TOPIC 5: Direct current sources
Electrical devices require a supply of voltage and current to function. Portable devices are
usually powered by direct current which is obtained from batteries. An electrical battery,
first named by Benjamin Franklin in 1748, is a combination of two or more electrochemical
cells used to convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
There are two types of batteries: primary batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be used once and discarded when they are exhausted, and secondary batteries
(rechargeable batteries), which are designed to be recharged and used multiple times.
Strictly, a battery is a collection of two or more cells, but in popular usage battery often
refers to a single electrical cell. Note: Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions
to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science
demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes made of different metals (copper; zinc)
into a lemon, potato, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. 1 lemon = 0,83 V
(approximate, reaction ranges from 0,8 V – 0,98 V) × 0,00015 A = 0,0001245 W = 124,5 µW
Primary electrochemical cells
An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells. Each half-cell consists of an electrode, and
an electrolyte. The two half-cells may use the same electrolyte, or they may use different
electrolytes. The two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge carrying ions between them.
Electrons flow in the external circuit.
Types of Cells, Primary cells, Secondary cells, Electrochemistry Assignment Help
These types of cells are also popularly known as batteries. The term battery is usually used
for two or more Galvanic cells connected in series. Therefore, a battery is an arrangement
of electrochemical cells used as an energy source. Basis of the electrochemical cell is an
oxidation - reduction reaction.
There are majorly two types of cells,
(1) Primary cells : In these type of cells, the electrode reactions cannot be reversed by an
external electric energy source. In these type of cells, reactions occur only once and after
use they become dead. Thus, they are not rechargeable. Some general example are,
mercury cell, dry cell, Daniell cell and alkaline dry cell
(i) Voltaic cell
Cathode is Cu rod Anode is Zn rod
Electrolyte : dil. H2SO4 Emf : 1.08 V
At cathode :
At Anode :
Over all reaction :
(ii) Daniel cell
Cathode : Cu rod Anode : Zn rod
Electrolyte : dil. H2SO4 Emf : 1.1 V
At cathode :
At Anode :
Over all reaction :
(iii) Lechlanche cell (Dry cell)
Cathode : Graphite rod Anode : Zn pot
Electrolyte : Paste of NH4Cl + ZnCl2 in starch
Emf : 1.2 V to 1.5 V
At cathode :
At Anode :
Over all reaction :
(iv) Mercury cell
Cathode : Mercury (II) oxide Anode : Zn rod
Electrolyte : Paste of KOH + ZnO Emf : 1.35 V
(2) Secondary cells :
secondary cell or battery is one that can be electrically recharged after use to their original
pre-discharge condition, by passing current through the circuit in the opposite direction to
the current during discharge. The following graphic evidences the recharging process.
Secondary batteries fall into two sub-categories depending on their intended applications.
Cells that are utilized as energy storage devices, delivering energy on demand. Such
cells are typically connected to primary power sources so as to be fully charged on
demand. Examples of these type of secondary cells include emergency no-fail and
standby power sources, aircraft systems and stationary energy storage systems
for load-leveling.
Cells that are essentially utilized as primary cells, but are recharged after use rather
than being discarded. Examples of these types of secondary cells primarily include
portable consumer electronics and electric vehicles.
In the secondary cells, reactions can be reversed by the external electrical energy source.
Thus, these cells can be recharged by passing electric current and used again and again.
These are also known as storage cells. The examples of secondary cells are, the lead storage
battery and nickel cadmium storage cell.
