NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a complex combination of cells that allows an organism to gain information
about what is going on inside and outside the body and to respond appropriately. It allows to learn
and to react.

Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System is the network of sensory and motor neurons that form the interface
between the central nervous system and the surface of the body.

Peripheral Nervous System has two types

● Somatic Nervous System
● Autonomic Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
This system is under voluntary control. It controls the skeletal muscles of the body. We will discuss
neuron, its structure and types.
The Neuron
Neurons are the microscopically small cells that throughout our nervous system by the billion. They
are tiny and complex. All behaviour begins with the action of neurons. A neuron is a cell specialized
to receive process and transmit information to other cells within the body. Neurons form the basic
building blocks of the nervous system.
Structure of Neuron
A typical neuron has following parts.

Cell body
All neurons are certain to have a cell body or soma. It contains the nucleus of the cell which
contains the genetic information that keep the cell functioning.
Dendrites
Its is derived from the Greek word meaning tree. Dendrites are the branch like extensions from a
neuron's cell body where most neural impulses are received. In a mature neuron, there may be
thousands of dendrites.
Axon
It is a long tail like extension of a neuron. It carries an impulse of a neuron. It carries an impulse
away from the cell body towards the synapse. Axons take the signal from soma and conduct it along
its length.
Myelin Sheath
It is a white fatty covering found on some axons that serve to insulate and protect them while
increasing the speed of impulse.

Types of Neurons
There major types of Neurons can be identified.
● Sensory Neurons
● Motor Neurons
● Interneurons
Sensory Neurons
They are called afferent neurons as they carry messages in; towards the central nervous system
from cells in the periphery that are sensitive to light, sound, body position and they like.
Sensory neurons transmit impulses received by receptors to the central nervous system.
Motor Neurons
They are called efferent neurons. They carry messages out; away from central nervous system to
the muscles and glands.
Interneurons
Sensory neurons rarely communicate directly with motor neurons. Between them is, usually, a third
category of neurons called interneurons. The interneurons are in billions, which make many
contacts with each other before reaching a motor neuron.
Synapse
There is a gap between the end of each neuron and the start of the next. This junction is known as
synapse; Much of the complexity of human consciousness and intelligence may be traced to the
remarkable activity that takes place at the synapse.
Synaptic Transmission
Synaptic junction is of tremendous importance because it is here that nerve cells transfer signals. A
single neuron discharge, or “fires” when the stimulation reaches the threshold level.
Reflex Arc
The simplest circuits are reflex arcs, which may involve only a sensory neuron and motor neuron, or
an interneuron between them in the spinal cord.
Autonomic Nervou System
It is the second part of peripheral nervous system. It governs the activity, normally which is not an
individual's control. It must work even when the individual is asleep, and it sustains life processes
during anesthesia and prolonged coma states.
The autonomic nervous system is made up of two parts:
● The sympathetic division
● The parasympathetic division
Sympathetic Division
It deals with emergency responding, excited or stressful conditions. It is in control and active when
we are feeling emotional, so it involves in states of emotionally. It prepares the organism for
vigorous activity.
Activation of sympathetic nervous system usually produces increased heart rate, blood pressure,
rapid or irregular breathing, dilated pupils, perspiration, dry mouth, increased blood sugar,
piloerection (goose bumps), trembling and other changes.
Parasympathetic division
The parasympathetic nervous system increases movement of the intestinal system, allowing more
nutrients to be extracted from food. It becomes active when we are relaxed and emotionally quite,
as relaxing with friends and family.

CENTAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain and Spinal Cord are included in Central Nervous system.

Brain
Brain is a physical thing, defined as a structure that contains billions of cells and weighs about three
pounds. Human brain is like one of the most powerful and sophisticated computers in the world. It
seems a pinkish jelly like mass that uses very little energy and operates mainly on sugar. Its 100
billion cells can process and store enough information to fill 20 million books, and retrieve much of
this information in a millionth of a second.
Brain consists of three basic parts, each with subdivision.

