Metamorphic grade
• Facies
• Greenschist or greenstone
• Amphibolite
• Granulite
• Metamorphic facies and their relative position on the P-T diagram
• Blueschist
• Eclogite
• Zeolite facies
• Prehnite facies
 Metamorphic Classification

The contrast controls the contrasting mineralogy of metapelites and metabasites,

which is summarized here for various facies. Metapeltic protoliths contained a lot of
clay minerals and therefore were K-rich. This potassic nature of metapelites dictates
their high modes of high K- minerals like micas. This Al-rich nature of metapelites
dictates their high modes of high Al-minerals like sillimanite, staurolite, garnet and
other alumosilicates. In contrast, basalts are richer in Ca, and Ca-bearing amphiboles
rather than micas form under metamorphism.

2
 Metamorphic Classification
• The nomenclature and classification of metamorphic rocks is complex and not
consistent.
• Most commonly, rocks in the field are named based on texture and mineralogy
• In the Lab, after further studies, the rock is assigned the facies

Texture and
Minerals

Metamorphic
rock names Protolith
can be based
on

Give examples of metamorphic rocks

Facies
names assigned based on these three
characteristics

The nomenclature and classification of metamorphic rocks is complex and not

consistent. Most commonly, rocks in the field are named based on texture
and mineralogy. However, some rocks are named for the protolith. Yet other rocks are
named for the metamorphic facies.

3
 Metamorphic processes: Microscale
Learning goals
1. Describe recrystallization and growth of new minerals
2. Be able to use triangular diagrams to identify minerals
present in rock with a given bulk composition

In igneous we first did classification, but here we will first describe metamorphic
processes because they are less intuitive, more complex. It is hard to understand
metamorphic classification because it is based on several parameters and principles,
and one has to know the processes to use it correctly. Metamorphic rocks are very
diverse – and we need to understand the processes that form them in order to really
be able to recognize the clues they are giving us to their formation, tectonic setting
and importance in reconstructing the history of Earth.
Today – we will look at the microscale - the scale of a single grain

4
 1. Metamorphic recrystallization

Relict bedding in a metamorphosed

sedimentary rock

Slate * low-grade metamorphosed mudrock

* very fine grained
* pre-existing minerals are aligned in planes controlling the
slaty texture
* mineral alignment, especially of platy minerals is called a
foliation.

Phyllite * note growth of

NEW fine-grained
minerals

When we describe metamorphic growth of minerals, we often use word “recrystallization”

Let’s go through a common sequence of metamorphic rocks and observe changes in the
texture to understand what recrystallization means. We will look at how mudrocks or shales
(pelites) respond to increasing grade of metamorphism – as P and T increases.
Left is a schematic section through the crust showing the different metamorphic rock names
and textures that form as a mudrock is subjected to progressively greater P and T with
increasing depth in the Earth’s crust. This is shown in a compressive tectonic setting (folds
and mountain building) and so P increases with depth, and there is a horizontal stress
component. Shale is our protolith, the original sedimentary rock that we are going to follow
through its burial and transformation – it is formed from submicroscopic platy, clay minerals,
mudrock.
Slate is the lowest grade rock– where new minerals, mostly micas begin to form. Slate is a
fine-grained rock that splits easily along flat, parallel planes. It will show many relict features
of sedimentary rocks, bedding, fossils, way up structures etc. Difficult to tell if the rock is
metamorphosed or not, but slates have a sort of ring to them if you hit them that mudrocks
don’t. Plus you should be able to see the alignment of minerals under the microscope.
Pre-existing minerals are be rotated to acquire a new orientation, this is a response to the
stress – they dissolve in one place and grow in another direction. This mineral alignment,
especially of platy minerals is called a foliation.

At increasing P and T, slates turn into phyllites. Think of these steps as a sliding scale –
gradually a slate grows more micas turning into a phyllite.
Phyllite is a foliated rock where newly formed micas are still too small to be seen with the
naked eye. The micas give the rock a shine where all the minerals are growing in the same
orientation (perpendicular to the maximum stress direction), so the cleavage of the micas are
all aligned.

