HOW DO THE CONFLICTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE CRISIS AT THE

SOUTHWESTERN LAND BORDER INCREASE THE RISK OF TERRORISM IN THE

UNITED STATES?

by

Bradly J. Perkins

Liberty University

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Liberty University

2025
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HOW DO THE CONFLICTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND THE CRISIS AT THE

SOUTHWESTERN LAND BORDER INCREASE THE RISK OF TERRORISM IN THE

UNITED STATES?

by Bradly J. Perkins

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA

2025

APPROVED BY:

Jarrod Sadulski, PhD, Committee Chair

Gerald D. Green, DSL, Committee Member

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ABSTRACT

This qualitative dissertation provides an in-depth analysis of the intricate relationship between

the persistent geopolitical instability in the Middle East, the complex crisis at the United States'

Southwestern Border, and the associated terrorist threats facing the United States. Despite the

pressing nature of these interconnected challenges, there is a notable scarcity of scholarly

literature that effectively establishes links between the issues at the Southwestern Border, the

conflicts occurring in the Middle East, and the risks of terrorism. This gap in research highlights

the need for a comprehensive examination of these global security concerns, emphasizing how

they interact and influence one another in ways often overlooked in academic discourse.

Employing purposive sampling methods, the study involved 11 participants who were

interviewed through a semi-structured interview format, enabling a nuanced exploration of their

perspectives. The findings indicate that the United States is vulnerable to potential terrorist

threats, which are heightened by the unrest in the Middle East and the ongoing situation at the

Southwest Border of the United States. The nation is confronted with considerable difficulties

stemming from geopolitical tensions, extremist ideologies, psychological conflicts, and concerns

related to border security and the sociopolitical stability within the Middle Eastern region. The

research identified a correlation between illegal immigration along the Southwestern Border and

an elevated risk of terrorism, influenced by various factors, including criminal activity, border

enforcement strategies, governance challenges, policy frameworks, and power dynamics. The

study concludes with recommendations and considerations for future research, drawing upon the

insights gleaned from participant interviews.

Keywords: Middle East, Southwest Border, Terrorism, United States, Qualitative

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Copyright Page

Copyright 2025 Bradly J. Perkins

All Rights Reserved
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Dedication

This dissertation is devoted to my loving wife, Anne. Without your love and support, this

process would never have materialized. I will be ever grateful to you. I also want to thank my

parents, Bruce and Kay Perkins, daughter Ava, and son Daniel, for their love and

encouragement. God has truly blessed me. I also dedicate this work to all my teachers and

professors over the countless years who have nurtured my love of learning and supported me.
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Acknowledgments

I want to thank my chairman, Dr. Jarrod Sadulski, for his expert guidance and

encouragement. Your skill at stimulating alternative approaches to phrases or situations is

unparalleled, and I appreciate your enduring patience with me. My gratitude is heartfelt, and

these words are woefully inadequate. Thank you to my reader, Dr. Gerald D. Green, for your

dedication and insight. Thank you to the individuals who were willing to take the time to

participate in this study. I am forever grateful and incredibly blessed to have you on this journey.

Thank you to the countless individuals whom I have had the pleasure of knowing over the years

who have believed in me. Finally, thank you to the men and women who protect our country, its

borders, and our lives daily.

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Table of Contents

ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................3

Copyright Page.................................................................................................................................4

Dedication ........................................................................................................................................5

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................6

List of Tables .................................................................................................................................12

List of Abbreviations .....................................................................................................................13

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................14

Overview ............................................................................................................................14

Background ........................................................................................................................14

Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................17

Situation to Self..................................................................................................................17

Problem Statement .............................................................................................................17

Purpose Statement ..............................................................................................................19

Significance of the Study ...................................................................................................19

Research Questions ............................................................................................................21

Definitions..........................................................................................................................23

Summary ............................................................................................................................24

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................25

Overview ............................................................................................................................25

Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................25

Turmoil in the Middle East ................................................................................................27

United States in the Middle East ............................................................................28

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Israel and Palestine ................................................................................................30

Iran .........................................................................................................................32

Hamas ....................................................................................................................33

Houthis ...................................................................................................................35

Hezbollah ...............................................................................................................37

Hezbollah and the Venezuelan Connection ...........................................................40

Conclusion .............................................................................................................41

Crisis at The United States Southwest Land Border ..........................................................42

Border Encounters .................................................................................................43

Border Control Legislation ....................................................................................45

The Border Wall ....................................................................................................48

Mexico’s Southern Border and Migration .............................................................50

Conclusion .............................................................................................................52

Terrorism............................................................................................................................53

Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism..........................................................................54

Conclusion .............................................................................................................57

Summary ............................................................................................................................58

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ..................................................................................................59

Overview ............................................................................................................................59

Research Design.................................................................................................................59

Research Questions ............................................................................................................60

Setting ................................................................................................................................61

Participants .........................................................................................................................61
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Procedures ..........................................................................................................................62

The Researcher's Role ........................................................................................................64

Data Collection ..................................................................................................................64

Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................64

Trustworthiness ..................................................................................................................65

Credibility ..............................................................................................................66

Dependability and Confirmability .........................................................................67

Transferability ........................................................................................................67

Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................................68

Summary ............................................................................................................................69

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .....................................................................................................71

Overview ............................................................................................................................71

Participants .........................................................................................................................72

Participant 1 ...........................................................................................................72

Participant 2 ...........................................................................................................72

Participant 3 ...........................................................................................................72

Participant 4 ...........................................................................................................73

Participant 5 ...........................................................................................................73

Participant 6 ...........................................................................................................73

Participant 7 ...........................................................................................................73

Participant 8 ...........................................................................................................73

Participant 9 ...........................................................................................................74

Participant 10 .........................................................................................................74
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Participant 11 .........................................................................................................74

Results ................................................................................................................................74

Results for Supporting Research Question 1 .........................................................74

Results for Supporting Research Question 2 .........................................................87

Results for Supporting Research Question 3 .......................................................104

Summary ..........................................................................................................................127

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION..............................................................................................129

Overview ..........................................................................................................................129

Summary of Findings .......................................................................................................130

RQ 1: How does the turmoil in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in

the United States? ................................................................................................130

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of

terrorism? .............................................................................................................131

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its

citizens from a potential terrorist attack? .............................................................132

Discussion ........................................................................................................................134

Turmoil in the Middle East ..................................................................................134

Crisis at The United States Southwest Land Border ............................................140

Recommendations ............................................................................................................143

Recommendation 1: Treat the Southwestern Border as an ecosystem rather than a

line in the sand. ....................................................................................................143

Recommendation 2: Develop complexes similar to Ellis Island. ........................145

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Recommendation 3: Develop programs to foster collaboration and intelligence

between landowners, students, and communities with local, state, and federal law

enforcement..........................................................................................................146

Recommendation 4: Target the countries that supply visas and permit passage. 148

Recommendation 5: Remain consistent in policies and enforce existing laws. ..149

Delimitations and Limitations..........................................................................................151

Recommendations for Future Research ...........................................................................152

Border Security Between the Contiguous United States and Canada..................152

Border Security Between Alaska and Canada .....................................................153

Border Security Along the Maritime Borders of the United States .....................153

Immigration Patterns in Europe, Terrorism, and the Parallels to the United States

..............................................................................................................................153

Mexican Cartels and the Hiring of "Terror" Experts ...........................................154

Summary ..........................................................................................................................154

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................156

APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ..............................................................................178

APPENDIX B: RECRUITMENT EMAIL ..................................................................................182

APPENDIX C: CONSENT FORM .............................................................................................183

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List of Tables
Table 1: Analysis of Themes 1, 2, 3 ............................................................................................. 75

Table 2: The Intersection of Geopolitics and Terrorism ............................................................... 76

Table 3: Psychological and Ideological Drivers of Conflict ......................................................... 81

Table 4: The Challenges of Border Security and Sociopolitical Stability .................................... 84

Table 5: Analysis of Themes 4, 5, 6 ............................................................................................. 88

Table 6: Security, Crime, and Border Enforcement ..................................................................... 89

Table 7: Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics..................................................................... 93

Table 8: Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations ....................................................... 98

Table 9: Analysis of Themes 7, 8, 9 ........................................................................................... 105

Table 10: National Security and Threat Management ................................................................ 105

Table 11: Policy, Society, and Global Dynamics ....................................................................... 115

Table 12: Border and Crime Control .......................................................................................... 122

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List of Abbreviations

Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

Multiple Stream Framework (MSF)

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA)

National Security Agency (NSA)

Terrorist Screening Data Set (TSDS)

Transnational Criminal Organizations (TCOs)

United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP)

United States Department of Defense (DOD)

United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

United States Department of Justice (DOJ)

United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)

United States Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI)

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Overview

This qualitative study examined the connections between the turmoil in the Middle East,

the crisis at the United States’ Southwestern land border, and the impact on the risk of terrorism.

The study’s theoretical justification, John Kingdon’s Multiple Stream Framework, provided the

groundwork for the research and definitions of the terms used. Thematic analysis was applied to

develop themes among participant responses to answer the research questions. Interviews served

as individual case studies, and triangulation was applied among participant responses and extant

literature to develop these themes.

Background

With the world in relative turmoil at the end of the Second World War and the prosperity

seen in the United States, the illegal migration into the United States from Mexico drastically

rose, and the flow of illegal substances and human trafficking began spilling across the

unprotected border (Tarlow, 2023). In October 2017, a caravan of 200 individuals, primarily

from Honduras, swelled to 10,000 as it traveled through Guatemala and Mexico toward the

United States-Mexican border, where encounters with unaccompanied minors increased from

376 to 600 daily, despite United States policies aimed at curbing illegal border crossings

(Bartnik, 2022; Tarlow, 2023; Vega, 2020). The U.S. Customs and Border Protection (2024a)

reports that in October, November, and December of Fiscal Year 2024, there was a total of

785,422 southwest land border encounters. Furthermore, during the same three-month period, the

agency encountered 87,565 single adults (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a).

As of July 11, 2024, 90 non-U.S. citizens on the Terrorist Screening Database [TSDS]

were encountered at the Southwest Border by U.S. Border Patrol agents (U.S. Customs and
 15

Border Protection, 2024c). In 2020, three people were discovered on the TSDS, 15 in 2021, 98 in

2022, and 169 in 2023 (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024c). The preceding statement

underscores a significant and troubling trend in border security and immigration, revealing that

the number of non-U.S. citizens attempting to enter the United States who are linked to terrorism

screening has surged, thereby accentuating the intricate challenge of reconciling security

imperatives with humanitarian and immigration priorities; the rising frequency of attempts by

individuals identified in the Terrorist Screening Data Set may indicate the emergence of new

threats, necessitating urgent dialogue regarding the adequacy of current security measures and

policies, compelling authorities to critically reassess and recalibrate their strategies and resource

allocations to manage and mitigate these escalating risks effectively.

According to U.S. Customs and Border Protection (2024d), as of July 11, 2024,

ammunition seizures at the Southwest Border were 269,900, more significant than in 2023 and

2021. The number of [long-gun] scopes is greater in July 2024 than in Fiscal Year 2023 (U.S.

Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). The number of firearms receivers has increased from 23

in 2023 to 83 as of July 11, 2024 (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). The data

represents the known illegal weapons that are being transported into the United States for

unknown reasons.

Further south of the southern tip of the Mexico border lies the Darién Gap, a treacherous

70-mile stretch of roadless jungle along the Isthmus of Panama, which serves as a critical but

perilous transit route for irregular migration between North and South America (Fonju &

Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024). Between 2021 and early 2024,

more than one and a half million foreign nationals from over 170 countries, including Venezuela,

Pakistan, Iran, Angola, Uzbekistan, Yemen, and China, braved the dangerous terrain of this
 16

wilderness (Bensman, 2024; Fonju & Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda,

2024). The journey through the Darién Gap is fraught with life-threatening hazards, including

swift rivers, poisonous wildlife, and brutal weather conditions (Fonju & Amdadou, 2024;

Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024). After crossing Panama, migrants typically travel

through Central American countries like Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, aiming to

eventually reach the Mexico-United States border in hopes of entering the United States illegally

(Bensman, 2024; Fonju & Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024).

As a result of the policies of the United States, Iranian proxy terror forces such as the

Ansar Allah [Houthi] movement, Ḥarakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya [Hamas], and Hezbollah

have been involved in many of the conflicts that are occurring in the Middle East thus opening

the United States to potential attacks (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Alsoos, 2023; Berti, 2024;

Farida, 2023; Forest, 2024a; Meier & Picard, 2024; Office of the Director of National

Intelligence, 2023; United States Department of Homeland Security, 2023). Hezbollah has

claimed that the threat from the United States is not isolated to one global region, such as the

Middle East, and the terror organization has elected to fight the perceived United States threat on

a global scale (Shearer, 2022). The Hezbollah cells that have deposited themselves in South

America are aiding in the global fight by conducting fundraising operations to support the

Hezbollah terrorist activities that are targeting Israeli and American assets (Jahanbani & Levy,

2024; Shearer, 2022). The United States Department of Homeland Security (2023) and the

Office of the Director of National Intelligence (2023) explain how the number of land border

encounters anticipated in 2024 was going to be the largest on record with the announcement of

the parole process for individuals from countries such as Venezuela, Haiti, and Nicaragua.
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Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework selected for this study is John Kingdon’s Multiple Stream

Framework [MSF]. The multiple-stream framework was significant to this study as the

foundation for understanding how the turmoil in the Middle East, coupled with the crisis at the

Southwestern land border, increases the risk of terrorism and what can be done to prevent a

potential atrocity.

Situation to Self

Many factors have driven this study, which was conducted based on personal and

professional experiences. These factors have provided the spark to explore these concepts in

conjunction. The philosophical approach behind this qualitative study is the ontological position.

An ontological position examines the nature of reality (Tamminen & Poucher, 2020). Building

further, the interpretive framework through which the ontological position is applied is the social

constructivism framework. Social constructivism assumes there is not a single external reality

independent of individuals but rather a reality that exists as the mental constructs of many

individuals shaped through their lived experiences (Pila et al., 2020; Matta, 2022; Tamminen &

Poucher, 2020). Essentially, relativism is one’s reality is contingent on the individual cognizing

it and the social surroundings where the person lives (Pila et al., 2020; Matta, 2022; Tamminen

& Poucher, 2020). According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), the significance to the researcher

is the flexibility to delve into the intricacies within the meanings since they correlate to the

individual’s historical and social backgrounds.

Problem Statement

The problem addressed in this qualitative study is the increased risk of terrorism in the

United States due to the unrest in the Middle East and the porous Southwest Border that is
 18

experiencing unprecedented numbers of illegal migrants into the United States. The existing

literature states how there are several conflicts in the Middle East, and how there are connections

to the United States in each of these conflicts, coupled with a worldwide jihad raging on the part

of terror organizations (Alnassar, 2024; Forest, 2024; Hitman & Lisnyansky, 2020; Üngör,

2024). In October, November, and December of Fiscal Year 2023, there were a reported 785,422

United States Southwestern land border encounters (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a;

United States Department of Homeland Security, 2023; Office of the Director of National

Intelligence, 2023; U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce, 2024). A substantial number of

the individuals came from Latin America, including Venezuela, which has been identified as a

haven for the terrorist organization Hezbollah (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a;

United States Department of Homeland Security, 2023; Office of the Director of National

Intelligence, 2023; U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce, 2024).

The United States Customs and Border Protection (2024b) reported 131 illegal

Southwestern land border crossing encounters in January 2024, but only 21 percent of the

individuals were of Mexican heritage. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence (2024),

The United States Customs and Border Protection (2024b), and the United States Department of

Homeland Security (2023) all outline how a vast majority of the Southwestern land border

encounters do not involve individuals with Mexican heritage, but individuals from locations such

as Cuba, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Africa, the Middle East, and others. The full-scale number of

individuals illegally crossing the land border is unknown. Despite the two unrelated foci of

research on the topics, the literature appeared to lack a discussion on the possible connection

between the Middle Eastern conflicts, the volume of individuals crossing the United States

Southwest land border, and the risks of terrorism posed to the United States.
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Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to examine the impact of the

unrest in the Middle East coupled with the increased illegal migration at the Southwest Border to

determine if an increased risk of terrorism exists for the United States. Although the Middle East

can be divided into two regions, for this study, it was considered a single region and comprises

Bahrain, Cyprus, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman,

Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen (Manan &

Taran, 2020; Zrubka et al., 2022). Unrest was operationalized as civil wars, counterrevolutions,

revolutions, political turmoil, economic turmoil, state-sponsored terrorism, hybrid conflicts, and

proxy battles (Fraihat & Yaseen, 2020; Khan & Zhaoying, 2020; Kim & Sandler, 2020). Illegal

migration, or illegal immigration, was operationalized as individuals crossing the United States

and Mexico border at any location other than a sanctioned border crossing location, and the

individuals do not have any legal form of documentation for entry into the United States (Donato

& Amuedo-Dorantes, 2020; Kulig et al., 2021).

Significance of the Study

This study aimed to elucidate the potential risks of terrorism that the United States

confronts, particularly concerning the ongoing conflicts in the Middle East and the

vulnerabilities presented by the permeable United States southwestern border. Despite the

rhetoric employed by the two significant political parties in the United States, the research

enacted in this study is non-partisan, non-political, and evidence-based. The Office of the

Director of National Intelligence [ODNI] (2024) details how Iran and their proxy forces continue

to pose a threat to the United States both domestically and abroad. For the last ten-plus years,

Iran has remained steadfast in developing and expanding its proxy forces within the United
 20

States (Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2024; United States Department of

Homeland Security, 2023).