In charged Lead storage cell Alkali cell
Ni(OH)2
Perforated steel
grid
KOH 20%
+ Li(OH), 1%
-
+
Fe(OH)2
Glass vessel
PbO2
Pb
dil. H2SO4
-
+
Positive electrode Perforated lead plates coated with PbO2 Perforated steel plate coated with Ni(OH)
Negative electrodePerforated lead plates coated with pure lead Perforated steel plate coated with Fe
Electrolyte dil. H2SO4 20% solution of KOH + 1% LiOH
During charging Chemical reaction Chemical reaction
At anode : PbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e- → Pb + H2SO4 At anode : Ni (OH)2 + 2OH+ - 2e-
At cathode : PbSO4 + SO4- - + 2H2O - 2e- → Ni(OH)4
→ PbO2 At cathode : Fe(OH)2 + 2K+ + 2e- → Fe +
+ 2KOH
2H2SO4 Emf of cell : When cell is fully charged
Specific gravity of H2SO4 increases and when then E = 1.36 volt
specific gravity becomes 1.25 the cell is fully
charged.
Emf of cell: When cell is fully charged then E =
2.2 volt
Chemical reaction
At anode : Pb + SO4- - - 2e- → PbSO4
Chemical reaction
At cathode : PbO2 + 2H+ + 2e- + H2SO4
At anode : Fe + 2OH- - 2e- → Fe(OH)2
→ PbSO4 +
At cathode : Ni(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2e-
2H2O
During discharging → Ni(OH)2 +
Specific gravity of H2SO4 decreases and when
2KOH
specific gravity falls below 1.18 the cell
Emf of cell : When emf of cell falls below
requires recharging.
1.1 V it requires charging.
Emf of cell : When emf of cell falls below
1.9 volt the cell requires recharging.
Efficiency 80%
Primary vs. Secondary – A Comparison
The following table summarizes the pros and cons of primary and secondary batteries.
Primary Secondary
Lower initial cost. Higher initial cost.
Higher life-cycle cost ($/kWh). Lower life-cycle cost ($/kWh) if charging in
convenient and inexpensive.
Disposable. Regular maintenance required.
Disposable. Periodic recharging required.
Replacement readily available. Replacements while available, are not
produced in the same sheer numbers as
primary batteries. May need to be pre-
Typically lighter and smaller; thus ordered.
traditionally more suited for portable
applications. Traditionally less suited for portable
applications, although recent advances in
Lithium battery technology have lead to the
Longer service per charge and good charge development of smaller/lighter secondary
retention.
batteries.
Not ideally suited for heavy load/high Relative to primary battery systems,
discharge rate performance. traditional secondary batteries (particularly
aqueous secondary batteries) exhibit inferior
Not ideally suited for load-leveling, charge retention.
emergency backup, hybrid battery, and high
cost military applications. Superior high discharge rate performance at
heavy loads
Traditionally limited to specific applications.
Ideally suited for load-leveling, emergency
backup, hybrid battery and high cost military
applications
The overall inherent versatility of secondary
battery systems allows its use and
continuing research for a large spectrum of
applications.
Cells in Series and Parallel
As we know the most frequently used method to connect electrical components is Series
Connection and Parallel Connection. Since the cell is an important part of an electric circuit.
To know more about Cells, Series Connection and parallel Connection explore the article!
Suggested Videos
Cells
Cells generate electricity and also derives chemical reactions. One or more electrochemical
cells are batteries. Every cell has two terminals namely:
1. Anode: Anode is the terminal from where the current flows in from out i.e. it
provides an incoming channel for the current to enter the circuit or the device.
2. Cathode: Cathode is the terminal from where the current flows out i.e. it provides an
outgoing current flow from the circuit or the device.
There are two simplest ways for cell connectivity are as follows:
1. Series Connection: Series connection is the connectivity of the components in a
sequential array of components.
2. Parallel Connection: Parallel connection is the connectivity of the components
alongside to other components.
Cells in Series Connection
In series, cells are joined end to end so that the same current flows through each cell. In
case if the cells are connected in series the emf of the battery is connected to the sum of the
emf of the individual cells. Suppose we have multiple cells and they are arranged in such a
way that the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of the
another and then again the negative terminal is connected to the positive terminal and so
on, then we can that the cell is connected in series.