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 Foliation in Schist
1. Metamorphic recrystallization

Garnet-mica schist with

macroscopically visible oriented
minerals

Schistosity is manifested in
orientation of large mica crystals

As PT increases, the new minerals continue to grow, and individual mineral grains
become discernable to the naked eye.
Now we call the rock a schist. We can no longer see any original features of the
protolith.
The foliation is now termed schistosity and is defined by the alignment of these large
mica grains.
Metamorphic minerals, such as garnet, have started to grow – these minerals only
form through metamorphic processes (unlike micas that can crystallize from
magmas) and form as crystals we call porphyroblasts.
Depending on the protolith composition different composition porphyroblasts will
form – this compositional information can help us determine the original protolith
and say something about the geological history. Just as every sedimentary rock is
slightly different, so are the metamorphic rocks that form from them.

Foliation is manifested in different ways at different PT, from the lowest to the
highest grade of metamorphism . We use 3 different terms to describe these foliated
textures manifested in different ways at different PT
Slaty cleavage - pre-existing minerals are aligned in planes
Schistosity – new, visible to the naked eye, metamorphic minerals are aligned in
planes
Gneissosity - new minerals are separated into distinct layers or lenses, when the rock
became very ductile and the new minerals separated into distinct dark and light
layers or lenses the rock has a gneissic texture

6
 Foliation in Gneiss
1. Metamorphic recrystallization

Gneiss
* all mineral grains are macroscopically discernible
* foliation is expressed in banding, with mm-cm-scale
layers that vary in mineral mode or textures
* gneissosity

At the high end of PT conditions our mudstone has turned into a

gneiss (pronounced with a silent g). It has completely recrystallized,
mica’s have mostly disappeared and the main minerals are coarse
grained quartz, feldspar, biotite and hornblende.
The foliation is not original bedding, but a segregation of mafic and
felsic minerals into bands through recrystallization. This is called
gneissic banding or gneissossity (which is a mouthful!). Gneisses
also form from the metamorphism of granites and diorites, these
have similar mineralogy to their parent rocks – but have the
imposed segregation banded textures.
We may still have some of the porphyroblasts like garnet –
giving us an indication that these rocks were originally
sediments and not granites.

7
 Textural
1. Changes:
Metamorphic Grain Size
recrystallization
A: Increase in grain size
B. Straightening of curved grain boundaries
C. Formation of porphyroblasts
A: Increase in grain size Progressive metamorphism of slate

1 Clay minerals 2 3

Now look at this sequence of rocks under the microscope That was the sequence for
the metamorphism of mudrocks.
The first thing we would notice is that the grain size increases from the mudrock to
the slate. Atoms from surrounding grains migrate to the grain boundaries and larger,
more stable grains grow.
In some rocks that don’t have a lot of components to start with this recrystallization is
all we would see e.g. a pure Si sandstone or a pure CaCO3 limestone – quartz and
calcite respectively would simply grow in crystal size as there aren’t any other
elements around to make any new metamorphic minerals.

8
 Textural Changes
1. Metamorphic recrystallization
1 3
Clay
minerals

Increasing grain sizes is a way to An increase in grain sizes happens through

minimize the surface energy of a crystal several mechanisms:
aggregate
1. Dissolution of small minerals and growth
Metamorphic recrystallization is like an of bigger grains
annealing process in ceramics (a stay at
elevated Ts for extended periods) 2. Movement of grain boundaries

Why do we see this general tendency?

Small grains are unstable at high P and T
Very small grains have lots of boundaries in between, and each boundary comes with
its additional surface energy. Overall this fine-grained rock is a very energetic system,
with lots of potential energy, so given a chance, this potential energy immediately
goes down. The high T gives the system the ability to reduce the potential energy.
High T drives the rock over a potential energy barrier, and gives a rock a boost to
minimize the potential surface energy.
The process is recrystallization, when several smaller grains now form one bigger
continuous grain with a lower energy. Recrystallization happens by two major
mechanisms:
1) Dissolution and precipitation - smaller grains dissolve and the cations and anions
join
other bigger grains – the survival of the fittest in the mineral world,
2) The movement of grain boundaries and defects. Grain boundaries are pushed
outside to the rock margin and disappear.