Hezbollah has also called for action against the United States (Office of the Director of

National Intelligence, 2024; United States Department of Homeland Security, 2023). Extending

the existing terror threat, Hezbollah has established a stronghold in Venezuela, where the

organization has conducted direct and indirect terrorist activities (Guarin, 2020; Jahanbani &

Levy, 2024; Mantilla, 2024; Ruiz, 2022). As of July 2023, approximately 160 non-United States

citizens located in the Terrorist Screening Data Set [TSDS] had attempted to enter the United

States through the U.S. Southwestern land border, which is an increase from the prior year

(United States Department of Homeland Security, 2023). The prior statement highlights a

notable trend in border security and immigration issues, indicating that a specific number of non-

U.S. citizens associated with terrorism screening attempts to enter the United States has risen and

underscores the complexities of balancing security with humanitarian and immigration

considerations.

Understanding the larger picture of international and domestic events that are occurring

as a result of the existing policies and practices of the United States, combined with individuals

with firsthand experience, may inform future policies on counterterrorism and immigration

(Ackerman, 2024; Doxsee, 2024; Fernández de Castro & Zenteno, 2023). The risk of terrorism is

significant, whether stemming from foreign nationals gaining access to the United States,

individuals radicalized domestically, those acting independently due to perceived injustice, or

individuals inspired by other terrorists (Duncan, 2021; Gohel, 2021; Käsehage,2021).

Understanding and addressing these factors can mitigate the threat and contribute to positive

social change.
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Research Questions

RQ 1: How do the conflicts in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in the

United States?

As of this research, in the Middle East, there were 10 active conflicts, including Yemen,

Israel/Gaza, and Syria, combined with a global jihad being conducted by terrorist organizations

to create one Muslim caliphate (Forest, 2024; Hitman & Lisnyansky, 2020; Üngör, 2024). Over

many decades, Iran has continually funded proxy forces to engage in different conflicts on its

behalf, including the desire to destroy Israel and its supporters (Dosti, 2023; Farida, 2023;

Schanzer, 2023; Vatanka, 2022). To that point, Iran’s proxy terrorist force, Hezbollah, has

conducted terrorist operations against Israeli interests in South America (Ortiz, 2022). The Office

of the Director of National Intelligence (2023) has stated that Iran would benefit significantly if

Hezbollah successfully conducted a terrorist attack on United States soil.

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of terrorism in

the United States?

As of July 11, 2024, 90 non-U.S. citizens on the Terrorist Screening Database [TSDS]

were encountered at the Southwest Border by U.S. Border Patrol agents (U.S. Customs and

Border Protection, 2024c). In 2020, three people were discovered on the TSDS, 15 in 2021, 98 in

2022, and 169 in 2023 (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024c). The previous statement

highlights a troubling trend in border security and immigration, as the surge in non-U.S. citizens

linked to terrorism screening complicates the balance between security and humanitarian

priorities, suggesting the emergence of new threats that urgently require a reevaluation of current

measures and a reassessment of strategies and resource allocations to manage these escalating

risks effectively.
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As of July 11, 2024, 853 handguns and 498 long arms had been seized at the Southwest

Border (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). 2023 appears to be the largest seizure of

firearms to date, with 1,176 handguns and 705 long arms seized (U.S. Customs and Border

Protection, 2024d). Most alarming is that in 2021, there was a single incident of explosives

seized at the Southwest Border, but in 2023, there were five, and as of July 11, 2024, 17

explosives were seized (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). Additionally, numerous

extremist groups in the United States have called for the closing of the United States border

(Doxsee, 2024: Ouassini, 2023). This alarming increase in weaponry aligns with escalating

demands from extremist groups for stricter border control, highlighting an urgent and critical

need for robust border security measures.

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens

from a potential terrorist attack?

Many attempts at border control and border security have transpired, starting with former

U.S. President Clinton; however, each U.S. President's political party has had its agenda

regarding what should be done about border security (Alley-Young, 2023; Bartnik, 2022;

Jolicoeur, 2023). Not long after taking office, former U.S. President Donald Trump signed

Executive Order 13767, Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements (Bartnik,

2022). Bartnik (2022) states that the rationale behind the Act was to initiate the implementation

of a border wall along the American Southwestern land border with Mexico. Despite the proven

security and migration strategies mentioned by Bah (2023), individuals opposed to the border

wall claim that the wall separates families, endangers lives, harms wildlife, and violates people’s

property rights (Alley-Young, 2023; Jolicoeur, 2023). The ongoing debate over border security

reflects a long history of political agendas spanning multiple presidencies, exemplified by former
 23

President Trump’s Executive Order to construct a border wall, which is contested by critics

citing its detrimental social and environmental impacts despite claims of enhanced security and

effective migration strategies.

Definitions

1. Terrorism – The predetermined threat or use of violence by persons or subnational bands

of individuals against civilians to secure an objective or goal that is either political or

social through the coercion of an audience that extends further than the initial victims

(Antwi-Boasiako & Hill, 2020; Doxsee, 2024; Münkler, 2024; Stockhammer, 2024).

2. Middle East - The Middle East can be split politically and culturally into two central

regions based on politics and culture; however, the operationalized definition for this

dissertation is the non-Arab ethics that have borders directly with Russia, Turkey, and

Iran combined with the majority of Arab ethnics comprised of people from Saudi Arabia,

Iraq, Yemen, Kuwait, Oman, Egypt, and several other Middle East countries plus Israel

(Bajalan, 2019; Forest, 2024).

3. Southwestern land border - For this study, the Southwestern land border is the border

between the United States and Mexico. The border states in the United States are, from

east to west, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.

4. Terrorism - The predetermined threat or use of violence by persons or subnational bands

of individuals against civilians to secure an objective or goal that is either political or

social through the coercion of an audience that extends further than the initial victims

(Doxsee, 2024; Easson & Schmid, 2011).

 24

Summary

The threat of a terrorist attack in the United States of America is persistent and genuine.

This study brought to the forefront any risks associated with terrorism the United States faces

based on the current conflicts in the Middle East and the porous Southwestern land border. The

purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to examine the impact of the unrest in the

Middle East coupled with the increased illegal migration at the Southwest Border to determine if

an increased risk of terrorism exists. The problem statement addressed in this qualitative study is

the increased risk of a terrorist attack based on the United States’ policies as they pertain to the

Middle East and the Southwestern land border. The driving theoretical framework was the

multiple-stream framework, which is discussed in the next chapter.

 25

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview

The related literature explores recent and relevant literature concerning the turmoil in the

Middle East, the southwestern border of the United States, and the potential the two situations

have on terrorism in the United States. A fundamental understanding is crucial as it provides

impactful insight to this research.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework selected for this study is John Kingdon’s Multiple Stream

Framework [MSF]. Scholarship on Multiple Stream Framework is a deeply woven tapestry that

provides researchers diving into policies a versatile framework (Goyal & Howlett, 2020; Hoefer,

2022; Koebele, 2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). Initially conceived in 1984

with an impactful update in 2010, Kingdon demonstrates myriad resolutions to any policy issue,

but why is one policy option selected over another (Goyal & Howlett, 2020; Hoefer, 2022;

Koebele, 2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022)? MSF includes the enigmas

existing in problem definitions as what blocks rationality from practicality (Hoefer, 2022). In

other words, depending on an individual’s perspective, they see problems differently, which

prevents the common ground from being reached (Goyal & Howlett, 2020; Hoefer, 2022;

Koebele, 2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). Another assumption MSF

incorporates is that time and resources are limited, so the individuals developing or enacting

policies only have much to give on any issue before another issue must be dealt with (Hoefer,

2022; Kingdon, 2010).

Policy problems and policy solutions are in a consistent state of ebb and flow without

clear delineation to one another; therefore, the three streams contained within the MSF are the
 26

policy problem stream, the policy solution stream, and the political stream (Goyal & Howlett,

2020; Hoefer, 2022; Koebele, 2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). The policy

problem stream consists of issues that must be identified as problems before any political activity

transpires (Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). Hoefer (2022) states that policy

concepts are incubated in think tanks, academic spheres, and additional practitioners. Zohlnhöfer

et al. (2022) explain how the policy solution stream comprises the individuals mentioned by

Hoefer who have developed the policy solution that they presuppose to be advantageous in

practically any situation. The third is the political stream. The political stream is the

amalgamation of a country’s mood, the political interest groups, and the individual politicians

involved in the decision-making (Goyal & Howlett, 2020; Hoefer, 2022; Koebele, 2021;

Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022).

There is a juncture where the identified issue exists, as does an acceptable solution, and

the political fortitude is there to do something about the issue (Goyal & Howlett, 2020; Hoefer,

2022; Koebele, 2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). Kingdon calls this narrow

timeframe the policy window (Koebele, 2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). At

this juncture, the individuals with the policies combine an issue with a policy and obtain the

necessary political backing to codify a new law (Goyal & Howlett, 2020; Hoefer, 2022; Koebele,

2021; Shephard et al., 2021; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). Regardless of whether a new law is

codified, the governmental system continues to the subsequent determination (Hoefer, 2022).

The multiple-stream framework is significant to this study as the foundation for understanding

how the turmoil in the Middle East, coupled with the crisis at the U.S. Southwestern land border,

increases the risk of terrorism in the United States and what can be done to prevent a potential

atrocity.
 27

Turmoil in the Middle East

Ten years after the Arab uprisings, civil wars have erupted as a result of the leadership

voids that were created in several countries such as Libya, Syria, and Yemen, combined with the

victorious Islamic parties in Tunisia and Egypt have shown the continued deep divide between

the Sunni and Shia people (Del Sarto & Lecha, 2024; Manan & Taran, 2020). The fundamental

distinction between Sunni and Shia Muslims lies in their divergent views on religious leadership:

Sunni Muslims [al-Sunnah wa al-Jama'ah], constituting approximately 90% of the Muslim

population, assert that leadership should be determined through community consensus and the

selection of caliphs, while Shia Muslims, making up around 10% of the faith, believe that

leadership is divinely ordained through the descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib, whom they

consider the rightful Imams, with an emphasis on both spiritual and political authority derived

from this familial line of succession (Manan & Taran, 2020; Sabaruddin, 2023).

The divide between the Sunni and Shia Muslims is one of many issues within the Middle

East. With the recent global shift toward decarbonization, oil-rich countries that have relied on

the United States for their natural resource exports are increasingly facing competition and losing

customers (Del Sarto & Lecha, 2024). Del Sarto and Lecha (2024) also point to the United States

as becoming the exporter of oil and natural gas instead of a strict importer, which has caused a

rift in the region. Üngör (2024) raises concerns about the United States involvement in Arab-led

conflict in Yemen. The consensus amongst countries in the Middle East is that the United States

should not be involved in Yemen as the United States is supporting Saudi Arabia and supplying

weapons to defeat the Houthi rebels (Üngör, 2024).

Academia abounds with the rationale for the turmoil in the Middle East today (Manan &

Taran, 2020; Sabaruddin, 2023; Usman, 2021). Several scholars concur that the root of the
 28

turmoil began following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE (Manan & Taran, 2020;

Usman, 2021). Strife ensued between the individuals who supported Hazrat Ali, modern-day

Shias, and those who supported Shura, modern-day Sunnis, who should become the next caliph

(Manan & Taran, 2020; Usman, 2021). While Islam does not teach concepts of grudges, envy,

hatred, and other such adverse reactions, the Sunni Ottomans had a significant desire to rule over

the Shia Safavids (Sabaruddin, 2023; Usman, 2021). According to Usman (2021), the Safavids

proclaimed Shia to be the official religion of Iran. In the early sixteenth century, Shah Isma’il-I

started speaking out against the Sunni in sermons (Usman, 2021). The author shares how this

rhetoric transformed the political discourse into a substantial regional conflict. Expanding

further, Manan and Taran (2020) detail how the region contains a range of ethnicities, mainly in

areas where tribes reside. They share how the Middle East received its name from Europeans

following the First and Second World Wars as they divided the region based on where they felt

the different countries’ borders should exist.

United States in the Middle East

Alnassar (2024) and Üngör (2024) explain that even with the United States’ history in the

Middle East dating back to the early part of the 1930s with the discovery of oil in Bahrain, the

relationship between America and the Gulf States is exceptionally complex. Although Iran first

recognized Israel in 1948, the relationship between the two countries fell into disrepair after the

1953 military coup in Iran, where Israel was blamed for being too dependent on its Western

allies (Maher, 2023). From the conclusion of the Second World War to when this paper was

written, the United States has been significantly involved in Middle Eastern affairs (Beck, 2020;

Maher, 2023). Between the end of World War II and the end of the Cold War, Iran was a

strategic ally of the United States and, begrudgingly, Israel; however, with the collapse of the
 29

former Soviet Union and the removal of Saddam Hussein as the Iraqi leader, the threats that

created the need for the strategic partnership were no longer viable (Beck, 2020; Maher, 2023).

Therefore, the perceived threats of the Iranian government shifted to the threats of the United

States, termed the Great Satan, and Israel, which they termed Little Satan (Maher, 2023).

Additionally, the Gulf States disillusionment with the United States stems from many years of

the country shaping the political and economic landscape of the region combined with the

counter-terrorism operations post-September 11, 2001, and the withdrawal of military personnel

from Afghanistan and Iraq (Alnassar, 2024; Üngör, 2024; Wildeman & Atallah, 2023).

The terrorism threat faced by the United States today was formed in the early 1900s

(Calvert, 2021; Forest, 2024a; Schmid, 2024; Zollner, 2021). Hassan al-Banna founded the

Muslim Brotherhood in 1928 and proclaimed that all Muslims should engage in jihad against

individuals considered to be infidels in the Muslim homelands (Calvert, 2021; Forest, 2024a;

Schmid, 2024; Zollner, 2021). Following the United Nations resolution in 1947 where Palestine

was separated into Arab and Israeli lands, hundreds of thousands of disillusioned men found

themselves exiled to countries such as Lebanon (Calvert, 2021; Forest, 2024a; Schmid, 2024;

Zollner, 2021). These early militant organizations recruited the angered youth, and in the 1960s,

the Palestinian militant organizations began implanting terrorism as a way to attract more

individuals and sought the financial support of countries such as the Soviet Union (Calvert,

2021; Forest, 2024a; Schmid, 2024; Zollner, 2021). Forest (2024a) details how the Palestinian

Islamic Jihad called for the annihilation of Israel and began a path of destruction to create an

independent Palestinian state in the 1970s. In 1981, following the assassination of the Egyptian

President Anwar Sadat, Palestinian Islamic Jihad was removed from Egypt and relocated to

Gaza; however, in 1987, Palestinian Islamic Jihad was expelled from Gaza to Lebanon (Calvert,
 30

2021; Forest, 2024a; Schmid, 2024; Zollner, 2021). During this timeframe, Palestinian Islamic

Jihad began integrating with Hezbollah (Forest, 2024a). Farida (2023) conveys how Hezbollah’s

inception was partially a result of Israel’s invasion of Lebanon in 1982. Forest (2024a) sheds

light on how it was at this time that Hezbollah distinguished its identity from other organizations

with the implementation of suicide bombers.

Israel and Palestine

In 1882, the first wave of Eastern European Jewish settlers developed 28 settlements in

the Ottoman Empire (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023; Wattad, 2023). As it was known, the initial

aliya doubled the Jewish population in the Palestinian areas (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023;

Wattad, 2023). The second aliya in 1905 brought additional Jewish settlers to the region of the

Ottoman Palestine region (Dowty, 2023). The influx of individuals intensified competition in

labor markets, fostering resentment towards Arabs employed in the newly established

settlements (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023). Arab nationalism exploded following the 1908 Young

Turk Revolution as resentment towards the Jewish settlers grew (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023).

After World War I, the French and British colonialists began dividing the Ottoman region and

betrothed the same land through the 1915 McMahon- Hussein correspondence and the 1917

Balfour Declaration to two different groups of people (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023; Wattad,

2023).

The 1917 Balfour Declaration is significant as it separates Judaism as a religion and the

national identity of Jewishness, which was a necessary step to recognize and justify the nation's

creation (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023; Wattad, 2023). The Declaration was also paramount as it

established the development of the new country to be carved out of Palestine and established the

British government in the new territory (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023; Wattad, 2023). The ruling
 31

took effect in 1920 when only ten percent of the Palestinian population was Jewish. So, when

Britain was directed to impose the League of Nations Covenant Article 22, the Balfour

Declaration became binding international law (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023; Wattad, 2023).

While the ruling recognized Palestine as a country, Britain was mandated to provide assistance

and advice until the new country could function independently (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023;

Wattad, 2023).

In 1947, the United Nation’s General Assembly adopted Resolution 181, also known as

the Partition Plan for Palestine, that permitted 55 percent of Mandatory Palestine to the Israeli

people and 42 percent to the people of Palestine (Berti, 2024; Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023;

Wattad, 2023). The remaining five percent unaccounted for was under the control of the United

Nations and represented the area of Jerusalem (Dowty, 2023; Samuel, 2023; Wattad, 2023). The

division of Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state following the enactment of Resolution 181 was

quickly followed by armed conflicts leading to the invasion of the Jewish lands by the Arab

League, leading to a regional war (Berti, 2024; Samuel, 2023). After a series of peace

agreements, the war concluded in 1949; however, the landscape of the Middle East and the

feelings as a result of the conflict never subsided (Berti, 2024). From President Eisenhower to

the current administration, United States policies and practices have largely allowed the country

to sidestep the needs of both Israel and Palestine, a situation that has primarily fueled conflict for

over seventy years (Braimah, 2024). Furthermore, from 1982 on, Israel would be embroiled in

two major conflicts: one against Hezbollah in Lebanon and the armed Palestinian factions led by

Hamas (Berti, 2024).

