TOPIC: MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Matter is everything around us — stones, air, water, food, and even our bodies.
Mass is the amount (quantity) of matter in an object.
It is measured in kilograms (kg) or grams (g).
Physical existence of matter
Because matter occupies space, it has real physical existence.
Types of matter
Matter can be made of:
Pure substances (only one type of material).
Mixtures (more than one type of substance mixed together).
States of matter
Matter exists in three physical states:
Solid
Liquid
Gas
The state of matter depends on temperature and pressure.
Example (water):
Below 0°c – water is a solid (ice).
Between 0°c and 100°c – water is a liquid.
Above 100°c – water becomes a gas (vapour).
Fluids
Liquids and gases are called fluids because they can flow.
Solid
A solid has:
Definite shape (it does not change shape easily).
Definite size and volume.
Hard structure and is not easily compressed.
Examples of solids: stone, firewood, cooking pot pencil, chalk, sand, charcoal
Liquids
Liquids are substances that:
Flow easily.
Have a fixed volume.
Take the shape of the container holding them.
Characteristics of liquids
Liquids do not have a fixed shape.
Liquids can be poured.
Liquids cannot be compressed easily.
Liquids occupy space and have mass.
examples of liquids
Water, juice, milk, paint, blood, oil, alcohol
Gases
Gases are substances that:
Have no fixed shape.
Have no fixed size or volume.
Flow easily.
Expand to fill the entire space or container they are in.
Characteristics of gases
Gases do not have a definite shape or volume.
They are easily compressible.
They can spread out to fill any space.
Gases are invisible, but their presence can be felt (e.g., wind, smell).
examples of gases
Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, chlorine
Changes of state of matter
melting is the process by which a solid change into a liquid when heated.
When a solid is heated:
Its particles gain energy.
They vibrate faster.
Eventually, they break free from their fixed positions and move more freely.
Melting point
The melting point is the temperature at which a solid turn into a liquid at standard atmospheric
pressure.
The temperature remains constant during melting until the whole solid changes to a liquid.
Substances with:
High melting points: strong forces between particles.
Low melting points: weak forces between particles.
freezing
Freezing is the process where a liquid changes into a solid when cooled.
The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid becomes solid.
For any pure substance, melting point = freezing point.
Example: pure water freezes at 0°c, which is also the melting point of ice.
Freezing point is slightly affected by atmospheric pressure.
boiling
Boiling is the rapid change of a liquid to vapour (gas) when heated.
At boiling point:
All particles have enough energy to escape as gas.
Bubbles form and rise to the surface.
Boiling point
The boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure = atmospheric pressure.
Liquids with:
High boiling points: strong forces between particles.
Low boiling points: weak forces between particles.
Boiling point is greatly affected by atmospheric pressure.
Example: at high altitudes (low pressure), water can boil even at room temperature.
evaporation
Evaporation is the slow change of liquid into gas at the surface below boiling point.
It happens when some surface particles gain enough energy to escape into the air.
Evaporation causes cooling.
condensation (opposite of boiling/evaporation)
When a gas is cooled, its particles lose energy and move closer.
The forces of attraction become stronger, and the gas turns into a liquid.
Sublimation
Sublimation is the process where a solid changes directly into a gas without becoming a liquid.
The reverse process (gas changing directly into solid) is called deposition.
In both sublimation and deposition, the liquid state is bypassed.
Examples of substances that undergo sublimation:
Iodine, camphor, dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)
Importance of changes of state of matter
Changes of state play important roles in daily life and industry:
(a) water cycle
The water cycle involves:
Evaporation (liquid → vapour)
Condensation (vapour → clouds)
Precipitation (clouds → rain)
These changes help in climate regulation and supporting life on earth.
(b) refrigeration
Uses refrigerants that:
Absorb heat as they change from liquid to vapour, causing cooling.
Used in fridges and air conditioners.
(c) refinery and distillation
In petroleum refineries, crude oil is:
Heated to vaporize components.
Vapour is then cooled to collect liquids (fractional distillation).
Distillation is also used to purify liquids (e.g., alcohol).
(d) metallurgy
Metals are:
Melted from ores (solid to liquid),
Then solidified again after purification.
Helps in metal extraction and making alloys.
(e) steam engines
Water is heated to form steam, which is used to move pistons and create motion/work.
Early trains and ships used steam engines.
(f) drying of materials
When wet clothes dry, the water changes from liquid to vapour (evaporation).
particulate nature of matter
Matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms or molecules).
Earlier belief: matter was continuous.
Modern science shows matter is made of particles.
Evidence: Brownian motion
Brownian motion is the random movement of tiny particles suspended in a fluid (liquid or
gas). It shows that invisible particles in the fluid are constantly moving and colliding with the
suspended particles.
The Brownian motions
Discovered in 1827 by a botanist called Robert brown.
He observed that pollen grains suspended in water moved in a zigzag, irregular manner.
This movement is due to continuous collisions by invisible water particles.
Conclusion from brownian motion:
Matter is made up of tiny, moving particles.
These particles are in constant motion.
Other examples supporting particulate nature:
Smell of food spreading from the kitchen — shows gas particles spread.
Diffusion of potassium permanganate in water — shows particles move and mix.
Perfume spreading in a room — perfume vapour particles move through air.
diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
It occurs in gases and liquids due to particle motion.
comparison of properties of gases, liquids, and solids
kinetic nature of matter
All matter is made up of particles that are in motion.
The movement and spacing of particles depend on the state of matter.
Solids:
Particles are closely packed and vibrate in place.
Cannot be compressed or stretched.
Heating increases vibration until the melting point is reached.
Then, the solid melts into a liquid.
Liquids:
Particles are close but can move or slide past each other.
Take the shape of the container.
Cannot be compressed.
When heated, particles move faster until they reach the boiling point.
Then, the liquid changes into gas.
Gases:
Particles are far apart and move freely.
Easily compressed.
Spread out to fill any space or container.
Kinetic molecular theory and types of changes in matter
kinetic molecular behavior
Particles of matter are always in motion.
The spaces between particles and their movement differ in solids, liquids, and gases.
Gases have large spaces between particles, so they can be easily compressed.
This type of particle behavior is known as the kinetic molecular behavior.
Types of changes in matter
Matter can undergo two main types of changes:
A. Physical changes
Affect only the physical appearance or state of a substance.
Do not form new substances.
Usually reversible (can go back to the original form).
Examples:
Melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, condensation, tearing, crushing, dissolving and
sublimation
B. Chemical changes
Change the chemical composition of a substance.
New substances are formed.
Usually irreversible (cannot get the original substance back).
Examples: burning, rusting, decaying, souring of milk, fermentation, rotting
Differences between physical and chemical changes