9
 1. Metamorphic recrystallization

• Grain boundary migration

• Atoms remain more or less stationary but break bonds with one crystal
and reattach to another
• Large grains grow at the expense of small ones, resulting in equigranular
texture
• Reduction in surface energy
• Grains form at the expense of other grains of the same mineral
• Deformed grains recrystallize

The atoms jump to the larger grains which grow bigger the longer the PT conditions
last.
Reduction of the potential free energy at the grain boundaries – this makes the rocks
energetically more stable.

10
 [Link] Metamorphism
Metamorphic recrystallization

Recrystallized quartz with irregular (sutured)

B: Straightening of

serrated boundaries. Width 0.2 mm.

curved grain boundaries
serrated grain boundaries

The ultimate aggregate with the

lowest possible surface energy is
polygonal (mosaic) with ~120o triple
junctions, roughly equigranular

The second process how the surface energy could be lowered beside coarsening the
grains – is to straighten the boundaries. Look at this t/s of qz- rich rock where mineral
outlines are curved, zig-zaggy, serrated, with bulging shapes.
This creates an unnecessary high surface energy.
The ideal mineral aggregate with no extra surface energy would have this
honeycomb- like texture. Each grain has the same size, the same polygonal straight
boundaries. In such honeycombs we see triple junctions at 120 degrees, the resulting
textures is called “mosaic”. The texture is in fact seen in monomineral metamorphic
rocks such as quartzite and pure marble.

11
 A XPL image showing interlocking granular quartz grains, with few preserved curved boundaries.
Note the mosaic texture and undulose extinction of some grains indicating strained grains. FOV 9
mm [Link]

Q: why does the quartz have higher than normal interference colours?? – Thick thin
section!!!

12
 [Link] Metamorphism
Metamorphic recrystallization

What do mosaic texture of soap bubble aggregates and many

metamorphic rocks have in common
A They both formed through an energy-reduction process
B They are both inedible
C They are both minimized the surface energy and achieved textural
equilibrium
D All of the above

13
 1. Metamorphic recrystallization

Staurolite porphyroblasts in muscovite

schist
Growth of a “snowball” garnet porphyroblast

C: Larger crystals - Porphyroblasts (metamorphic analogues of phenocrysts)

are common
• Porphyroblasts are always crystals of a mineral with low modal abundance, derived
from trace detrital components, like Gar or Staurolite in schists
• Some minerals (Qz) are never found as porphyroblasts, while others such as
Staurolite or Gar occur almost exclusively as porphyroblasts
• Low rate of crystal nucleation should be combined with rapid diffusion of necessary
chemical components through the rock to make porphyroblasts

Despite the tendency of metamorphic rocks to develop roughly equigranular textures,

often we see crystals that are 10-100 times larger than any others.
On the left is mica schist with fine grains of muscovite (mm), but amongst the
muscovite grains there are 2 cm long staurolites.
This grain size difference is unexplainable from the physical point of view that focuses
on the potential energy.
A special name for these crystals is porphyroblasts. They are like raisins in a raisin
bread, or phenocrysts in porphyritic volcanic rocks.

14
 1. Metamorphic recrystallization:Porphyroblasts
• Metamorphosed gabbroic rocks of the Adirondack Highlands (New York
State) are known for the occurrence of garnet crystals of unusual size
• Used for decorative stone for new World Trade Center memorial
• The open-pit Barton Garnet Mine was first worked in 1878 and is famed for
the presence the world’s largest single crystals of garnet
• Mined for abrasive powder

The largest single crystal Gar is porphyroblast in metamorphosed gabbroic rocks of

the Adirondack Highlands (New York State), which are known for the occurrence of
garnet crystals of unusual size (diameters range from 5 to 35 cm). The largest crystal
ever extracted measured 1 m in diameter. The open-pit Barton Garnet Mine was first
worked in 1878 and is famed for the presence the world’s largest single crystals of
garnet. The mine produces abrasive powder. Because of the mine and the
Adirondacks in the New York State, garnet is the state gem of New York, and the
cornerstone of the new World Trade Center memorial is a block of garnet-bearing
ore.