 32

Iran

Following the conclusion of World War I, a coup against the Qajar Dynasty ensued in

Iran, as the people felt vulnerable to the colonialization of the United Kingdom and Russia

(Bajalan, 2019; Vantanka, 2022). As the communist threat spread, each President of the United

States, ranging from Roosevelt to Carter, saw Iran as the lynchpin of American influence in the

region and a buffer for Russian expansion (Bajalan, 2019; Owtram, 2020; Vantanka, 2022). The

White Revolution of 1963 saw the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, force various

Western reforms on the Iranian people, which did not sit well with citizens loyal to the clergy

(Bajalan, 2019; Owtram, 2020; Vantanka, 2022). Iran’s theocracy evolved in 1979 with the

Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini overthrowing the Shah and the ancient ruling

monarchy, thus removing the pro-Western ideology that had existed for many years (Bajalan,

2019; Owtram, 2020; Vantanka, 2022). During the Iran- Iraq War, the United States extended

assistance to Iraq (Fawcett & Payne, 2023). It is noteworthy that Iraq utilized chemical weapons

against Iranian military forces while the United States maintained a position of non-involvement

(Fawcett & Payne, 2023; Gassama et al., 2021; Özdemir, 2022). Consequently, Iran continues to

harbor grievances toward the United States regarding its stance during this conflict (Fawcett &

Payne, 2023; Gassama et al., 2021; Özdemir, 2022).

Iran’s usage of foreign military proxy forces to fight conflicts throughout the Middle East

has been well-established in the literature (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Azizi, 2022; Dostri,

2023; Farida, 2023; Guarin, 2020; Jahanbani & Levy, 2024; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Kaunert &

Wertman, 2020; Mantilla, 2024; Meier & Picard, 2024; Schanzer, 2023; Vatanka, 2022).

Beginning in the 1980s, Iran has sponsored, outfitted, and prepared proxy terrorist organizations

such as Hamas, Hezbollah, Iraqi Badr Corps, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and Shiite militias
 33

(Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Dostri, 2023; Farida, 2023; Guarin, 2020; Jahanbani & Levy,

2024; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Schanzer, 2023; Vatanka, 2022). Hezbollah and the Badr Corps

encapsulated the teachings of Khomeini that leaned into anti-Americanism and anti-Israelism

ideology (Vantanka, 2022). Vantanka (2022) elucidates how Iranian proxy forces were involved

in the 2003 United States-Iraq War, the Arab Spring of 2011, and the different civil wars in the

Middle East. The number one benefactor in the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003 was Iran

due to the shift from Sunni ideology leading the country to Shia leadership rising through the

political ranks (Dostri, 2023; Farida, 2023; Guarin, 2020; Vantanka, 2022).

One of the goals of Iran is to continue to arm its proxy forces with better and more lethal

weapons in an attempt to tighten the countries that encircle Israel (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024;

Azizi, 2022; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Mantilla, 2024; Vatanka,

2022). As a result of this encroachment, Israel may need to reassess its existing tactics in light of

the precision-guided munitions and drones supplied to Houthis, Hezbollah, and Hamas by Iran,

while the United States, as Israel's ally, risks direct involvement in the conflict, thereby

increasing its vulnerability as a target for these terrorist organizations and Iran (Akbarzadeh &

Gourlay, 2024; Azizi, 2022; Dostri, 2023; Farida, 2023; Guarin, 2020; Jahanbani & Levy, 2024;

Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Mantilla, 2024; Meier & Picard, 2024;

Schanzer, 2023; Vatanka, 2022). Cengiz (2021) establishes how the United States has a running

list of countries that sponsor terrorism, and included on the list is Iran. Globally, Iran spends

approximately one billion dollars to sponsor various terroristic activities, including supplying

conventional weapons to Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Houthis (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024;

Azizi, 2022; Cengiz, 2021; Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Zimmermann, 2022).

Hamas
 34

Since its founding on December 14, 1987, coinciding with the onset of the First Intifada,

the Islamic Resistance Movement [Ḥarakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya] has been the subject of

extensive scholarly research (Alsoos, 2023; Awad, 2021; Berti, 2024; Byman, 2024; Del Sarto &

i Lecha, 2024; Hitman & Kertcher, 2021; Singh, 2022; Üngör, 2024). Known globally by its

acronym Hamas, Ḥarakat al-Muqāwama al-Islāmiyya was created as the military and political

party of the Palestinian Muslim Brotherhood during the five-year uprising from September 2000

to February 2005 that was meant to call attention to Palestinian rights (Alsoos, 2023; Awad,

2021; Berti, 2024; Forest, 2024a; Singh, 2022). Hamas entered the scene to propel Muslim

clerics to encourage every individual with Palestinian heritage to fight for their holy sites and

engage in political activism (Forest, 2024a). A year into its existence, the Hamas charter called

for the annihilation of Israel and the creation of an Islamic society in the area historically known

as Palestine (Awad, 2021; Berti, 2024; Byman, 2024; Forest, 2024a; Hitman & Kertcher, 2021;

Singh, 2022).

Pearlman (2023) points to countless attacks initiated by Hamas against Israel since its

inception, including the suicide bombings following the 1994 Palestinian massacre, the 2001

New Year’s Day bombing, and the various rockets fired into Israel by Hamas. Similar to

Hezbollah, Hamas deems itself superior to Israel in terms of its deeply seated religious faith as

part of the Muqāwama, or resistance, against the West (Eilam, 2022; Forest, 2024a; Pearlman,

2023). Berti (2024) explains how Hamas has engaged Israel in countless confrontations as it has

finetuned its various conventional and terroristic tactics that have been taken from Hezbollah’s

2006 playbook. The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, Hamas’s military wing, has flourished with

new technologies and recruitment (Berti, 2024; Eilam, 2022; Rezeg, 2020). With Iran’s view of

Israel being the small Satan to the United States’ big Satan, Iran has had no qualms in supporting
 35

the mission of Hamas (Alsoos, 2023; Awad, 2021; Berti, 2024; Eilam, 2022; Forest, 2024a;

Rezeg, 2020). Estimates over six years from 2006 through 2012 of Iran’s financials show how

Iran has supplied Hamas with an estimated 250 million dollars and an unknown amount of

military assistance to the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades (Rezeg, 2020).

Iran has, by and large, denied any involvement in the October 7, 2023, Hamas’s attack on

Israel; however, following the initial attacks, Iranian leaders immediately criticized Israeli

leaders openly and warned of an explosion in the Middle East during the December 9, 2023,

United Nation Security Council if a ceasefire in Gaza did not transpire (Braimah, 2024;

Saraswat, 2024). Braimah (2024) points to one of the reasons for the October 2023 attacks as a

diversion from the United States-backed Israeli-Saudi Arabian normalization process that was

near solidification (Braimah, 2024). It has been disclosed that if the Israeli-Saudi Arabian

discussions were solidified, Palestine would have zero opportunity to be recognized as a state

(Braimah, 2024; Saraswat, 2024). Furthermore, the Hamas political leaders have accused

countries such as France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States of focusing their

attention on the October 7 attack but selecting not to pay attention to the human rights violence

and supposed atrocities committed by Israeli forces against the Palestinian civilian population

(Braimah, 2024).

Houthis

Haider (2021) posits how the Zaydi ruled a majority of northern Yemen starting in 897;

however, the author explains how there was a significant shift from a Sunni perspective to a Shia

perspective in the ninth century, followed by a political and religious shift in the fifteenth and

sixteenth centuries towards a Sunnification. The modern country of Yemen was a result of a

1960s military action in which Egypt-backed rebels overthrew the last Zaydi ruler of the region
 36

(Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Blumi, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Meier & Picard, 2024).

Predominantly located in northwestern Yemen, the Zaydi are a minority found within Shia Islam

(Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Blumi, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Meier & Picard, 2024).

The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen became independent in 1967 after one hundred

thirty years (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Blumi, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Meier &

Picard, 2024). Following twenty-three years of conflict and failed efforts of state-building, The

People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen and the northern portion of Yemen merged; however,

years of strife followed (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Blumi, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024;

Meier & Picard, 2024).

Ansar Allah, known more commonly as the Houthi movement, rose to fame in the 1990s

as a form of rebelliousness against the Zaydi political influence (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024;

Blumi, 2021; Johnston et al., 2020; Meier & Picard, 2024). Johnston et al. (2020) divulge that

Houthis sprung from a much larger Zaydi awaking, but they decipher Zaydism in their fashion.

In the 1990s, prominent Houthi individuals established relations with Iran (Johnston et al., 2020;

Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Haugstvedt, 2021). Despite this early connection between the two,

there were only rumors of support in the mid-2000s, and in 2011, evidence emerged of a direct

Iranian support connection (Johnston et al., 2020; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Haugstvedt, 2021).

The tribal lands of the Houthis in northern Yemen give Iran a proxy force close enough to Saudi

Arabia to threaten the Arab country (Johnston et al., 2020; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024). With the

direct correlation to Iran and its location near Saudi Arabia, the Houthis became linked to the

Axis of Resistance (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnston et al., 2020; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024). Although

the extent of Iran’s influence over the Houthis is unknown, their ideologies align and target the
 37

United States, Israel, and other Arab allies (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnston et al., 2020; Johnsen &

Juneau, 2024).

The strife in Yemen has allowed Iran to conduct live-fire testing of newly developed

weapons and test weapon capabilities under battlefield conditions (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnsen &

Juneau, 2024; Zimmermann, 2022). Prior to the civil war in Yemen, the Houthis did not have the

military capabilities of anti-warship, ballistic missiles, and uncrewed ariel vehicles (Haugstvedt,

2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Zimmermann, 2022). Zimmermann (2022) explains how the

weapons supplied to and utilized by the Houthis in combat feed data back to the Iranian weapons

developers to improve their deadly tools. With the new and improved weapons, the Houthis have

participated in and supported Iranian campaigns in the region, including hosting Hezbollah

personnel to observe the weapons in action (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024;

Zimmermann, 2022). In 2016, the Houthis launched Iranian cruise missiles at Naval vessels from

the United States, United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnsen &

Juneau, 2024; Zimmermann, 2022). Houthis launched a missile attack on Riyadh’s King Khalid

International Airport in November 2017 and another attack on the Al-Yamamah Palace the next

month (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Zimmermann, 2022). The Houthis attacks in

January 2022 targeted Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates, threatening the United States

military personnel based at the Al Dhafra base (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024;

Zimmermann, 2022). Zimmerman (2022) postulates how multiple administrations of the United

States government have failed to break the flow of weapons from Iran to the Houthis, nor has

there been any success in curtailing the Iranian influence over the group despite United States

military personnel being killed.

Hezbollah
 38

During the 17th century, Iran and the Lebanese Shi’ites started their lengthy cooperation

in politics and religion (Farida, 2023; Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). The area that

is now Lebanon won its independence from the French in 1943 with the development of the

National Pact, or mithaq al-watani, an agreement between the Sunnis in the region and the

Maronite Catholics (Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). The mithaq al-watani was a

quid-pro-quo between the two groups where Lebanon would be declared an Arab state and the

Maronites would have plenty of representation in the newly formed parliament (Levitt, 2021;

Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the future leaders of Hezbollah

were emerging from the school of thought known as the Najafi Shi’ (Paterson & MacQueen,

2021). The Najafi Shi’ was significantly influenced by Iran’s Ayatollah Khomeini’s concept of

Islamic revolution and the vilayet-e-faqih, or governance of the jurist (Farida, 2023; Paterson &

MacQueen, 2021). The Khomeini-Hezbollah relationship was cemented during the 1979 Iranian

Islamic Revolution and Khomeini’s approval of developing Islamic proxy military entities

(Farida, 2023; Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021).

The terrorist organization Hezbollah developed as a response to the 1982 Israeli invasion

of Lebanon and the subsequent feelings of ostracism of Lebanon’s Shi’ite community (Dosti,

2023; Farida, 2023; Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). Ayatollah

Khomeini’s unwavering despise of his perceived enemies, and his passion for spreading the

Islamic revolution on foreign soil meant Iran was willing to aid the newly formed organization

with ideological reasoning and logistical resources later (Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Paterson &

MacQueen, 2021). Paterson and MacQueen (2021) discuss how Iran initially sent 5,000

Pasdaran, also known as Iranian Revolutionary Guards, to directly aid in growing the new proxy

military. As Hezbollah began to expand, so did the organization’s drive to evict any external
 39

forces from the area, including France, Israel, and the United States (Farida, 2023; Paterson &

MacQueen, 2021). In an attempt to drive Israel and the United States from Lebanon, Hezbollah

conducted the April 18, 1983, bombing of the United States Embassy in Beirut, which killed 63

individuals, and the October 23, 1983, bombing of the United States Marine Barracks in Beirut,

leaving 241 Marines dead (Dosti, 2023; Farida, 2023; Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen,

2021).

Hezbollah’s religious and nationalistic existence was solidified in a solitary structure and

placed into writing in 1985 (Farida, 2023; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). The Open Letter’s

foundation is rooted in their religion with tones of Shi’ite and the ideology of Ayatollah

Khomeini’s Islamic revolution (Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). The 1985 Open Letter proclaims

the desire to create an Islamic state modeled after Iran (Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen,

2021). Furthermore, the letter is entrenched in the notion of wilayat al-faqih, Hezbollah’s

religious ideology, where they reject the political system of Lebanon and embrace the Supreme

Leader of Iran (Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). Additionally, the 1985 Open Letter

supplies the intellectual framework of resistance, proclaiming Hezbollah as the tip of the spear

for resistance against the mustakbirin, or oppressors, and the mustad’afin, or those oppressed

(Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). To that end, Hezbollah’s first ten years of inception

were the terrorist organization's most active (Dosti, 2023; Farida, 2023; Kaunert & Wertman,

2020; Levitt, 2021; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021).

Between 1982 and 1992, Hezbollah enacted defensive jihad to resist the Israeli and

United States presence in Lebanon (Farida, 2023; Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Levitt, 2021;

Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). Martyrdom became a means of jihad to fight the West and was

prized as the end rather than a means to the end (Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). Wiger and
 40

Atwell (2024) detail how, over the years, the United States Defense Intelligence Agency has

reported there have been Iranian-held Hezbollah training courses in Iran, which have been

conducted on topics such as long-distance marksmanship, explosives, reconnaissance,

intelligence collection, and other special operations and master trainer sessions. With the number

of Hezbollah-led attacks in the 1980s and 1990s, the United States, Australia, and the European

Union have added Hezbollah to the terrorist organization lists, and the Attorney General for the

United States added the organization as one of the globe’s foremost transnational criminal

organizations (Dosti, 2023; Farida, 2023).

Hezbollah and the Venezuelan Connection

Hezbollah’s considerable presence throughout South America has been transcribed

relentlessly in academia (Guarin, 2020; Jahanbani & Levy, 2024; Ortiz, 2022; Ruiz, 2022;

Shearer, 2022). Iran and Venezuela formed a friendship in 1947, which strengthened in 1960

with the signing of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries [OPEC] founding

treaty (Guarin, 2020; Ruiz, 2022). Ruiz (2022) details how the Venezuelan government held a

neutral position and always acknowledged the Palestinian state. When Chavez took office as the

Venezuelan president, the rhetoric of commendation toward Israel drastically changed (Guarin,

2020; Ruiz, 2022; Shearer, 2022). Venezuela opened its arms wide to Iran, allowing the country

to generate a plethora of Iranian projects within the borders of the country (Chasdi, 2024; Ortiz,

2022). It has been reported that President Chávez aided Iran in circumventing sanctions imposed

on the country by the United States (Jahanbani & Levy, 2024). Hezbollah has conducted several

operations at the bequest of Iran, including numerous bombings in South America, such as the

1992 Israeli Embassy in Argentina, a Jewish Center in 1994 in Argentina, and the 1994 Alas

Chiricanas Airlines Flight 901 in Panama, all at the behest of Iran as reprisal for Argentina’s
 41

government to end nuclear cooperation with the country (Guarin, 2020; Ortiz, 2022; Shearer,

2022). The Hezbollah operations were a reprisal for Argentina’s government to end nuclear

cooperation with Iran (Guarin, 2020; Ortiz, 2022; Shearer, 2022).

Hezbollah, with Iran's backing, has developed numerous companies to act as money

laundering facilities, aid in solidifying clandestine operations, and establish a base in Venezuela

(Guarin, 2020; Ortiz, 2022). Jahanbani and Levy (2024) share how Venezuelan government

officials have falsified paperwork that permits Hezbollah operatives to appear legitimate. Shearer

(2022) posits how Venezuela is a strategic gateway for Hezbollah’s drug trafficking and money

laundering operations, as well as its terrorism base. Hezbollah has claimed that the threat from

the United States is not isolated to one region, and the terror organization has elected to fight it

internationally (Shearer, 2022). The terror cells that have deposited themselves in South America

are aiding in conducting fundraising operations to support the Hezbollah terrorist activities in the

Middle East, which are targeting Israeli and American targets (Jahanbani & Levy, 2024; Shearer,

2022). Jahanbani and Levy (2024) state that Venezuela is not the only country where Iran is

deploying proxy forces. In 2013, Iran and Argentina signed a Memorandum of Understanding

that permitted Iranian proxy activities (Jahanbani & Levy, 2024). Iran has recently procured

properties in Chile and Brazil, which are considered future sanctuary and logical support

locations (Jahanbani & Levy, 2024).