Equivalent EMF/Resistance of Cells in Series
If E is the overall emf of the battery combined with n number cells and E1, E2, E3 , En are the
emfs of individual cells.
Then E1 + E2 + E3 + …….En
Similarly, if r1, r2, r3, rn are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal
resistance of the battery will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the individual
cells i.e.
r = r 1 + r 2+ r 3 + r n
Cells in Parallel Connection
Cells are in parallel combination if the current is divided among various cells. In a parallel
combination, all the positive terminal are connected together and all the negative terminal
are connected together.
Equivalent EMF/Resistance of Cells in Parallel
If emf of each cell is identical, then the emf of the battery combined with n numbers of cells
connected in parallel is equal to the emf of each cell. The resultant internal resistance of the
combination is,
1
{
r= 1 1 1
+ + + … ..+
r1 r2 r3
1
rn }
Equivalent EMF/Resistance of Cells in Series and Parallel
Assume the emf of each cell is E and internal resistance of each cell is r. As n numbers of
cells are connected in each series, the emf of each series, as well as the battery, will be nE.
The equivalent resistance of the series is nr. As, m the number of series connected in
parallel equivalent internal resistance of that series and parallel battery is nr/m.
Solved Questions For You
Q. The internal resistance of a cell of emf 1.5 V, if it can deliver a maximum current of 3 A is,
A. 0.5 Ω
B. 4.5 Ω
C. 2 Ω
D. 1 Ω
Q.2 For a given cell, its terminal voltage depends on
A. External resistance, Internal Resistance
B. External resistance
C. Internal Resistance
D. None of these
Solution: A. Inside the cell, the energy is put into the circuit by the cell, but some of this
energy is out by the internal resistor. So the potential difference available to the rest of the
circuit is the emf minus the potential difference lost inside the cell.
The Characteristics of a Parallel Circuit
Electrical circuits can have their circuit elements arranged in either series or
parallel. In series circuits, elements are connected using the same branch that
sends electrical current through each of them one-by-one. In parallel circuits, the
elements have their own separate branches. In these circuits, the current can take
different paths throughout.
Because the current can take different paths in a parallel circuit, the current isn't
constant throughout a parallel circuit. Instead, for branches that are connected in
parallel with one another, the voltage or potential drop across each branch is
constant. This is because the current distributes itself across each branch in
amounts that are inversely proportional to the resistance of each branch. This
causes the current to be the greatest where the resistance is least and vice versa.
These qualities let parallel circuits allow charge to flow through two or more paths,
making it a standard candidate in homes and electrical devices through a stable
and efficient power system. It lets electricity flow through other parts of a circuit
when a part is damaged or broken, and they can distribute power equally across
different buildings.These characteristics can be demonstrated through a diagram
and an example of a parallel circuit.
Parallel Circuit Diagram
In a parallel circuit diagram, you can determine the flow of electrical current by
creating flows of electrical current from the positive end of the battery to the
negative end. The positive end is given by the + on the voltage source, and the
negative, -.
As you draw the way current travels throughout the branches of the parallel circuit,
keep in mind that all the current entering one node or point in the circuit should
equal all the current leaving or exiting that point. Also keep in mind that the voltage
drops around any closed loop in the circuit should equal zero. These two
statements are Kirchhoff's circuit laws.
Parallel Circuit Characteristics
Parallel circuits use branches that let current travel through different routes through
the circuit. Current travels from the positive end of the battery or voltage source to
the negative end. The voltage remains constant throughout the circuit while the
current changes depending on the resistance of each branch.
Parallel Circuit Examples
To find the total resistance of resistors arranged in parallel with one another, use
the formula 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... + 1/Rn in which the resistance of
each resistor is summed up on the right side of the equation. In the above diagram,
the total resistance in ohms (Ω) can be calculated as follows:
1. 1/Rtotal = 1/5 Ω + 1/6 Ω + 1/10 Ω
2. 1/Rtotal = 6/30 Ω + 5/30 Ω + 3/30 Ω
3. 1/Rtotal= 14/30 Ω
4. Rtotal= 15/7 Ω or about 2.14 Ω
Note that you can only "flip" both sides of the equation from step 3 to step 4 when
there is only one term on both sides of the equation (in this case, 1/Rtotal on the left
and 14/30 Ω on the right).