15
1. Metamorphic recrystallization:Porphyroblasts

Appalachians

16
1. Metamorphic recrystallization:Porphyroblasts

17
 1. Metamorphic recrystallization:Porphyroblasts

The transport of alumina needed to form garnet has been shown to be greatly
enhanced by hot, saline fluids at mid-crustal depths at 8 kbar and 800 °C (Newton
and Manning, 2008, 2010). The presence of saline fluid inclusions in the rocks
involved (McLelland et al., 2002) thus removes the alumina transport problem.
Garnet nuclei grew via reactions approximated by the generalized reaction:
plagioclase + mafic phases + H2O → garnet + hornblende. As hornblende formed, it
was pushed aside by garnet to form the black hornblende rims or coronas. It is
assessed that a porphyroblast of garnet requires ~ 10 Ma to grow.

18
 2. Plotting mineral compositions: A’FK
Various compositional triangles are
used by metamorphic petrologists to
illustrate recrystallization, growth and
disappearance of minerals during
metamorphism

Position of minerals within the triangle

Rock X
will always be given to you

Minerals and bulk rock compositions

that plot closer to the F apex have
higher content of F component

Mineral compositions are plotted

based on formulas and coefficients in
the formulas

You can learn how to plot minerals in

metamorphic tringle in a fun
interactive exercise

To illustrate recrystallization, growth and disappearance of minerals during

metamorphism, petrologists rely on triangular compositional diagrams.
Today we will learn how to read them and the principles of plotting. We used the
triangles in igneous petrology, and you probably thought we used them excessively.
But wait until you see how often metamorphic petrologists rely on triangular plots.
Mineral compositions are plotted based on formulas and coefficients in the formulas.
Position of minerals within the triangle will always be given to you,
Minerals and bulk rock compositions that plot closer to the F apex has higher content
of F component
You can learn how to plot minerals in metamorphic tringle in a fun interactive
exercise [Link]
activities/cmSerpentinite/[Link]
 2. Plotting mineral and bulk compositions
Textbook- pp. 388-395
[Link]
activities/cmSerpentinite/[Link]

Dot - 40% A x, y, z, x2z, xyz

30% Q Components – oxides that make up
30% P minerals and bulk rock

This slide illustrates how minerals are plotted in metamorphic triangles. This
information is not examinable. You can skip this slide if you want.
The principle is the same as plotting any composition expressed as a mix of 3
components. .
But we’re plotting not modal % of minerals in the rock, but oxides. Components are
oxides that make up minerals and bulk rock. For minerals, the relative proportions of
oxides are expressed as coefficients in mineral formulas. Go to
Https://[Link]/~jbrady/petrology/metrocks-
activities/cmSerpentinite/[Link]
If you wish and practice with mineral formulas and how they control positions of
minerals in the triangles.
 2. Plotting mineral compositions: A’FK

• Rock and mineral compositions are

plotted in terms of 3 idealized
components

• A’ K F components

• A’ component shows the excess of Al

beyond the Al needed in feldspars

A’= Al2O3+ Fe2O3 – (Na2O+K2O+CaO)

• Other oxides (SiO2, H2O) are also
K= K2O present in the rock, just not plotted
F= FeO+MgO+MnO
• Solid solution minerals are shown as
line segments rather than single dots

As with igneous and sedimentary rocks, we need to use the right components at the
apex of the triangle so we can use these plots meaningfully for the rocks we are
considering.
what are these oxides?
In triangle A’- K – F
A’ component : Al and Fe are combined because they substitute for each other in SS
(solid solutions) minerals (such as epidote)
A’ component : Alkalies are subtracted to account for equivalent Al in feldspars
F component: Fe, Mg and Mn are interchangeable for many ferromagnesian minerals