Conclusion

Given the established Iran proxy forces and terrorist organizations in the Middle East,

what appears to be missing from the scholarly discussion is the anticipation or outlook for the

possibility of Iran instructing its proxy forces to carry out operations in other parts of the world,

including the United States, to generate unrest as either a deterrent or smokescreen for operations
 42

in the Middle East. The Israeli-Hamas conflict that began in October 2023 has spread beyond the

borders of the country (Braimah, 2024). Houthis, Hamas, Hezbollah, Syria, Lebanon, and even

on the streets of the United States in the form of hate crimes, pro-Palestinian or pro-Israeli

incidents are springing up (Braimah, 2024). An additional topic not found in the literature is a

discussion on how terrorist operatives could be exploiting the crisis at the Southwestern land

border to gain entrance to the United States undetected. For example, given Hezbollah’s scope

and operations in Latin America, it is not beyond a reasonable thought process that the Iranian

proxy force or other terrorist organizations have operatives transitioning from the Middle East to

Latin America and then up through the United States’ southern border; however, the existing

literature does not address how the turmoil in the Middle East and the crisis at the Southwestern

land border increases the risk of terrorism in the United States.

Crisis at The United States Southwest Land Border

The United States secured three-quarters of Mexico at the conclusion of the Mexican-

American War (Munshi, 2021; Tarlow, 2023). The acquired land was almost a million square

miles, including portions of two states and the entire landmass of four states (Munshi, 2021;

Tarlow, 2023). The 1,988-mile United States and Mexican border was formally established and

is the only physical land border that exists in the southern United States (Alley-Young, 2023;

Munshi, 2021; Tarlow, 2023; U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce, 2024). From the end

of the 18th century through the 21st century, violence has continued in and around the United

States and Mexican border (Alley-Young, 2023; Munshi, 2021; Tarlow, 2023). Tarlow (2023)

acknowledges that the United States was the only world power to end the war physically

unharmed at the end of the Second World War. With the world in relative turmoil and the

prosperity seen in the United States, the illegal migration into the United States from Mexico
 43

drastically rose, and the flow of illicit substances and human trafficking began spilling across the

unprotected border (Tarlow, 2023).

Today, Mexico and Texas are interconnected via 20 land ports of entry into the United

States, including the Laredo/Nuevo Laredo port, which is currently the largest in the country

(Payan, 2023; United States Customs and Border Protection, 2024a). The City of Laredo claims

they process over 300 billion in trade annually (Gerber, 2023; Payan, 2023; Ramos, 2023).

Approximately 66 percent of the estimated 620 billion dollars in the United States and Mexico

trade have Texas as touching it (Payan, 2023; Ramos, 2023). Cox and Alm (2023) extrapolate

how the imports and exports between the two countries between 1869 and 1975 grew at most

zero-point five percent. Starting in the mid to later 1980s and 2015, the trade grew from one

percent of the United States’ gross domestic product to over three percent by 2015 (Cox & Alm,

2023). Mexico exports many fruits, oil, vegetables, and car parts to the United States (Gladstone

et al., 2021; Ramos, 2023). Along the two countries' border, the Mexican population exploded by

38 percent between 1990 and 2015 (Gladstone et al., 2021; Ramos, 2023). Even though there are

families of mixed United States and Mexico citizenship, López (2018) details how many of these

families reside in the borderlands of Mexico and the United States.

Border Encounters

Despite the various policies that have been attempted, Bartnik (2022) supplies examples

of the October 2018 migration of 200 people from Honduras turning into a caravan of 10,000

people arriving at the U.S.-Mexican border and the 2019 to 2021 increase in the average daily

encounters of unaccompanied youth increasing from 370 to 600 children. Between the years

1990 and 2014, Light and Thomas (2022) report that the number of illegal immigrants soared

from three point five million to over 11 million, which is almost triple the number of people. The
 44

U.S. Customs and Border Protection (2024a) reports that in October, November, and December

of Fiscal Year 2024, there was a total of 785,422 Southwest land border encounters. The agency

reports 302,034 individual encounters (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a).

Furthermore, during the same three-month period, the agency encountered 87,565 single adults

(U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a). The significant escalation in migration patterns

underscores the persistent challenges and complexities faced by the United States border policy.

As of July 11, 2024, 90 non-U.S. citizens on the Terrorist Screening Database [TSDS]

were encountered at the Southwest Border by U.S. Border Patrol agents (U.S. Customs and

Border Protection, 2024c). In 2020, three people were discovered on the TSDS, 15 in 2021, 98 in

2022, and 169 in 2023 (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024c). The aforementioned

statement highlights a concerning trend in border security and immigration. It points out a

significant increase in the number of non-U.S. citizens associated with terrorism screening

attempting to enter the United States. This situation emphasizes the complex challenge of

balancing security needs with humanitarian and immigration objectives. The rising instances of

attempts by individuals identified in the Terrorist Screening Data Set may suggest the emergence

of new threats. Therefore, it is imperative to engage in urgent discussions regarding the

effectiveness of current security measures and policies. Consequently, authorities may need to

critically evaluate and adjust their strategies and resource allocations to address and mitigate

these increasing risks effectively.

As of July 11, 2024, 853 handguns and 498 long arms had been seized at the Southwest

Border (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). 2023 appears to be the largest seizure of

firearms to date, with 1,176 handguns and 705 long arms seized (U.S. Customs and Border

Protection, 2024d). Most alarming is that in 2021, there was a single incident of explosives
 45

seized at the Southwest Border, but in 2023, there were five, and as of July 11, 2024, 17

explosives were seized (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). These figures are

significant as they illustrate the known influx of weapons brought into the United States illegally

for unknown purposes.

According to U.S. Customs and Border Protection (2024d), as of July 11, 2024,

ammunition seizures at the Southwest Border were 269,900, more significant than in 2023 and

2021. The number of long-gun scopes is greater in July 2024 than in Fiscal Year 2023 (U.S.

Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). The number of firearms receivers has increased from 23

in 2023 to 83 as of July 11, 2024 (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024d). The receiver is

the part of the firearm regulated as a firearm under United States law and serves as the part that

houses the operating mechanisms and connects the various parts of a firearm (Bureau of Alcohol,

Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, n.d.). De Genova (2021) offers how slightly more than six

thousand individuals perished in Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas from October

2000 through September 2016 as a result of attempting to cross the border illegally. The illegal

immigration land routes are perilous, adding to exposure and abandonment, and the conditions

become overwhelming for migrants attempting to enter the United States (De Genova, 2021).

Border Control Legislation

Solis (2021) reminds the reader that a border is quintessentially an ever-changing

dynamic not due to the legality constructed by a government but rather a social and virtual

character. With this concept in mind, the United States-Mexico border is crossed more than any

other international border around the globe, with individuals transitioning between the four

adjacent states in America and the six states in Mexico (Alley-Young, 2023; Feigenberg, 2020;

Munshi, 2021; Tarlow, 2023; U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce, 2024). After World
 46

War II, the United States emphasized immigration control, with its first act being the Bracero

Program (Feigenberg, 2020; Munshi, 2021; Shirk, 2021). The act permitted guest-worker visas to

individuals willing to work in agriculture or manually, and when the program concluded in 1964,

more than four million Mexicans had utilized the program (Feigenberg, 2020; Munshi, 2021;

Shirk, 2021). In 1965, the United States codified the Immigration and Nationality Act, which

allows fewer individuals to enter from Mexico; however, the United States Congress did not

codify any language that would curtail undocumented immigration until 1986 (Feigenberg, 2020;

Munshi, 2021; Shirk, 2021).

With the passing of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, expansive border

enforcement actions were authorized, and the hiring of known undocumented immigrants

became a criminal act (Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021). In the early 1990s, campaigns along the

El Paso and San Diego border increased the number of Border Patrol agents, and it was during

this timeframe that the construction of fencing along the United States and Mexico border was

authorized for the first time in history (Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021). The approach toward

immigration policies over the last four United States Presidential Administrations has been vastly

different (Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021; Tarlow, 2023). Tarlow (2023) explains how President

George W. Bush expanded the number of individual agents assigned to border protection by

6,000, completed a 375-mile fence, deployed three unmanned aerial systems, and ended the

practices and policies associated with catch and release and entry into the United States by

citizens in Mexico and Canada with only a declaration, orally, of citizenship. Under President

Obama’s administration, the author states how illegal immigration increased, especially from

Latin American countries (Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021; Tarlow, 2023). During his presidency,

60,000 unaccompanied minors entered the United States, and 15,000 Haitian migrants were
 47

located in Del Rio, Texas, under a bridge after crossing the river to seek asylum in the United

States (Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021; Tarlow, 2023). When discussing both President Donald

Trump’s and President Joe Biden’s policies on immigration as a whole and specifically the

border wall along the US-Mexican border, Tarlow (2023) takes a more generalized approach.

Tarlow (2023) details how individuals who are proponents of a more relaxed immigration

policy and who are against the building of a wall claim that a border wall is unnecessary as

modern technology can address illegal crossings, calling someone illegal is immoral as a person

cannot be unlawful, the United States is hypocritical in opposing immigration, immigrants are

hard-working and do the jobs most Americans are unwilling to do. The people who are in favor

of stricter immigration policies and a protective border exclaim how a country is not a country

without borders, mass migration reduces the population of other countries and can lead to

unsavory results, mass illegal migration to the United States takes resources from individuals

who follow the laws and enter the country legally, and uncontrolled migration destroys the

border towns in the United States (Gladstone et al., 2021; Ramos, 2023; Tarlow, 2023). The

Biden administration has bolstered the number of individuals admitted into the United States and

removed the COVID restrictions (Bartnik, 2022; Tarlow, 2023).

Additional policies that were enacted then revoked or never implemented but suggested

during the previous four Presidential Administrations include the 1996 High-Level Contact

Group for Drug Control, the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America, the 2006

Mérida Initiative, the 2002 Smart Border Agreement, and the 2003 Operation Centinela (Rojas-

Wiesner, 2024; U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce, 2024). Jolicoeur (2023) explains

how there are no agreed-upon overall best practices and policies for countries regarding border

patrols and national entry points. The minute human resources and financial holdings cause
 48

countries' attempts to provide complete border security to fail or be limited (Jolicoeur, 2023).

Bah’s (2023) study reveals that countries can employ a wide range of methods to deter illegal

immigration, including border control amplification, criminalization of human trafficking and

illegal immigrant employment, and more substantial policy creation; however, the author

emphasizes that none of the measures are effective if a country has relaxed immigration policies

and lax border controls.

The Border Wall

The notion of a border wall is nothing new. Lineberger (2020) states that approximately

seven countries had implemented a fortified wall or fence system by the end of the Second

World War, whereas during the end of the Berlin Wall era, 15 countries had deployed fortified

walls or fence systems. Around three decades after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and in the

aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks and the 2015 refugee crisis, more than 75 countries

had constructed or reinforced fortified wall and fence systems in response to growing security

concerns and migration pressures. (Lineberger, 2020). Members of the European Union [EU]

had constructed over 1,000 miles of walls post-2015, according to Lineberger (2020). The border

wall concept along the Southwestern land border did not originate with President Trump’s

administration. President Clinton enacted the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant

Responsibility Act that included a mandate to build a 14-mile triple-layered fence along the San

Diego-Tijuana, Mexico border to stop undocumented individuals from entering the United States

illegally (Alley-Young, 2023; Bartnik, 2022; Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021)

Unfortunately, the wall was not extended to other locations, and between 2000 and 2005,

an estimated 850,000 individuals entered the United States illegally along the southern border.

Faced with the rising number of illegal individuals, President Bush executed the Secure Fence
 49

Act of 2006 (Alley-Young, 2023; Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021). The act aimed to extend the

border fence tremendously in other portions of the border where individuals were entering

illegally (Alley-Young, 2023; Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021). A 2009 report shows that

approximately 630 miles of the proposed initially 700 miles of fencing had been erected (Alley-

Young, 2023; Shirk, 2021). Alley-Young (2023) establishes how in Yuma, Arizona, where two

portions of the original wall were built, the number of individuals crossing illegally daily went

from 800 a day to zero, with another location reporting a drop from 100 individuals crossing

daily to one person per day.

Shortly after taking the oath of office, President Trump codified Executive Order 13767,

known as Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements (Alley-Young, 2023;

Bartnik, 2022). Bartnik (2022) writes that the purpose of the Act was to begin the official

construction of a wall along the United States and Mexican border using federal monies. Even

though there are limitations in the construction of a border wall, the barrier compliments and

expands the capabilities of humans; however, individuals opposed to the border wall claim that

the wall separates families, endangers lives, harms wildlife, and violates people’s property rights

(Alley-Young, 2023; Jolicoeur, 2023). Furthermore, Lineberger (2020) details how actors

wishing to bypass wall or fence fortifications will find alternative routes, new tactics, or

corruption. In response to repeated rocket attacks from Hamas, Israel built a fence; however, to

counter the wall, Hamas acquired long-range rockets and built tunnels to circumvent the fence

(Berti, 2024; Eilam, 2022; Lineberger, 2020; Rezeg, 2020). There appears to be a limitation in

the scholarly discourse that supports tighter border security and is centered more on the ability of

individuals intent on entering the United States to enter freely without following the proper

immigration processes. While the argument of a wall dividing families is presented, there is no
 50

support claiming this is occurring nor much insight as to whom the border wall is preventing

from entering, such as individuals’ intent on causing harm or conducting illegal activities.

Mexico’s Southern Border and Migration

For the last 40-plus years, Mexico has become a prime example of countries considered a

transit migration country due to its sole northern border with the United States (Flores, 2020;

Villalever et al., 2024). The southern Mexican border with Belize is approximately 136 miles

and 541 miles border with Guatemala (Flores, 2020; Tarlow, 2023). Along the border, there are

only 11 formal land border crossing locations; however, Mexican officials estimate that there are

more than 700 locations for illegal crossings (Flores, 2020). Approximately 95 percent of the

individuals crossing the southern border of Mexico are estimated to cross without legal

documentation (Flores, 2020; Rojas-Wiesner, 2024; Villalever et al., 2024). Guatemala,

Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua do not require visas or passports under the Central

America-4 visa system, which means the travel to the Guatemala-Mexico border is unsecured

(Flores, 2020). Tarlow (2023) supports the data supplied by the U.S.-Mexico Security

Cooperation Taskforce (2024), which states that substantial amounts of Latin American migrants

are streaming from countries such as El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras.

Further south of the southern tip of the Mexico border lies the Darién Gap, a treacherous

70-mile stretch of roadless jungle along the Isthmus of Panama, which serves as a critical but

perilous transit route for irregular migration between North and South America (Fonju &

Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024). Between 2021 and early 2024,

more than one and a half million foreign nationals from over 170 countries, including Venezuela,

Pakistan, Iran, Angola, Uzbekistan, Yemen, and China, braved the dangerous terrain of this

wilderness (Bensman, 2024; Fonju & Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda,
 51

2024). The journey through the Darién Gap is fraught with life-threatening hazards, including

swift rivers, poisonous wildlife, and brutal weather conditions (Fonju & Amdadou, 2024;

Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024). After crossing Panama, migrants typically travel

through Central American countries like Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, aiming to

eventually reach the Mexico-United States border in hopes of entering the United States illegally

(Bensman, 2024; Fonju & Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024).

Galemba et al. (2020) mention that the southern border of Mexico is one of the first

places where humanitarian aid can be rendered. Tarlow (2023) explains how starting in 1898, the

United States successfully changed the government in Latin America at least 41 times over the

past 100 years, equating to the United States intervening once every 28 months. Once

immigrants arrive in Mexico, they go north along established routes or on the La Bestia [freight

trains] to the United States-Mexican border (Flores, 2020). The corridors that the migrants travel

are filled with corruption and a disregard for laws and rights (Rojas-Wiesner, 2024; Villalever et

al., 2024). Latin American countries and Mexico are filled with payment networks with cartels,

organized crime entities, and gangs, all of which operate along the migratory routes, especially

the routes along the train tracks (Rojas-Wiesner, 2024; Villalever et al., 2024).

Tarlow (2023) shares how the general fee for an individual to migrate from one of the

Latin countries through Mexico to the United States ranges from $6,000 to $17,000 for one

person. Despite the efforts of the United States to extend its migration deterrence strategy to the

Mexico- Guatemala border, the porousness of the border and the uncertainties surrounding

potential threats of terrorism are raising significant concerns as migrants from numerous

countries cross it (Galemba et al., 2020; Jolicoeur, 2023). Although insignificant compared to

Latin and South American migration, Campos-Delgado (2021) states that officials in Mexico
 52

have enforced the deportation of individuals from both Asia and Africa who have attempted to

cross into their country illegally. The U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce (2024)

reports how the detention of Mexican immigrants fell from 73 percent in 2012 to 50 percent in

2016; however, 85 percent of the migrants from Latin America attempted to enter the United

States via the southern United States border in 2017. The financial burden of migration from

Latin countries, coupled with the porous nature of the U.S.-Mexico border and the inconsistent

enforcement of deportation policies for non-Latin migrants, underscores a complex landscape

that heightens the risk of potential terrorist infiltration amidst the more significant flow of

migrants into the United States.