Fore Brain

Cerebral Cortex
The cerebral cortex is also called cerebrum. It is our centre for processing and storing information
about the world in which we live, and is also the starting place for virtually all of our voluntary
action.
The left Hemisphere
Language central is housed in the left cerebral hemisphere but for all right handed people.
The Right Hemisphere
Involves in the processing of visually presented information, skill in the visual arts; drawing and
painting is associated with the right hemisphere more than the left.
Lobes
Each hemisphere has four major divisions called lobes. Which are as follows:
Frontal Lobe
It is located at the front of the brain and covers the largest areas. The portion of the cerebral cortex
behind the forehead is involved in the centre of voluntary muscle, intelligence and personality.
Temporal Lobe
It is the portion of the cerebral cortex, just above the ears. It is involved in hearing, language
processing and memory.
Parietal Lobe
Parietal lobes are wedged in behind the frontal lobe and above the occipital and temporal lobes. It
is involved in registering spatial location, attention and motor control.
Occipital Lobe
They are located at the very back of the brain. It responds to visual stimuli. Different areas of
occipital are connected to process information about such aspects of visual stimuli as their colour,
shape and motion.
Thalamus
Major role of thalamus is to process information from the senses. Many impulses from the cerebral
cortex to lower brain structures, the spinal cord, and out to the peripheral nervous system also pass
through the thalamus. Thalamus collects and directs sensory messages to the appropriate areas of
the cerebral cortex. Messages from our lower body, our eyes, ears and other senses pass through
the thalamus. It also has a role in a person's normal pattern of wakefulness and sleep
Hypothalamus
● It is involved in emotional reactions.
● It controls eating behaviour.
● It also influences many functions of endocrine system.
● It is involved in aggressive and sexual behaviours and regulates many hormones.

Limbic System
It controls many complex behaviour patterns that we usually think of as instinctive. Limbic system is
important in both memory and emotion. Its two principal structures are; amygdala and
hippocampus.
Mid Brain
It is located between the hind brain and fore brain. In particular, the midbrain relays information
between the brain and the eyes and ears.
Hind Brain
Hind brain is the lowest part of the brain, which includes medulla and pons also.
Pons
The pons serves as a bridge (in Latin “Pons” means bridge). It relays the messages from the spinal
cord up to higher brain centers and reverses the relay for motor impulses.
Medulla
The very lowest structure in the brain is the medulla, whose major function involves involuntary
reflexes. There are many small structures within the medulla that control each function as reflexive
eye and tongue movements. Medulla contains the centers that control breathing and reflexes,
monitor the muscles of the heart to keep it beating rhythmically.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a brain stem structure whose major function is to smooth and coordinate rapid
body movements. (Literally “cerebellum” means little brain).
Movements are coordinated by the cerebellum. Because of the close relationship between body
movement and vision, many eye movements originate in the cerebellum.
Reticular Activating System
Reticular Activating System (RAS) is involved in determining our level of activation or arousal. It
influences whether we are awake or attentive, sound sleep or at some level in between.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a massive collection of neurons within the spinal column that looks like a section
of rope. It is surrounded and protected by the hard bone and cartilage of the vertebrae. Spinal cord
itself is made up of delicate nerve fibers living just inside our backbone.
Spinal cord itself is located in the middle of the spinal column that reaches from our lower back to
high in our neck, just below the neck. Sensory and motor neurons enter and leave the spinal cord
from the side.
Functions
Spinal Cord has two major function:
● First one is to transmit neural impulses rapidly to and from the brain. When sensory
impulses originate below the neck and make their way to the brain, they do so through the
spinal cord
● Second major function of the spinal cord is found in spinal reflexes. It is very simple and
automatic behaviour that occurs without the conscious voluntary action of the brain.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is a set of glands that regulates the activities of certain organs by releasing
their chemical products into blood stream. These glands have no ducts or openings. The chemical
they produce enter the blood stream as it passes through the glands and they are circulated all over
the body.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands. Hormones
travel more slowly than nerve impulses. The blood stream conveys hormones to all parts of the
body, and the membrane of every cell has receptors for one or more hormones.
Following glands are included in endocrine system.