We assume that SiO2 and H2O is always available in excess, so a mineral could get as
much H2O and SiO2 from the environment as the mineral wants
 3. Plotting
2. Plotting mineral
mineral compositions
compositions: A’FK

And, Ky, Sil = Al2SiO5=Al2O3* SiO2

2
Ta = Mg3(Si4O10)(OH)2

4.5 Fsp KAlSi3O8 = 0.5 K2O*0.5 Al2O3* 3SiO2

St = (Fe,Mg)2 Al9Si4O22(OH)2=2(Mg, Fe)O*4.5

Al2O3* 4SiO2* H2O

Chl= (Fe,Mg)5 Al2Si3O10(OH)8=5(Mg, Fe)O*1

A’= Al2O3+ Fe2O3 – (Na2O+K2O+CaO)
K= K2O Al2O3* 3SiO2* 4H2O
F= FeO+MgO+MnO Al content varies due to Al-Si substitution

Solid solution minerals are shown as line segments rather than single dots

How do we plot minerals? One has to know the mineral formula.

Start from the simplest mineral. Sillimanite is in this left apex.
Talc – in another apex,
Staurolite should be on the A’ - F side as St contains MgO and Al2O3. Look at the
ratios of these oxides in the formula – they control the places of St on the tringle side.

Solid solution minerals plot as ranges, not as a single dot.

Do not panic if you do not understand the plotting principle for complex minerals –
in most cases you will work with tringle where minerals have been already plotted.

24
 2. Plotting mineral and bulk compositions:
Application of A’FK
A’FK
Example: Slates or Phyllites in a sequence of metamorphosed mudrocks

Pyrophyllite
Al2(Si4O10)(OH)2

Chl (Fe,Mg)5 Al2Si3O10(OH)8

•Triangles are used to show what minerals should be present is a metamorphic rock
with a given bulk composition
• Minerals coexisting together in a rock are indicated by connected tie-lines
• Tie-lines never cross
• Rock with bulk composition b contains Pyrophyllite, Muscovite and Chlorite

Minerals coexisting together in equilibrium are indicated by connected tie-lines

Tie-lines must not cross under equilibrium conditions, i.e. when no reactions
between minerals occur
Bulk rock composition can be expressed as a mix of mineral compositions found in
the rock
Geometrically it means that the bulk rock composition always plots inside a triangle
composed of the minerals found in the rock ( or on the tie-line between 2 minerals).
If it plots in a triangle then all 3 minerals would be present, if it plots on a tie line then
only 2 minerals are stable here. Triangles are used to relate bulk composition of rocks
to its mineralogy.

This triangle plot is for fine-grained slates or phyllites. The tringle answers questions
like “What would be the stable minerals in a rock with a bulk composition c? What
about composition a?”
2. Plotting mineral and bulk compositions:
A’FK
What minerals do you expect to
find in a rock with bulk Pyrophyllite
composition D? Al2(Si4O10)(OH)2
A Pyrophyllite, Muscovite,
K feldspar, Chlorite and Biotite

B Muscovite, Chlorite and Biotite

D
C Biotite and Chlorite

Which rock is the most potassic? Fine-grained Bi-

A B C D bearing phyllites
How is it expressed in its mineralogy?
A It contains K feldspar
B It contains the highest content of K in its biotite
C It contains the highest content of K in its muscovite
D It contains the highest content of K in biotite and muscovite
 New Terms
today
• Protolith
• Slate and slaty texture
• Phyllite
• Schist and schistosity
• Foliation
• Gneiss and banding
• Polygonal, mosaic texture
• Serrated grain boundaries
• Grain boundary migration
• Annealing
• Porphyroblast
• Plotting mineral and bulk compositions in triangles
• Tie-lines
 Example Exam Question

Why amphiboles are more common in metabasites? What

chemical element in the bulk composition of metabasite
protoliths control high abundances of amphiboles?

What minerals are often observed as porphyroblasts in

metapelites?

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