Conclusion

The 1,988-mile border between the United States and Mexico is the only physical land

border in the southern United States (Alley-Young, 2023; Munshi, 2021; Tarlow, 2023; U.S.-

Mexico Security Cooperation Taskforce, 2024). With an approximately 136-mile border with

Belize and a 541-mile border with Guatemala, Mexico has become a country with a transient

migration from the south to the north (Flores, 2020; Tarlow, 2023). In three months in 2024,

785,422 land border encounters transpired along the Southwest land border of the United States

(U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a). Despite Mexico’s porous border control in the

south and the number of individuals attempting to enter the United States, Light and Thomas

(2022) proclaim there is little scholarly work focusing on the immigration-terrorism nexus as it

surrounds terrorism. Does the crisis along the United States-Mexico land border increase the risk

of terrorism in the United States?

 53

Terrorism

Terrorism is viewed as a philosophically constructed word of complexity with several

global definitions, and various forms of terrorism discussed in the scholarly literature ranging

from state-sponsored terrorism to political terrorism, non-political terrorism, domestic terrorism,

foreign terrorism, and numerous other forms (Antwi-Boasiako & Hill, 2020; Münkler, 2024;

Stockhammer, 2024). While there is a plethora of definitions for terrorism, the operational

definition for this study is the predetermined threat or use of violence by persons or subnational

bands of individuals against civilians to secure an objective or goal that is either political or

social through the coercion of an audience that extends further than the initial victims (Antwi-

Boasiako & Hill, 2020; Doxsee, 2024; Münkler, 2024; Stockhammer, 2024). When discussing

terrorism, Forest (2024) explains how there has been a dramatic increase in what the author

terms do-it-yourself, or lone wolf, terrorists in the United States, Europe, the Middle East, and

Asia that are analogous to the anarchist attacks that occurred from the 1880s to the 1920s.

Hitman and Lisnyansky (2020) outline how the approximate 4,000 terrorist attacks

conducted between June 2014 and June 2016 by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria-associated

organizations targeted Sunnis intending to recruit more individuals to deter countries from

striking the caliphate. More recently, Islamic extremists have been asserting the goal of global

jihadism to reshape the Muslim community's interdependence on non-Muslim communities,

which is becoming a significant governance problem (Bai, 2023; Forest, 2024; Hitman &

Lisnyansky, 2020). The terrorist attacks associated with the promotion of global jihad are seen as

a necessary course by the terrorist organizations to achieve the long-term goal of a single Muslim

caliph (Forest, 2024b; Hitman & Lisnyansky, 2020). With the strife in different countries and

regions, countless individuals are being displaced, and only a small number of the refugees and
 54

individuals seeking asylum become radicalized; however, those individuals who have committed

significant attacks in the host countries cause consternation (Sude, 2021). Connected to the

notion of refugees and immigrants, Gohel (2021) shares how an unsecured border is open to

vulnerabilities that terrorists can easily exploit, whereas a secure border can intercept, deter, and

disrupt terrorists.

Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism

Since the 1970s, there has been a litany of academic research and study conducted on the

topic of terrorism; however, Renard (2021) expands on how the concept of counter-terrorism

studies does not exist and what research does exist is far less in terms of dedicated journals,

research associations, and other related scholarly work on the topic compared to the overall

category of terrorism. Terrorism is the predetermined threat or use of violence by persons or

subnational bands of individuals against civilians to secure an objective or goal that is either

political or social through the coercion of an audience that extends further than the initial victims

where the nationality of the victims and the individuals who committed the attack are similar,

and the location of the attack is also a match to the victims and perpetrators (Doxsee, 2024;

Sageman, 2024; Sheehan, 2022).

Renard (2021) shares how the notion of data-driven research in counter-terrorism has

only emerged over the last few years. Ouassini (2023) explains how the Japanese attack on Pearl

Harbor on December 7, 1941, forced the United States to develop domestic security practices

and policies, and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, resulted in a tremendous increase in

domestic security. Domestic security is a broader term than homeland security as it not only

envelops homeland security but also folds in non-military and non-law enforcement aspects

(Renard, 2021). The Government Accountability Office [GAO] reported that 73 percent of the
 55

domestic terrorist attacks since September 11, 2001, were the result of violent extremists

compared to the 27 percent of fatalities resulting from radical Islamic extremists (Doxsee, 2024;

Ouassini, 2023). Doxsee (2024) and Ouassini (2023) shed light on how extremists of all

ideologies targeted the military, government, and law enforcement, with many of the individuals

and groups having a history of terrorism and violence calling for the closing of the border and

ending non-white immigration to the United States.

Pantucci and Singam (2024) illustrate how the domestic terrorism investigations

conducted by the Federal Bureau of Investigations have doubled since the spring of 2020 to

around 2,700 investigations. It is theorized that the events in Israel have led to the most

significant number of anti-Semitic attacks in the United States in 2022 since 1979 when the Anti-

Defamation League first compiled the data (Pantucci & Singam, 2024). Doxsee (2024)

establishes that there are an average of 31 deaths each year in the United States as a result of

domestic terrorism; however, she notes that in 2016, there were 66.

Another terrorism concern raised by the United States Department of Homeland Security

and the Office of the Director of National Intelligence is immigration. The United States

Department of Homeland Security (2023) and the Office of the Director of National Intelligence

(2023) explain how the number of encounters anticipated in 2024 was going to be the largest on

record with the announcement of the parole process for individuals from countries such as

Venezuela, Haiti, and Nicaragua. With growing issues in countries receiving immigrants in

Europe and Latin America, the number of individuals migrating from the Eastern Hemisphere

has doubled between 2022 and 2023 (Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2023;

United States Department of Homeland Security, 2023). The United States Department of

Homeland Security explains how the department is seeing an increase in the number of people
 56

attempting to enter the United States who are on the Terrorist Screening Data Set. They share

how, as of July 2023, approximately 160 non-US individuals attempted to enter the country

illegally.

The Office of the Director of National Intelligence (2023) exclaims that a significant

concern to the terrorism and counter-terrorism of the United States is Hezbollah, and the terrorist

entities need to reduce the influence the United States holds in the Middle East. They explain

how Hezbollah “maintains the capability to target U.S. persons and interests in the region,

worldwide, and, to a lesser extent, in the United States. Iran could benefit strategically if

Hizballah were to conduct terrorist activity on U.S. soil” (Office of the Director of National

Intelligence, 2023, p. 33). Regardless of the statement over Hezbollah executing a terrorist attack

in the United States, the current academic literature does not address the concern the Office of

the Director of National Intelligence sets forth.

El Paso, Texas

El Paso, Texas, is a city of over 500,000 individuals located along the Southwestern land

border of the United States (Castañeda & Chiappetta, 2020; Cooper & Resales, 2021; Mareite,

2022). While considered one of the safest cities along the United States side of the border, El

Paso’s neighbor on the Mexican side of the border, Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, is considered one of

the most dangerous cities (Castañeda & Chiappetta, 2020; Cooper & Resales, 2021; Mareite,

2022). Tapia (2020) establishes how El Paso is one of the country’s largest and oldest border

cities. With the wavering attitude and the periodically antagonistic attitudes about the

Southwestern land border, the politics of the state have regrettably communicated messages to

the masses of the state’s population, who appear to perceive the cultural and demographic shifts

the state is experiencing (Payan, 2023).

 57

On Saturday, August 3, 2019, a white 21-year-old male arrived at a Walmart in El Paso,

Texas, after driving over 650 fifty miles (Amaya, 2024; Gegenheimer & Trepel, 2023; Landeros

et al., 2021; Lankford, 2020; Millsaps, 2021; Qiao et al., 2022; Sinai, 2024; Tinajero et al.,

2023). The shooter opened fire at 10:30 a.m., killing 19 individuals and injuring 27 others

(Amaya, 2024; Gegenheimer & Trepel, 2023; Landeros et al., 2021; Lankford, 2020; Qiao et al.,

2022). Three of the injured died after arriving at the trauma center, with a fourth person passing

away after a lengthy hospital stay (Qiao et al., 2022). The individual targeted this Walmart

specifically due to its location as it serviced Latinx families from El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad

Juarez, Mexico (Amaya, 2024; Gegenheimer & Trepel, 2023; Landeros et al., 2021; Lankford,

2020; Millsaps, 2021; Qiao et al., 2022; Tinajero et al., 2023). The shooter's manifesto, the

Great Replacement, that he posted to an online forum claimed that Latinx people were taking

jobs away from white Americans, and he blamed the immigration policies of the United States

(Amaya, 2024; Gegenheimer & Trepel, 2023; Landeros et al., 2021; Lankford, 2020; McCauley,

2021; Millsaps, 2021; Qiao et al., 2022; Tinajero et al., 2023).

Conclusion

The shooting in El Paso was not a random shooting conducted by an individual with

mental health issues but rather a calculated act of terrorism fueled by the policies, the press, and

social media discussions concerning immigration (Amaya, 2024; Gegenheimer & Trepel, 2023;

Landeros et al., 2021; Lankford, 2020; Millsaps, 2021; Qiao et al., 2022; Tinajero et al., 2023).

Gegenheimer and Trepel (2023) detail that despite the Department of Justice’s decree of the

individual creating an act of domestic terror and was a crime of racially motivated terrorism, the

individual was charged with firearms violations and hate crimes. Millsaps (2021) explains how

the level of extremism in the United States continues to rise in terms of frequency and level of
 58

violence. The impact, both socially and emotionally, from acts of violence such as the El Paso

shooting are not isolated to the area and can have a nationwide effect on individuals of all ages,

but they can be especially traumatic to children (Tinajero et al., 2023). Can steps be initiated or

implemented to diminish the risk of terrorism associated with illegal migration into the United

States?

Summary

Notwithstanding the existing published literature, there appears to be a lack of academic

discourse on how the turmoil in the Middle East and the crisis on the United States'

Southwestern land border leads to terrorism concerns within America. This chapter exhibited a

thematic analysis of the surveyed scholarly literature, delving into a thematic analysis of the

surveyed scholarly literature, exploring the efficaciousness of seven different themes: an

overview of the turmoil in the Middle East, Iran, and Hezbollah, an overview of the United

States southwestern land border, policies, the border wall, terrorism as a whole, and counter-

terrorism and terrorism in the United States.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS

Overview

This study is a qualitative multi-thematic case study using semi-structured interviews.

Using purposive sampling techniques, 12 to 15 participants were selected; however, the number

of participants was adjusted since data saturation was achieved. Purposive sampling is

commonly employed in qualitative research to select a sample that includes the most suitable

representatives from the target population, where suitable representatives are participants chosen

for their ability to provide insightful descriptions of the phenomenon being studied (Islam &

Aldaihani, 2022; Sullivan-Bolyai & Bova, 2021). Data was collected through semi-structured

interviews conducted through an online meeting format, which was recorded and then

transcribed. Using triangulation among participant responses and extant literature, the study

identified emerging themes that pertain to the turmoil in the Middle East, the crisis at the United

States’ Southwestern land border, and an increased risk for terrorism.

Research Design

This study is a qualitative multiple-case study using semi-structured interviews. The

results of the interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis and triangulation to develop

themes to answer the research questions. Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method that

helps researchers explore and interpret complex patterns and themes within qualitative data

(Braun & Clarke, 2022; Thompson, 2022). Triangulation in qualitative research involves using

multiple methods, sources, or perspectives to enhance credibility and validity, offering a more

comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (da Silva

Santos et al., 2020; Yin, 2018). Tomaszewski et al. (2020) posit that qualitative research does not

focus on predictive outcomes but on deep comprehension of a particular topic or subject.

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Qualitative research embraces individuals’ expertness and backgrounds (Tomaszewski et al.,

2020). Qualitative research is vital for comprehending the meaning of a policy or program and

calls for action or modifications (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2020). When researching

complex topics such as the Middle East, the U.S. Southwest land border, and terrorism, a

qualitative case study is practical because it integrates various sources and types of evidence.

(Aquinas et al., 2019; Busetto et al., 2020; Carminati, 2019; Filho & Tenenbaum, 2020; Karch,

2022).

Case studies are the preferred approach for a researcher if the event or events are

contemporary and the outcomes are not mailable at the time of the study (Bingham, 2023;

Tomaszewski et al., 2020; Yin, 2018). 12 to 15 participants were this study's original target,

equating to a minimum of 12 to 15 case studies; however, the number of participants was

adjusted since data saturation was achieved. Case studies focus on distinct situations where there

may be many variables compared to physical data points, and the data must be concentrated

using triangulation (Bingham, 2023; Tomaszewski et al., 2020; Yin, 2018). The notion of

triangulation aids in strengthening the validity of the case study since multiple sources may point

to a single phenomenon (Weible & Workman, 2022; Yin, 2018; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022).

Triangulation was applied among participant responses and existing literature to answer the

research questions. da Silva Santos et al. (2020) detail how triangulation is a strong strategy for

cultivating qualitative research where different sentiments are included.

Research Questions

RQ 1: How do the conflicts in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in the

United States, and what can be done to mitigate these risks?

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of terrorism?
 61

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens

from a potential terrorist attack?

Setting

Each participant received the questions in advance, and the interview was conducted

online through applications such as Microsoft Teams®, Google Meet®, or Zoom®. The setting

was chosen to attract a diverse group of research participants who have firsthand experience with

conflicts in the Middle East, the crisis at the Southwestern land border, terrorism, or who have

relevant knowledge about the risks of terrorism based on their experiences. Finally, online video

permits building rapport and trust as the participant can visually see the researcher.

Participants

The study's population encompasses National Security Advisors, defense analysts,

lawmakers shaping domestic and international policies, and federal and local agencies such as

the Department of Homeland Security, the FBI, and border patrol units. It also includes

migration experts, active-duty personnel, veterans with first-hand experience, individuals

specializing in counterterrorism, intelligence, and border security, and analysts examining the

impact of global and regional instability on terrorism risks. Participants were selected through

purposive sampling from the expansive population. The purposive sampling method was

particularly appropriate for this study, as it prioritizes knowledge and experience over random

selection (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Creswell & Poth, 2024). By deliberately choosing

participants who meet the study’s criteria, the researcher is more likely to gather high-quality,

relevant data that directly addresses this study's three proposed research questions (Creswell &

Creswell, 2018; Creswell & Poth, 2024). Finally, purposive sampling ensures the researcher that

participants command the knowledge necessary to address one or more of the research questions,
 62

and in turn, the validity of the research study is strengthened, and the depth of the study’s

findings is increased (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Creswell & Poth, 2024).

The participant sample represented the population of interest mentioned above by

targeting individuals with direct expertise or experience relevant to the conflicts in the Middle

East, the southwestern United States border crisis, or counterterrorism. This enhanced the depth

of the analysis and ensured that the findings were grounded in expertise rather than generic or

uneducated responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Creswell & Poth, 2024). Potential sample

participants were carefully researched and selected from individuals 18 or older. They must have

served or be currently serving in the United States Border Patrol, the United States military with

counter-terrorism experience, in intelligence roles within the United States, or with the United

States Department of State in countries closely aligned to this study, guaranteeing a

comprehensive set of viewpoints. This is essential for understanding the complex, multi-

dimensional factors contributing to the risk of terrorism in the United States. Pseudonyms were

implemented to ensure participants could openly discuss their experiences and insights without

fear of retribution or consequences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jerolmack & Murphy, 2019).

Using pseudonyms supports the integrity of the research by protecting participants' identities,

which may be crucial given the sensitive nature of the topics being discussed in this study

(Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jerolmack & Murphy, 2019).

Procedures

The initial step in conducting the study was to secure Liberty University’s Institutional

Review Board [IRB] approval. After authorization was received, the researcher began the

necessary steps in recruiting and collecting data. Participants were selected through purposive

recruitment techniques. Initial participants were contacted via email to explain the nature of the
 63

study and gauge interest and availability or to seek additional individuals to participate.

Participants were screened to ensure they were qualified for the study and provided with an

informed consent form. Eligible individuals who expressed interest in partaking in the study

completed the informed consent form and emailed it back to the researcher. Each consent form

was secured in a password-protected folder on a password-protected computer that was securely

backed up to a password-protected personal server to which only the researcher had access.

Upon receipt of the consent forms, individual online meetings were scheduled on

mutually agreed days and times using a virtual meeting platform such as Microsoft Teams®,

Google Meet®, or Zoom®. The online meeting platform allowed the ability to address distance

and enabled the meeting to be recorded. After each interview, a conversation transcription was

downloaded and grammatically checked before being sent to the participant for member

checking. Member-checking is when the individuals participating in the research engage with

the data that has been collected (Pila et al., 2020; Rose & Johnson, 2020). The process of

member-checking is a significant step in qualitative research as it contributes to the study's

trustworthiness (Jahja et al., 2021; Pila et al., 2020; Rose & Johnson, 2020). Participants had

five to seven days to provide any modifications or comments. Once received, the information

was entered into MAXQDA®, a qualitative analysis software. MAXQDA® enables researchers

to transcribe interviews, count the frequency of specific codes or themes, and generate

descriptive statistics such as counts, percentages, and frequencies for the coded data

(MAXQDA®, 2024). Additionally, MAXQDA® offers tools for visually representing

qualitative research findings (MAXQDA®, 2024).