After you have calculated the resistance, current and voltage can be calculated
using Ohm's Law V = I/R in which V is voltage measured in volts, I is current
measured in amps, and R is resistance in ohms. In parallel circuits, the sum of the
currents through each path is the total current from the source. The current at each
resistor in the circuit can be calculated by multiplying voltage times resistance for
the resistor. Voltage remains constant throughout the circuit so voltage is the
voltage of the battery or voltage source.
Parallel vs. Series Circuit
•••
In series circuits, current is constant throughout, voltage drops depend on the
resistance of each resistor and the total resistance is the sum of each individual
resistor. In parallel circuits, voltage is constant throughout, current depends on
each resistor and the inverse of the total resistance is the sum of the inverse of
each individual resistor.
Capacitors and inductors can be used to alter the charge in series and parallel
circuits over time. In a series circuit, the total capacitance of the circuit (given by
the variable C), the potential of a capacitor to store charge over time, is the inverse
sum of the inverses of each individual capacitance, and the total inductance (I),
the power of inductors to give off charge over time, is the sum of each inductor. By
contrast, in a parallel circuit, the total capacitance is the sum of each individual
capacitor, and the inverse of the total inductance is the sum of the inverses of each
individual inductance.
Series and parallel circuits also have different functions. In a series circuit, if one
part is broken, current won't flow through the circuit at all. In a parallel circuit, an
individual branch opening stops only the current in that branch. The rest of the
branches will continue to work because the current has multiple paths it can take
across the circuit.
Series-Parallel Circuit
Circuits that have both branched elements that are also connected such that
current flows in one direction between those branches are both series and parallel.
In these cases, you can apply rules from both series and parallel as appropriate for
the circuit. In the above example, R1 and R2 are in parallel with one another to
form R5, and so are R3 and R4 to form R6. They can be summed in parallel as
follows:
1. 1/R5 = 1/1 Ω + 1/5 Ω
2. 1/R5 = 5/5 Ω + 1/5 Ω
3. 1/R5 = 6/5 Ω
4. R5 = 5/6 Ω or about .83 Ω
1. 1/R6 = 1/7 Ω + 1/2 Ω
2. 1/R6 = 2/14 Ω + 7/14 Ω
3. 1/R6 = 9/14 Ω
4. R6 = 14/9 Ω or about 1.56 Ω
The circuit can be simplified to create the circuit shown directly above
with R5 and R6. These two resistors can be added straightforwardly as though the
circuit were series.
Rtotal = 5/6 Ω + 14/9 Ω = 45/54 Ω + 84/54 Ω = 129/54 Ω = 43/18 Ω or about 2.38 Ω
With 20 V as the voltage, Ohm's Law dictates that the total current equals V/R,
or 20V / (43/18 Ω) = 360/43 A or about 8.37 A. With this total current, you can
determine the voltage drop across both R5 and R6 using Ohms' Law (V=I/R) as
well.
For R5, V5 = 360/43 A x 5/6 Ω = 1800/258 V or about 6.98 V.
For R6, V6= 360/43 A x 14/9 Ω = 1680/129 V or about 13.02 V.
Finally, these voltage drops for R5 and R6 can be split back into the original
parallelized circuits to calculate current
of R1 and R2 for R5 and R2 and R3 for R6 using Ohm's Law.
I1 = (1800/258 V) / 1 Ω = 1800/258 A or abou_t 6.98 A._
I2 = (1800/258 V) / 5 Ω = 1500/43 A or abou_t 34.88 A._
I3 = (680/129 V) / 7 Ω = 4760/129 A or about 36.90 A.