1. Pineal Gland
It is the small endocrine gland in the brain. It produces a hormone i.e, serotonin derivative,
that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and seasonal functions. Its shape
resembles a tiny pine cone, and is located near the center of the brain, between the two
hemispheres.
2. Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is an outgrowth from the base of the for-brain. It releases into the blood
several different hormones. Some of them appear to have a direct effect on the organ
systems of the body. The pituitary gland is about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5g (0.02
oz). Pituitary gland is composed of two lobes; the anterior pituitary and the posterior
pituitary. The anterior pituitary secretes the following important hormones under the
influence of hypothalamus.
● Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
In response to stress (fear, anxiety, pain, emotional events, and so forth) certain neurons in
the hypothalamus secrete a substance called corticotropin release factor (CRF). The CRF
stimulates the pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which is body's
major stress hormone.
● Thyrotropin or thyroid stimulating hormone
It stimulates the thyroid gland to grow and to produce thyroxine and acts on the cortex of
the adrenal gland and promotes the production of cortisone.
● Prolactin hormones
It helps breast milk production in females.
● Growth hormone (GH)
Growth hormones influence the growth of bones and other tissue. Excess of GH leads to
gigantism. Too little of this hormone can create as dwarf.
● Gonadotropin hormones
Luteinizing hormone in male and Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) both released under the
influence of gonadotropin. Posterior pituitary released the following hormones.
● Oxytocin hormone
It helps in uterine contractions during pregnancy and childbirth.
● Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
It is also known as vasopressin and arginine vasopressin (AVP). ADH controls the amount of
water reabsorbed into the blood by the kidneys.
3. Thyroid Gland
It is one of the largest endocrine glands in the body. The thyroid gland is found in the neck,
below the Adam' Apple. It is a butterfly-shape organ and is composed of two cone-like lobes
or wings.
● Thyroxin
It produces a hormone, thyroxin, which controls the rate of growth and development. This
hormone also regulates the metabolic rate of the body.

4. Parathyroid Gland
They are small endocrine glands in the neck that produce parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid
glands control the amount of the calcium in the blood and within the bones.

5. Thymus Gland
The thymus is a specialized organ in the immune system. The function of the thymus is to
control the T-cell, which are critical cells of the adaptive immune system.
6. Adrenal Gland
Adrenal glands are situated just above the kidneys one on each side. These are triangular
shaped glands. They are chiefly responsible for releasing hormones which are extremely
important to neural functioning and to the ability of the body to cope with stress. Each
adrenal gland is separated into distinct structures, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal
medulla.
Cortex
Cortex is responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure.
Medulla
Medulla secretes two hormones.

● Epinephrine / Adrenaline
● Nor-epinephrine / Nor-adrenaline

These hormones are major hormones underlying the fight or flight response.

7. Pancreas Gland
The pancreas is a dual function gland having both features of endocrine and exocrine glands.

Insulin
It secretes the insulin hormone. Insulin determines how much sugar is converted to
glycogen and how much is oxidized for energy.

Diabetes
The failure of pancreas to produce sufficient insulin leads to diabetes. The diabetic cannot
effectively regulate the blood sugar level. The diabetic condition can be corrected by regular
injections of insulin.

8. Gonad Gland
The gonads are also named as sex glands. The gonad is the organ that makes gametes
(spermatozoon and egg cells are gametes). The gonads in males are testicles and the gonads
in females are the ovaries.
The gonads are controlled by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormones
(FSH) secreted by the pituitary gland. The ovary produces several hormones called
estrogens. These estrogens control the development of the secondary sexual characters at
puberty. Testosterone is the male sex hormone, produced by the testis. It promotes the
development of the masculine secondary sexual characters.