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The Researcher's Role

In qualitative research, the researcher’s role is multifaceted, with the overarching role

being the analysis instrument (Crenshaw & Crenshaw, 2018; Maxwell, 2019; Yin, 2018). The

researcher refrained from recruiting friends or colleagues to participate in this study because it is

in the best interest of the study not to have any personal or professional relationships with

participants. Crenshaw and Crenshaw (2018) extrapolate how the researcher must be mindful of

their backgrounds, which may subconsciously impact their conclusions. The researcher was

cognizant of any personal biases related to the research study topic. There were no biases against

participants, and the researcher treated all participants respectfully. No participants were

exploited, and no conflicts of interest existed. After the study was approved and completed, the

researcher emailed each participant a summary report of the research findings and thanked them

again for their participation.

Data Collection

The data was collected through recorded semi-structured interviews, and participants

were provided pseudonyms to protect their anonymity. The semi-structured interview involves a

two-way dialogue, permitting follow-up questions for clarification and a vivid understanding of

the discussed topic (Islam & Aldaihani, 2022; Bringham, 2023; Crenshaw & Crenshaw, 2018).

After each interview, a conversation transcription was downloaded and grammatically checked

before being sent to the participant for member checking. Participants were permitted five to

seven days to return any modifications or comments.

Data Analysis

The interview responses were transcribed and analyzed through thematic analysis to

identify emerging themes. The qualitative analysis software program MAXQDA® was utilized
 65

for thematic analysis. This program is a text analysis tool that helps identify themes within the

interview transcripts. Yin (2018) posits how technology can aid a researcher in analyzing

copious amounts of data, such as open-ended responses to qualitative questions. Creswell and

Creswell (2018) explain how hand-coding qualitative data can be laborious and that there are

more opportunities for human error. Data coding, in the context of qualitative research, is the

process of dissecting text, images, or other data gathered by the researcher to see what exists

before reassembling the data in a way that makes sense (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Elliott,

2018; Maxwell, 2020). Creswell and Creswell (2018) explain how expected codes are based on

common sense and scholarly works. For this study, terms such as “terrorism,” “illegal

immigration,” “policies,” “politics,” “border,” “terrorism,” and “the Middle East” are a few of

the expected codes.

After the data was collected, reviewed by participants, and analyzed, themes were

derived. Creswell and Creswell (2018) support the concept of multiple themes because they state

that once a researcher begins to assemble the data, logical groupings should appear to the

researcher, and they should organize the data accordingly. Grouping the data into themes aids the

researcher in garnering an overall sense of what transpires, organizing the information, and

testing the general ideas (Bruan & Clarke, 2022; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Kiger & Varpio,

2020).

Trustworthiness

One of the significant components of qualitative research is trustworthiness (Jahja et al.,

2021; Mata, 2022; O’Kane et al., 2021). Although a variety of methods may be employed, they

must align with the objectives set by the researcher, as trustworthiness is the concept by which

the quality of the research is judged (Jahja et al., 2021; Mata, 2022; O’Kane et al., 2021).
 66

Trustworthiness is increased when a researcher demonstrates their understanding through their

data and context, displaying their lack of prejudice in their analysis, supplying enough detail for

another researcher to replicate the study, and permitting the evaluation of a research study’s

conclusion in comparison to other contexts (Jahja et al., 2021; Mata, 2022; O’Kane et al., 2021).

The simplest way for a researcher to develop trustworthiness is through rigor (Braun & Clark,

2022; Jahja et al., 2021). Rigor can be achieved by implementing systematic research

methodologies (Jahja et al., 2021; Mata, 2022). In qualitative research, validity and reliability are

established through four areas: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability

(Braun & Clark, 2022; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jahja et al., 2021; Mata, 2022; O’Kane et al.,

2021; Yin, 2018). Some of the methods that the researcher may utilize include audit trails,

categories of data, member checking, peer debriefs, and result corroborations (Braun & Clark,

2022; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jahja et al., 2021; Mata, 2022; O’Kane et al., 2021; Yin,

2018). For this study, triangulation, the implementation of categories, and member checking

were employed to strengthen the trustworthiness.

Credibility

Credibility is the breadth to which the research results are homogenous with the data

collected (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jahja et al., 2021; O’Kane et al., 2021; Peel, 2020).

Credibility is analogous to internal validity in qualitative research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;

Jahja et al., 2021; O’Kane et al., 2021). The research study's results should coincide with reality

and capture the experiences of the research participants accurately with an in-depth analysis by

the researcher (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jahja et al., 2021; O’Kane et al., 2021). As

mentioned earlier, the notion of triangulation aids in strengthening the validity of the case study

since multiple sources may point to a single phenomenon (Weible & Workman, 2022; Yin, 2018;
 67

Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022). The triangulation method selected for this study was data triangulation,

which is used to develop at least two themes for each question. Data triangulation, where unique

data sources can be developed at varying times, places, or with different individuals (da Silva

Santos et al., 2020; Weible & Workman, 2022; Yin, 2018; Zohlnhöfer et al., 2022).

Dependability and Confirmability

Jahja et al. (2021) describe dependability as the extent to which the study results are

copacetic with the data collected during the study and conformability as the magnitude of the

results are unbiased based on the research but instead are the results of the findings themselves.

With the data collection method stemming from interviews conducted between the participants

and the researcher, dependability and conformity will be achieved through developing trust,

recordings, thick descriptions, and member checking (Jahja et al., 2021; Pila et al., 2020; Rose &

Johnson, 2020). Copies of the transcribed interviews were sent to each participant to verify the

accuracy of their responses. The researcher received modifications, and once the participant

verified their responses, the data was placed next to each corresponding question. Once the

responses were gathered, data triangulation was utilized to develop themes for each

corresponding question. Yin (2018) details how the findings of a study are more likely to be

dependable and confirmable if the results are based on different sources that converge similarly.

Transferability

Transferability is the extensiveness to which a study’s results are viable under different

circumstances (Jahja et al., 2021; Peel, 2020; O’Kane et al., 2021; Storm & Larsen, 2020).

Carminati (2018) instructs on how transferability is preferred in qualitative studies compared to

theoretical generalizability. Creswell and Creswell (2018) mention how using vividly explicit

descriptions provides future researchers contemplating transferability with a grounded

 68

framework for comparison. Storm and Larsen (2020) explain how case studies permit

transferability as the individual reading the study conceives the information within their situation

and transfers the understanding to their environment. Additionally, implementing code

frequencies aids in transferability, according to O’Kane et al. (2021), as it supports individuals in

the future by employing a study’s design and analysis that already exists. Case studies were

utilized for this study, and vividly explicit descriptions and codes were developed to analyze the

data to permit transferability.

Ethical Considerations

Creswell and Creswell (2018) extrapolate how all researchers must safeguard the

individuals who are participating in the study, develop faith with the individuals, defend against

transgressions and unscrupulous behavior that might reflect on the institutions and organizations

the researcher or the participants are associated with, and deal with problems that arise. All

qualitative and quantitative research forms must address ethical values and conform accordingly

(Braun & Clarke, 2022; Peel, 2020). There are no ethical issues associated with this study. The

study was conducted, data analyzed, and results produced without the involvement of any of the

study’s participants or the organizations they currently or formally represent. Informed consent

will be obtained from each participant voluntarily, and they did not receive compensation for

their participation in the research. Additionally, Creswell and Creswell (2018) establish how

permission from the Institutional Review Board [IRB] must be garnered to protect the human

participant’s rights.

To ensure that the individuals participating in the study are protected, Liberty

University’s IRB examined, appraised, and assessed the research, including all human subjects,

to guarantee that the study was conducted ethically. One of the capacities of Liberty University’s
 69

IRB is to protect the privacy and confidentiality of all individuals involved. The goal of this

study from an ethical consideration perspective was to adhere to all procedures performed in

studies involving human participants under Liberty University’s IRB ethical standards and with

the 1964 Helsinki Declaration, the later amendments to the Declaration, or other comparable

ethical baselines (Calton & Hall, 2022; Tapia, 2020).

Confidentiality and privacy are also considered ethical considerations (Creswell &

Creswell, 2018; O’Kane et al., 2021; Yin, 2018). Maintaining the privacy of the individual

research participants is paramount in any study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; O’Kane et al., 2021;

Yin, 2018). When interviewing for a qualitative research project such as this, the participants

reveal personal information and recount their experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; O’Kane

et al., 2021; Yin, 2018). For this academic study, all participants were informed of their privacy

rights and reassured that their involvement in the study would be kept confidential. Each

individual participating in the study was supplied with a consent form, informed that they may

withdraw from the study at any point, and provided the ability to review the study in advance.

An ambiguous alphanumeric identification, such as Participant 1 (P1), will be used. All

documentation, such as consent forms, data, and interview transcripts, were associated with the

generic moniker. Once the individual consents to their participation, the person signed all of the

required paperwork.

Summary

This qualitative case study aimed to decipher the risks of terrorism due to the conflicts in

the Middle East and the crisis at the Southwest Border. The findings may be utilized to support,

strengthen, or develop more effective counterterrorism and immigration policies, ultimately

leading to a positive social climate change. The issue in this qualitative study was the increased
 70

risk of terrorism in the United States due to the unrest in the Middle East and the porous

Southwest Border that is experiencing unprecedented amounts of illegal migration into the

United States. This study is critical because it has the potential to identify how the United States

may quell future terror attacks. The site, participants, and procedures were identified in this

chapter.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

Overview

This qualitative multiple-case study aimed to explore the potential connection between

unrest in the Middle East, the surge in illegal migration at the United States’ Southwest Border,

and the heightened risk of terrorism in the United States. The research addresses the pressing

issue of increased terrorism risk stemming from geopolitical instability and a significant influx of

illegal immigrants. Chapter 4 outlines the data collection, analysis, and presentation methods

concerning the research questions. It includes direct narrative quotes that align with specific

themes derived from participant responses to interview questions. The narratives and lived

experiences of participants serve as a foundation for these quotations, directly addressing the

research questions. Much of this chapter is dedicated to presenting and analyzing the interview

and artifact data collected from participants.

The study is anchored in three primary research questions that served as foundational

instruments for systematically collecting and analyzing data. These inquiries were designed to

explore the terrorism risks linked to the conflicts in the Middle East and the crisis at the

southwestern border of the United States.

RQ 1: How does the turmoil in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in the

United States?

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of terrorism?

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens

from a potential terrorist attack?

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Participants

Participants were chosen via purposive sampling to offer perspectives on how the unrest

in the Middle East and the open Southwest Border heighten the risk of terrorism. To be eligible,

individuals had to have served, or be currently serving, in the United States Border Patrol, the

United States military with counter-terrorism experience, in intelligence roles within the United

States, or with the United States Department of State in countries closely aligned to this study,

guaranteeing a comprehensive set of viewpoints. This is essential for understanding the complex,

multi-dimensional factors contributing to the risk of terrorism in the United States. Pseudonyms

were implemented to ensure participants could openly discuss their experiences and insights

without fear of retribution or consequences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Jerolmack & Murphy,

2019).

Participant 1

A retired United States Army Lieutenant General [Three-Star General] whose lengthy

career was predominately in special forces in counterterrorism and served as the Deputy Director

of the Special Activities Center [SAC] for the Central Intelligence Agency [CIA].

Participant 2

A retired after 26-years as a United States Customs and Border Patrol Agency Agent

ending their career as a Patrol Agent in Charge.

Participant 3

This person served as the Intelligence Director for the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the

National Security Agency [NSA] Director.

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Participant 4

As a Senior United States State Department official, this person has served in the United

States Embassies in Israel, Kabul, and Panama. Their experiences include being the coordinator

of US-Mexico Border Affairs, chief of station, and senior foreign policy advisor.

Participant 5

This person served over 20 years in the United States Border Patrol [USBP]. After

serving in two different Chief of Patrol positions along the southwest border, they were tasked as

the Acting Director of Counter-Narcotics Enforcement [CNE] for the Department of Homeland

Security [DHS].

Participant 6

This individual spent a 30-year career as a Central Intelligence Agency [CIA] National

Clandestine Service [NCS] in many roles, including as a Division Chief.

Participant 7

Retired as a Federal Agent, including serving time as an embedded agent in the Federal

Bureau of Investigation’s operations center in Baghdad and holding additional high-level

positions within the Bureau, this individual has extensive knowledge of terrorism and national

security.

Participant 8

This veteran Border Patrol Agent dealt directly with terrorism and border security during

their 15 years at the Department of Homeland Security. They were awarded numerous awards

and citations, including the Commissioner’s Anti-Terror Award.

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Participant 9

A retired Border Patrol Supervisor who served in many roles, including K-9 Special

Operations.

Participant 10

This individual retired after 22 years in the Central Intelligence Agency [CIA]. During

their time there, they became recognized experts in counterterrorism and rose to the rank of

Chief of Station.

Participant 11

This person is a researcher at the Naval Postgraduate School in the Center for Homeland

Defense and Security [CHDS] and the National Security Affairs [NSA] Department.

Results

This qualitative descriptive study explores the effects of the conflicts in the Middle East,

the crisis at the Southwestern Border, and the risk of terrorism within the United States, as well

as potential strategies for enhancing national security. The findings of this investigation are

presented in a narrative format that prioritizes objectivity and non-evaluative insights, organized

systematically according to the research questions. The researcher employed inductive thematic

analysis to identify relevant codes, categories, and themes, formulating nine overarching themes

corresponding to the study's research inquiries. Each research question is associated with a set of

three distinct themes.

Results for Supporting Research Question 1

This research inquiry aims to assess the degree of terrorism risk within the United States

as influenced by ongoing conflicts in the Middle East. The three thematic elements of this

research question have been formulated from analogous categories synthesized from relevant
 75

coding. This section provides a detailed analysis of each theme and connects it to the primary

research question. Additionally, it outlines the methodology employed in developing each theme

from the corresponding codes and categories.

Table 1

Themes 1, 2, 3

Research Question Themes

How does the turmoil in the Middle East Theme 1: The Intersection of Geopolitics and
increase the risk of terrorism in the United Terrorism Increases the Risk of Terrorism in
States? the United States
Theme 2: Psychological and Ideological
Drivers of Conflict Increase the Risk of
Terrorism in the United States
Theme 3: The Challenges of Border Security
and Sociopolitical Stability Increase the Risk
of Terrorism in the United States

While all three themes correspond with Research Question One, Theme One, titled "The

Intersection of Geopolitics and Terrorism Increases the Risk of Terrorism in the United States,"

is deemed most significant due to the highest frequency of associated codes, totaling 60. This is

followed by Theme Two, "Psychological and Ideological Drivers of Conflict Increase the Risk of

Terrorism in the United States," which comprises 27 codes, and Theme Three, "The Challenges

of Border Security and Sociopolitical Stability Increase the Risk of Terrorism in the United

States," featuring 26 codes. The methodology employed to derive each theme from the respective

codes is detailed below, and the analysis of the themes is conducted concerning the initial

research question.
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Table 2

The Intersection of Geopolitics and Terrorism

Codes Categories Theme

Geopolitical Complexities
Geopolitical Fatalism
Geopolitical interests
Geopolitical Tensions
Geostrategic considerations
Iran's global reach Geopolitical and Strategic
Israeli withdrawal from Gaza Considerations
Rejection of Israel by the
Arab World
Sovereignty and intervention
United States Foreign Policy
Dilemmas
Unconditional Support for
Israel
Asymmetric Warfare
Counterterrorism Challenges
Counterterrorism Strategies
Evolving Terrorist Landscape
Intelligence Cooperation The Intersection of
Intelligence Gathering Geopolitics and Terrorism
Network-Based Terrorism Increases the Risk of
Proxy Warfare Terrorism in the United
State-Sponsored Terrorism States
Terrorism and Counterterrorism
Terrorist Financing and
Resources
Terrorist Ideological
Narratives
Terrorist Psychological
Drivers
Terrorist-State Symbiosis
Ungoverned Spaces and
Power Vacuums
Asymmetric Partnerships
Changing Societal Dynamics
Communal Conflicts
Conflict Between Hamas and
the Palestinian Authority Conflict and Security Issues
Conflicting Loyalties
Covertness
Local Dynamics
Proxy
 77

Socioeconomic Conditions
Spectrum of Relationships

Theme 1: The Intersection of Geopolitics and Terrorism Increases the Risk of Terrorism in

the United States

The first theme that emerged from the data analysis was the intersection of geopolitics

and terrorism increases the risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme, “The Intersection of

Geopolitics and Terrorism Increases the Risk of Terrorism in the United States,” was selected

because it directly addresses research question one regarding the conflicts of the Middle East

increasing the risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme emerged from coalescing 60

codes into three categories or subthemes: Conflict and Security Issues, Geopolitical and Strategic

Considerations, and Terrorism and Counterterrorism. The Conflict and Security Issues

subcategory was generated by combining the following codes: Asymmetric Partnerships,

Changing Societal Dynamics, Communal Conflicts, Conflict between Hamas and the Palestinian

Authority, Conflicting Loyalties, Covertness, Local Dynamics, Proxy, Socioeconomic

Conditions, and Spectrum of Relationships. The subcategory of Geopolitical and Strategic

Considerations was derived from the codes: Geopolitical Complexities, Geopolitical Fatalism,

Geopolitical interests, Geopolitical Tensions, Geostrategic considerations, Iran's Global Reach,

Israeli Withdrawal from Gaza, Rejection of Israel by the Arab World, Sovereignty and

Intervention, United States Foreign Policy Dilemmas, and Unconditional Support for Israel. A

thematic analysis of the participant responses revealed that the intersection of geopolitics and

terrorism increases the risk of terrorism in the United States.

Geopolitical and Strategic Considerations

The turmoil in the Middle East increases the risk of terrorism in the United States due to

the intersection of geopolitics and terrorism. The United States has deep and significant
 78

relationships with regional nations, both allies like Israel and adversaries like Iran, which have

enabled the United States to operate militarily in the region. Participant 7 divulged, “We're not

going to deal with Iran or other similar countries,” and Participant 3 stated, “Those relationships

go from the traditional strong alliances like with Israel, I would argue, you know, to like Iran,

we're the opposite of the spectrum where we get significant issues.” However, these relationships

have also fueled resentment towards the United States and Israel, which extremist groups have

capitalized on to recruit and radicalize individuals. The United States' support for Israel, in

particular, has been a significant source of resentment in the region, with many Arabs viewing

Israel as a "fundamentalist terrorist organization, " as articulated by Participant 6. This

resentment has created opportunities for terrorist groups like Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Houthis

to gain support and carry out attacks against the United States and its allies.

Additionally, the instability and conflicts within countries in the Middle East, such as the

infighting between various factions in Afghanistan and Iraq, have allowed terrorist groups to

thrive and appeal to disaffected youth. These groups can offer a sense of purpose and grandeur

lacking in the "petty infighting" and the "grubby environment" of their local communities, as

stated by Participant 4. Furthermore, the United States has struggled to battle terrorism

effectively in the region, often facing difficult choices between bad and worse options.

Participant 4 recounted, “Any situation can be examined as to which path to take: this path that is

bad or this path that is equally as bad; which one is worse? We will attempt not to go down the

worst option; however, as a country, we sometimes select the worst path.” The United States has

supported allies like Israel in their fight against terrorist groups but has been reluctant to confront

certain groups like Hamas and Hezbollah directly. This has led to a perception of United States
 79

favoritism towards Israel, further fueling resentment and creating opportunities for terrorist

recruitment.

Terrorism and Counterterrorism

Terrorist groups in the Middle East seek sponsorship or protection from nation-states, or

they move into ungoverned areas to establish control. Groups like ISIS, Hamas, Hezbollah, and

the Houthis have exploited power vacuums created by conflict and weak governance to gain

territory and resources. Participant 3 quipped, "The model has evolved, as I said, to either

sponsor me, allow me to work out of your country, or let me create a void. Let me identify a void

where I can make my governance structure." Many of these groups receive support from Iran,

which uses its global reach to aid its proxies. The United States has generally not confronted

these groups directly, instead supporting allies like Israel to counter them. However, the United

States has taken action against groups that threaten vital interests, such as the Houthis disrupting

shipping in the Red Sea. Participant 4 recalled, “I think the Houthis have discovered, probably to

their surprise, that it has been much more difficult for us to stop them from disrupting the sea

lanes of traffic through the Red Sea.” Terrorist groups often have exaggerated perceptions of the

United States' power and influence, leading them to test the limits of the United States' resolve.

Overall, the intersection of geopolitics, power vacuums, and transnational terrorist networks in

the Middle East poses an ongoing risk of terrorism to the United States.

Conflict and Security Issues

The United States has long-standing relationships with various nations in the Middle

East, ranging from strong alliances like Israel to contentious ones like Iran. Participant 3 said, "I

think our relationship with Israel is another point of issue," while Participant 7 proclaimed, "The

fundamental issue in that area, along with the United States, is our long-standing relationship
 80

with Israel." These relationships have enabled the United States to maintain a significant

military presence in the region and respond to regional conflicts, such as Saddam Hussein's

invasion of Kuwait and the Iran-Iraq war. However, these relationships are often transactional,

driven by factors like access to resources, land, and oil rather than genuine affection. Participant

7 answered how, "It's transactional for resources, access to land, geographic areas, and, of

course, oil. Oil is where it all started from." "We partner with other countries in the area, like the

Gulf Cooperation Council [GCC], to keep traffic flow open in and out of the Persian Gulf and

keep the oil and the economic movement of trade in and out of the Red Sea and in the Gulf,"

exclaimed Participant 3.

The United States' support for Israel has been a source of resentment among many

Muslim nations, which terrorist groups have capitalized on to fuel anti-American sentiment.

Additionally, the United States' involvement in the region, such as the invasion of Iraq, has

contributed to a growing sense of resentment and distrust among the local populations. Terrorist

groups like al-Qaeda and ISIS have exploited these local grievances and conflicts to recruit

young men and spread their ideology, posing a significant threat to the United States homeland.

“A terrorist group like ISIS or al-Qaeda can effectively speak to the arguing groups about how

petty their infighting is when there is a much larger fight that is much grander,” stated

Participant 4. The complex web of relationships, historical events, and local dynamics in the

Middle East make it challenging for the United States to address the threat of terrorism

effectively.
 81

Table 3

Psychological and Ideological Drivers of Conflict

Codes Categories Theme

Cognitive Biases
Collective Memory and
Forgetting
Conflicting Ideologies
Entrenched Narratives
Ideological Contagion
Ideological Roots of the Psychological and Ideological
Muslim Brotherhood Factors
Paranoid Worldview
Perceived Existential Threat
Public Perception and Fear Psychological and
Sectarian Dynamics Ideological Drivers of
Shift in Hamas's ideology and Conflict Increase the Risk
tactics of Terrorism in the United
Cross-Cultural Connections States
Diversity of Border Crossers
Epistemic Humility
Ideological Struggle for the
Soul of the Arab World
Nuanced Perspectives on Social and Cultural Dimensions
Border Issues
Shared Humanity
The Quest for Identity,
Dignity, and Self-
Determination

Theme 2: Psychological and Ideological Drivers of Conflict Increase the Risk of Terrorism

in the United States

The second theme that emerged from the data analysis was the psychological and

ideological drivers of conflict increase the risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme,

“Psychological and Ideological Drivers of Conflict Increase the Risk of Terrorism in the United

States,” was selected because it directly addresses research question one regarding the conflicts

of the Middle East increasing the risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme emerged from

coalescing 27 codes into two categories or subthemes: Psychological and Ideological Factors and
 82

Social and Cultural Dimensions. The Psychological and Ideological Factors subcategory was

generated by combining the following codes: Cognitive Biases, Collective Memory and

Forgetting, Conflicting Ideologies, Entrenched Narratives, Ideological Contagion, Ideological

Roots of the Muslim Brotherhood, Paranoid Worldview, Perceived Existential Threat, Public

Perception and Fear, Sectarian Dynamics, and Shift in Hamas's Ideology and Tactics. The

subcategory of Social and Cultural Dimensions was derived from the codes of Cross-Cultural

Connections, Diversity of Border Crossers, Epistemic Humility, Ideological Struggle for the Soul

of the Arab World, Nuanced Perspectives on Border Issues, Shared Humanity, and The Quest for

Identity, Dignity, and Self-Determination. A thematic analysis of the participant responses

revealed that the psychological and ideological drivers of conflict increase the risk of terrorism in

the United States.

Psychological and Ideological Factors

Groups like Hamas and the Muslim Brotherhood have emerged as alternatives to existing

governments, which they view as collaborators with Israel and the West. These groups promote

an Islamist and anti-Western ideology that fuels conflict and resentment towards the United

States and Israel. Terrorists perceive the United States as a powerful entity that is

unconditionally supportive of Israel, which is seen as a fundamentalist terrorist organization by

many in the Arab world. Participant 1 communicated, “Israel is at the top of the stack there

because the United States was the first nation to recognize the sovereignty of Israel, and that has

been a sore point.” This perception, combined with a belief that the United States can intervene

but chooses not to, leads to conspiratorial thinking and emboldens terrorist groups to challenge

the United States' power. “There is a lot of conspiratorial thinking because there is an assumption
 83

that the United States has tremendous power; however, why aren't we exercising it in

conjunction with these various factions?” pondered Participant 4.

The United States' foreign policy in the region, particularly its support for Israel and

involvement in conflicts like the Gulf War and Iraq War, has also contributed to resentment and

a cycle of violence. Participant 1 admitted, “When we went into Iraq, there was a great

expectation that they would open the doors, roll out the carpet, and allow us to go to any place

we wanted. The reality is regardless of how the people felt, they were forced to resist America.”

Participant 10 added, “However, part of the issue is that, anecdotally speaking, many people in

the Middle East don't particularly like the Saudis simply because they are Saudis, along with the

power they wield and their influence in the region, which is closely tied to their relationship with

the United States government. This perception has fueled some resentment.” Ultimately, the

complex web of historical, ideological, and geopolitical factors in the Middle East creates an

environment that increases the risk of terrorism targeting the United States.

Social and Cultural Dimensions

The turmoil in the Middle East increases the risk of terrorism in the United States through

several interconnected factors. Terrorist groups like Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Muslim

Brotherhood have ideological and psychological drivers that fuel conflict, including a belief that

the local governments have become collaborators with Israel and the West. Participant 3

established, “Remember, Hamas started as a Palestinian group that initially worked with the

Palestinian Authority but, over time, argued that the Palestinian Authority has become a

collaborator with Israel.” These groups have been able to capitalize on regional resentments and

use the perception of United States favoritism towards Israel to recruit and radicalize individuals,

both within the Middle East and in the West. The complex history of the United States'
 84

involvement in the region, including the decision to recognize Israel, has contributed to a web of

resentments that extremist groups can exploit. Additionally, the instability and lack of

democratic governance in many Middle Eastern countries, often characterized as "family

businesses," as Participant 6 defined them, creates an environment ripe for the rise of such

groups. Ultimately, the United States faces difficult choices in addressing these challenges, as

any action or inaction can have unintended consequences and further fuel resentment toward the

United States

Table 4

The Challenges of Border Security and Sociopolitical Stability

Codes Categories Theme

Grappling with the Duality of
Border Security
Navigating the Tension
between Nationalism and
Border and Migration Issues
Universalism
The Challenges of Border
Principles of Justice and Due
Security and
Process
Sociopolitical Stability
Transactional Detachment
Increase the Risk of
Authoritarian power structures
Terrorism in the United
Coalition Efforts
States
Institutional Inertia
Missed Opportunities Political and Governance Issues
Moral Dilemmas
Recruitment Strategies
Shifting Priorities

Theme 3: The Challenges of Border Security and Sociopolitical Stability Increases the Risk

of Terrorism in the United States

The third theme to materialize from the interviews was the challenges of border security

and sociopolitical stability increasing the risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme, “The

Challenges of Border Security and Sociopolitical Stability Increase the Risk of Terrorism in the

United States,” was selected because it directly addresses research question one regarding the
 85

conflicts of the Middle East increasing the risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme

emerged from coalescing 26 codes into two categories or subthemes: Border and Migration

Issues, and Political and Governance Issues. The Border and Migration Issues subcategory was

generated by combining the following codes: Grappling with the Duality of Border Security,

Navigating the Tension Between Nationalism and Universalism, Principles of Justice and Due

Process, and Transactional Detachment. The subcategory of Political and Governance Issues was

developed from the codes of Authoritarian Power Structures, Coalition Efforts, Institutional

Inertia, Missed Opportunities, Moral Dilemmas, Recruitment Strategies, and Shifting Priorities.

Thematic analysis of the participant responses revealed that the challenges of border security and

sociopolitical stability increase the risk of terrorism in the United States.

Border and Migration Issues

The turmoil in the Middle East, particularly the long-standing conflict between Israel and

the Palestinian territories, has contributed to an increased risk of terrorism in the United States.

This is due to the complex and often transactional relationships between the United States and

countries in the region, driven by factors like access to resources and geographic areas.

Participant 7 testified to “Relationships are always transactional. Those people, they don't love

us. You know, we don't love them.” While nation-states like Iran support proxy groups, the most

significant threats have often come from rogue, decentralized organizations like al-Qaeda and

ISIS, which have evolved into a network and mindset rather than a single entity. The rise of the

Islamic State and its territorial ambitions further complicated the counterterrorism efforts of the

United States government. “Geography and territory connected with the Islamic State changed

everything for the United States, with an interest in Afghanistan and Iraq, because not only is the

country now battling an ideology or a religious thought process, but a real estate or land issue
 86

also,” acknowledged Participant 7. Participant 10 mentioned, “A significant part of what you all

know as students and experts in this field is that many movements originating in the Middle East

have spread to other parts of the world.”

However, the border security challenges are not limited to the Middle East, as the United

States-Mexico border also faces issues of migration and asylum claims. Despite the need for

border security, the speaker emphasizes the importance of upholding human rights and due

process, recognizing that all people, regardless of their origin, are fundamentally the same and

that it is often governments that create divisions and enmity. Participant 2 stated, “A lot of

people don't understand that and don't agree with it, but an individual is still entitled to due

process, which means you can go before a court of law.”

Political and Governance Issues

Iran's use of its global consulates and embassies to provide support to terrorist groups like

Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Houthis is a significant concern. “You mainly see this with Iran,

where Iran uses its global consulates and its global embassies at times to provide support to

surrogates...They've always had an enormous footprint. They engage globally and take advantage

of their global footprint as a nation, embassies, consulate, trade, etc.,” asserted Participant 3.

These groups have carried out attacks from the Mediterranean to the Western Pacific, taking

advantage of Iran's global footprint. The United States has generally not confronted these groups

directly, instead supporting Israel's efforts against them. However, the United States has directly

targeted the Houthis due to their attacks on international shipping in the Red Sea, which

threatens global trade. The United States' relationship with Israel is another key factor. The

United States was the first to recognize Israel, making it a strong supporter. Participant 4

confirmed how “The United States took a great leap as the first nation to acknowledge Israel as a
 87

country, which in turn made the United States the ‘great supporter’ of Israel.” This has led to

resentment in the region, which autocratic rulers have capitalized on to distract from their

problems. The perception of the United States' favoritism towards Israel has fueled resentment

and created opportunities for extremist groups to target the United States.

Additionally, the United States' involvement in conflicts in the Middle East, such as the

wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, has contributed to the resentment and instability in the region. The

complex history of United States foreign policy, including the CIA's role in the 1953 coup in

Iran, has also played a significant role in shaping the current tensions. Participant 1 exposed how

“The reality is we knew what the Shaw was doing, and in fact, our CIA pulled off a coup that

ultimately put him in office.” Furthermore, the internal dynamics within the Middle East, such as

the conflicts between different ethnic and religious groups, have been exploited by terrorist

organizations. These groups can appeal to disaffected youth by offering a sense of purpose and

grandeur, even as they inflict petty infighting. “The case is such that when you live in a world of

petty infighting, low economic standing, and a grubby environment, some group or person comes

along, lifts you up, and shares visions of grandeur, most people will buy in and have great

appeal,” acknowledged Participant 4. Overall, the combination of Iran's support for terrorist

groups, the United States' relationship with Israel, the legacy of United States interventions, and

the internal dynamics of the Middle East have created a volatile environment that increases the

risk of terrorism in the United States.

Results for Supporting Research Question 2

In addressing Research Question 2, the researcher analyzed the implications of illegal

immigration at the Southwest Border, increasing the risk of terrorism. This study endeavors to

explore this critical inquiry by examining the relevant interview questions associated with it.
 88

Through the research findings, three primary themes have been identified that illustrate the

relationship between the southwestern border crisis and the increased risk of terrorism. These

themes are: "Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics Associated with Illegal Immigration at

the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism," "Security, Crime, and Border

Enforcement Associated with Illegal Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of

Terrorism," and "Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations Associated with Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism." This section will elaborate

on the development of these themes and provide a detailed analysis of each.

Table 5

Analysis of Themes 4, 5, 6

Research Question Themes

Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Theme 4: Security, Crime, and Border
Border increase the risk of terrorism? Enforcement Dynamics Associated with
Illegal Immigration at the Southwest Border
Increase the Risk of Terrorism
Theme 5: Governance, Policy, and Power
Dynamics Associated with Illegal
Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase
the Risk of Terrorism
Theme 6: Social, Psychological, and Cross-
Border Relations Dynamics Associated with
Illegal Immigration at the Southwest Border
Increase the Risk of Terrorism

During the interviews, three key themes emerged concerning Research Question Two.

The fourth theme, titled “Security, Crime, and Border Enforcement Related to Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border and Its Impact on Terrorism Risk,” is regarded as the most

significant, as it encompasses the highest frequency of associated codes, totaling 49. This is

followed by the fifth theme, “Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics Related to Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border and Their Contribution to Terrorism Risk,” which includes
 89

41 codes. The sixth theme, “Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations and Their

Influence on Terrorism Risk Associated with Illegal Immigration at the Southwest Border,”

comprises 34 codes. A detailed methodology outlining the derivation of each theme from these

respective codes is provided below, along with an analysis of the themes of the second research

question.

Table 6

Security, Crime, and Border Enforcement

Codes Categories Theme

Cartel Influence
Cartel Tactics
Corruption in Mexico
Diversion Tactics
Funding and Support for
Terrorist Groups
Illegal Immigration and
Narcotics
Illicit Normalization Crime, Cartels, and Terrorism
Illicit Trafficking and
Unknowns
Security and Border Control
Terrorism and
Security, Crime, and
Counterterrorism
Border Enforcement
Terrorism and Organized
Dynamics Associated with
Crime
Illegal Immigration at the
Transnational Criminality
Southwest Border Increase
Asymmetric Threat
the Risk of Terrorism
Asymmetric policy responses
Asymmetric treatment of
border crossers
Expanding Scope of Border
Responsibilities
Emphasis on Border Control Security, Border Control, and
as a Solution Law Enforcement
Interagency Collaboration
Interconnectedness of Security
Domains
Irregular Migration Patterns
Jurisdictional Boundaries
Land Ports of Entry
 90

Security and Border Control

Security and Law
Enforcement
September 11 Effects
Shifting Narratives of Security
Threat Analysis and Strategy
Threats and Risk Management
Vulnerability Awareness

Theme 4: Security, Crime, and Border Enforcement Dynamics Associated with Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism

The fourth theme that emerged from the research was the security, crime, and border

enforcement related to illegal immigration at the Southwest Border impacts the risk of terrorism.

The theme, “Security, Crime, and Border Enforcement Related to Illegal Immigration at the

Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism in the United States,” was selected because it

directly addresses research question two regarding the crisis at the Southwestern Border and the

increased risk of terrorism in the United States. The theme emerged from coalescing 49 codes

into two categories or subthemes: Security, Border Control, and Law Enforcement, and Crime,

Cartels, and Terrorism. The Security, Border Control, and Law Enforcement subcategory was

generated by combining the following codes: Asymmetric Threat, Asymmetric policy responses,

Asymmetric treatment of border crossers, Expanding Scope of Border Responsibilities,

Emphasis on Border Control as a Solution, Interagency Collaboration, Interconnectedness of

Security Domains, Irregular Migration Patterns, Jurisdictional Boundaries, Land Ports of Entry,

Security and Border Control, Security and Law Enforcement, September 11 Effects, Shifting

Narratives of Security, Threat Analysis and Strategy, Threats and Risk Management, and

Vulnerability Awareness.

The subcategory of Crime, Cartels, and Terrorism was developed from the codes of

Cartel Influence, Cartel Tactics, Corruption in Mexico, Diversion Tactics, Funding and Support
 91

for Terrorist Groups, Illegal Immigration and Narcotics, Illicit Normalization, Illicit Trafficking

and Unknowns, Security and Border Control, Terrorism and Counterterrorism, Terrorism and

Organized Crime, and Transnational Criminality. Thematic analysis of the participant responses

revealed that the psychological and ideological drivers of conflict increase the risk of terrorism in

the United States.

Crime, Cartels, and Terrorism

Illegal immigration at the Southwest Border poses a significant risk of terrorism. Cartels

exploit mass migration flows to smuggle drugs, weapons, and potentially terrorists cross the

border. Participant 4 elaborated by stating, “For many years, terrorists could have been entering

the United States, not only through Mexico but Canada or air travel, and we would not have

known.” The number of suspected terrorists encountered at the border is concerning, as the

"gotaways" who evade apprehension are likely much higher. “…the gotaways were the people

who paid extra, the people who didn't want to be caught, the people for some reason, whether

they're criminal aliens, terrorists, lone wolves, or whatever reason they got the Premiere Deal,

which was to avoid apprehension altogether,” briefed Participant 9. Terrorists could easily blend

in with the large influx of migrants, and the sheer volume makes it extremely difficult to detect

them. Participant 5 highlighted, “The real threat is not the first two vehicles but the third or

fourth vehicle behind the one you see. The same concept is applied to a suspected terrorist by

hiding in plain sight.”

The border has transitioned from an immigration and narcotics issue to a national security

concern, with border security now closely tied to counterterrorism efforts. “…the men and

women now see it as a counterterrorism mission or focus, which wasn't the case 30 years ago,”

explained Participant 5. Cooperation between the United States and Mexico is crucial but
 92

challenging due to the cartels' profound influence in Mexico. Participant 2 vouched, “Mexico is a

very corrupt country. Their numerous politicians have been corrupted. They have been tied to

cartels. It's almost a military-run state by the cartels. They have a tremendous influence in

Mexico, and I've seen that my entire life along the US-Mexico border.” Overall, the risk of

terrorists exploiting the porous Southwest Border is accurate and demands heightened vigilance

and security measures.

Security, Border Control, and Law Enforcement

Illegal immigration at the Southwest Border poses a potential risk of terrorism, as

transnational criminal organizations and terrorist groups have exploited weaknesses in border

security to enter the United States. While the number of known or suspected terrorists attempting

to cross the border is relatively small compared to the overall number of illegal crossings, even a

single successful attack could have devastating consequences. Participant 8 shared, “There

remains a concern with the significant migration flows coming from Central America, but also

around the world, as being a means for terrorists to enter the United States through these

irregular migration or illegal migration patterns.”

The September 11th attacks on the United States were a pivotal moment that transformed

border security from a public nuisance issue to a national security priority, leading to the creation

of the Department of Homeland Security and a significant expansion of the United States Border

Patrol. Participant 5 expressed, “When I entered the Border Patrol, it wasn't an issue of border

security, but rather, it was illegal immigration and narcotics.” However, concerns remain about

the ability of terrorists to blend in with large-scale migration flows and exploit vulnerabilities in

the immigration system, such as visa overstays. “…the 9/11 terrorists came in legally. They

came in on visas and…another huge problem with our immigration system is that you can come
 93

in our country…and that's it's by the luck of encounter in an immigration office where they find

out you're here as an overstay,” relayed Participant 2.

Cooperation and information-sharing between United States federal, state, and local law

enforcement and international partners like Canada and Mexico are crucial to addressing the

threat. Educating border communities and engaging with high school students in these areas can

also help build an intelligence network and foster a culture of vigilance against potential terrorist

activity. Participant 9 extrapolated, “…They cross daily, go to high school on the north side, and

return to Mexico on the south. We push some programs to the high school level…” and

“…educate the local police, sheriffs, and jails on what to look for and see. Educate LEOs on

topics such as ‘this is what terror is,’ ‘what a terrorist looks like,’ ‘this is what a terrorist acts

like,’ ‘this is how a terrorist will talk’...” Ultimately, the challenge lies in striking a balance

between securing the border and facilitating legitimate cross-border travel and commerce while

remaining vigilant against the evolving tactics of transnational criminal organizations and

terrorist groups seeking to exploit the border for their nefarious purposes.

Table 7

Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics

Codes Categories Theme

Bilateral Relationship
Dynamics
Governance, Policy, and
Systemic Issues
Governance, Policy, and
Geopolitical and Policy Issues
Power Dynamics
Geopolitical and Power
Associated with Illegal
Dynamics Geopolitical and Policy Issues
Immigration at the
Geopolitical Tensions
Southwest Border Increase
Geopolitical Implications of
the Risk of Terrorism
Designating Cartels as
Terrorists
Historical Context
Historical Precedents
 94

National Sovereignty
Political and Ethical Issues
Political Realignment
Asymmetrical Power
Dynamics
Conflicting Priorities
Existential Threat
Institutional Biases and
Assumptions Power, Bureaucracy, and
Institutional Constraints Institutional Challenges
Leverage and Negotiation
Moral Ambiguity
Power and Bureaucracy
Resignation and Resignation
Systemic Entanglement
Authorization to Return to
Canada
Operational and Resource
Operational Strain
Challenges
Resource Challenges
Technological Advancements

Theme 5: Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics Associated with Illegal Immigration at

the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism

The fifth theme to come to fruition through the discussions was governance, policy, and

power dynamics associated with illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of

terrorism. The theme, “Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics Associated with Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism,” was selected because it

addresses research question two regarding the crisis at the Southwest Border increasing the risk

of terrorism in the United States. The theme emerged from organizing 41 codes into three

categories or subthemes: Geopolitical and Policy Issues; Power, Bureaucracy, and Institutional

Challenges; and Operational and Resource Challenges. The subcategory of “Geopolitical and

Policy Issues” was generated by combining the following codes: Bilateral Relationship

Dynamics, Governance, Policy, and Systemic Issues, Geopolitical and Policy Issues,

Geopolitical and Power Dynamics, Geopolitical Tensions, Geopolitical Implications of

 95

Designating Cartels as Terrorists, Historical Context, Historical Precedents, National

Sovereignty, Political and Ethical Issues, and Political Realignment.

The second subcategory of Power, Bureaucracy, and Institutional Challenges was

developed from the codes of Asymmetrical Power Dynamics, Conflicting Priorities, Existential

Threat, Institutional Biases and Assumptions, Institutional Constraints, Leverage and

Negotiation, Moral Ambiguity, Power and Bureaucracy, Resignation and Resignation, and

Systemic Entanglement. The third subcategory was generated based on Authorization to Return

to Canada, Operational Strain, Resource Challenges, and Technological Advancements codes.

Thematic analysis of the participant responses revealed that the governance, policy, and power

dynamics associated with illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of

terrorism.

Geopolitical and Policy Issues

The bilateral relationship between the United States and Mexico, particularly in border

security and immigration, is complex. This complexity underscores the historical tensions and

sensitivities surrounding national sovereignty, with Mexico asserting its position as a geopolitical

counterpart to the United States. Participant 4 relayed, “I would share that no country in the

hemisphere has a bigger chip on its shoulder when it comes to national sovereignty vis-a-vis the

U.S. than Panama, except for Mexico.” These dynamic challenges include negotiating border

crossings, infrastructure development, and resource-sharing initiatives.

Following the September 11th terrorist attacks on the United States, there was a

transformative impact on border security policy, shifting the emphasis from immigration control

to national security. “In the aftermath of 9/11, there was a lot of target hardening when it came to

the U.S. border with Mexico and Canada, as well as through Authorization to Return to Canada
 96

[ARC] and land ports of entry,” recalled Participant 8. This shift was marked by establishing the

Department of Homeland Security and consolidating various agencies under Customs and

Border Protection. While there is concern regarding the potential for terrorist organizations to

exploit irregular migration patterns to access the United States, it is essential to note that the

number of known or suspected terrorists attempting to enter through the southern border is

relatively tiny in comparison to the total migration flows.

Local border communities are portrayed as possessing a nuanced perspective, reflective

of their long-standing Hispanic heritage and their shared pride in cultural identity. These

communities advocate for the enforcement of laws while simultaneously acknowledging the

benefits of economic and social integration across the border. Participant 2 shared, “There's a lot

of proud Hispanic people that have been here for generations upon generations. Some are

generational that go back to when Texas was still part of Mexico, and they are vocal about

people who have entered illegally. They feel people need to do it the right way.” Additionally,

there are legitimate concerns regarding the safety and security of border regions that transcend

political affiliations. Again, Participant 2 shared their first-hand experiences:

Texas has been a predominantly blue democratic border region, and I think 12 out

of 14 counties voted for President Trump to be our president. We saw a very

significant change there. And I can tell you from my own experiences most of our

Democrats, even along the border, are very conservative in their beliefs. They're

just aligned with what the old Democratic Party used to be, and even though there

have been some changes, they're very conservative. When it comes to the illegal

immigration part, a lot of them are very proud that they've been here for
 97

generations, or they did it the right way, so they take offense to what's been going

on.

The discussion emphasizes the multifaceted and sensitive nature of the United States-

Mexico border dynamic, where national security, immigration, and geopolitical considerations

intersect.

Power, Bureaucracy, and Institutional Challenges

The relationship between the United States and Mexico, particularly in the context of

border security and immigration, is characterized by a high degree of complexity. This

complexity underscores the historical tensions and sensitivities surrounding national sovereignty,

with Mexico asserting its geopolitical status as an equal to the United States. Participant 8 stated,

"One significant way is the shared history and how the border has changed over the centuries

with California, Texas, and other parts of the southwest. Through wars, agreements, and treaties,

former portions of Mexico eventually have led to how the current border between the two

countries has been drawn.” Participant 5 explained, “It's like a wave coming onto the beach. It

ebbs and flows with not only U.S. Presidential Administrations but also Mexican

administrations.” “During the '90s and early 2000s, there was more cooperation with the

Mexican government and assistance with specific things that could be done, and that probably

branched came right from the Kiki Camarena incident. Today, the general population feels the

Mexican government should be placing more pressure on the cartels, and historically, they

probably should have been doing more,” according to Participant 9. Such dynamics have

presented significant challenges in negotiations about border crossings, infrastructure, and

resource-sharing initiatives.
 98

Operational and Resource Challenges

In the aftermath of September 11th, border security emerged as a critical national security

priority, resulting in various protective measures, including the enhancement of technological

resources, expedited removal procedures, and proposals for constructing a border wall.

Participant 8 proclaimed, “You had the border wall that never came to fruition. Still, following

September 11, border security rose to national security, which was not necessarily viewed

similarly.” Nevertheless, the substantial increase in migrant flows, particularly from regions with

known links to terrorism, complicates the identification and assessment of potential threats.

Additionally, illicit border crossings are primarily controlled by cartels, which are willing to

facilitate entry for individuals who can afford their services, including those with potential

terrorist affiliations. “Nobody crosses the border without paying something to somebody. It

could be money, sex, drugs, your work, or whatever. And so all, if you're going to pay one way

or the other, and the cartels have, and the cartels know the terrorist organizations have money…”

explains Participant 9. While the focus has expanded beyond immigration to encompass a

broader range of security threats, the challenge remains that limited resources and the extensive

nature of the border hinder effective monitoring and prevention of all unauthorized crossings,

including those involving potential terrorists.

Table 8

Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations

Codes Categories Theme

Anticipation of Future
Social, Psychological, and
Societal Engagement
Cross-Border Relations
Border Culture and
Cross-Border Relations and Associated with Illegal
Integration
Dynamics Immigration at the
Fragile Binational
Southwest Border Increase
Relationship
the Risk of Terrorism
Interagency Collaboration
 99

Localized Approach
Perceived Threats to Safety
and Security
Shared History
Transnational Cooperation
Unfinished Border Wall
Unspoken Dynamics of Cross-
Border Cooperation
Desire for Transformation
Distrust and Ego
Divergent Perceptions of
Borders
Evolving Organizational
Identity
Generational Pride and
Social and Psychological
Resentment
Factors
Lingering Resentment
Nostalgia for the "Old
Democratic Party"
Psychological and Emotional
Factors
Survival Dilemma
Unintended Consequences
Contextual Intelligence
Diplomatic Nuance
Narratives and Awareness
Narratives, Awareness, and
Shifting Priorities
Public Perception
Shifting Priorities and
Motivations
Student Involvement
Community and Grassroots
Community and Grassroots
Efforts
Efforts
Postcolonial Trauma

Theme 6: Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations Associated with Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism

The sixth theme that surfaced from the data analysis was the social, psychological, and

cross-border relations associated with illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the

risk of terrorism. The theme, “Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations Associated

with Illegal Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism,” was selected
 100

because it answered research question two regarding illegal immigration increasing the risk of

terrorism in the United States. The theme emerged from coalescing 34 codes into four categories

or subthemes: Cross-Border Relations and Dynamics, Social and Psychological Factors,

Narratives, Awareness and Public Perception, and Community and Grassroots Efforts.

The first subcategory, Cross-Border Relations and Dynamics, was generated by

combining the following codes: Anticipation of Future Societal Engagement, Border Culture and

Integration, Fragile Binational Relationship, Interagency Collaboration, Localized Approach,

Perceived Threats to Safety and Security, Shared History, Transnational Cooperation, Unfinished

Border Wall, and Unspoken Dynamics of Cross-Border Cooperation. The subcategory of Social

and Psychological Factors was developed based on the codes of Desire for Transformation,

Distrust and Ego, Divergent Perceptions of Borders, Evolving Organizational Identity,

Generational Pride and Resentment, Lingering Resentment, Nostalgia for the "Old Democratic

Party," Psychological and Emotional Factors, Survival Dilemma, and Unintended Consequences.

The third subcategory of Narratives, Awareness, and Public Perception stemmed from the codes

of Contextual Intelligence, Diplomatic Nuance, Narratives and Awareness, Shifting Priorities,

Shifting Priorities and Motivations, and Student Involvement. The theme's final subcategory of

Community and Grassroots Efforts was conceived from Community and Grassroots Efforts and

Postcolonial Trauma codes. A thematic analysis of the participant responses revealed that the

psychological and ideological drivers of conflict increase the risk of terrorism in the United

States.

Cross-Border Relations and Dynamics

The category provides an in-depth analysis of the evolving function of the United States

Border Patrol and the intricate relationship between the United States and Mexico concerning
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border security and cross-border dynamics. Before the events of September 11, 2001, the Border

Patrol concentrated primarily on immigration control and drug enforcement. Participant 5

recalled, “When I entered the Border Patrol, it wasn't an issue of border security, but rather, it

was illegal immigration and narcotics. No one ever got into the job with Border Patrol for the

immigration piece.” However, following those events, there was a significant shift in focus

towards national security and counterterrorism efforts. This paradigm shift has resulted in

heightened vigilance and increased collaboration with various agencies to effectively address

potential terrorist threats that may originate from the southern border. Furthermore, the historical

and cultural connections between the United States and Mexico have fostered a unique border

dynamic marked by interdependence and sensitivities related to national sovereignty.

Despite a shared border culture and economic integration, Mexico's strong commitment

to national sovereignty has introduced complexities in collaborative efforts about border

infrastructure and security. Additionally, there are challenges associated with combating

terrorism and illegal immigration along the southern border. Participant 9 shared, “If we've

caught 300 terrorists that are on the watch list or, to this point, this part in the fiscal year, how

many are in the got away group? So, you can multiply that at least five to ten times or whatever

multiplication you want because it's an unknown.” While there are concerns regarding the

exploitation of irregular migration patterns by potential terrorists, data indicates that the majority

of terrorist incidents have been perpetrated by individuals utilizing airports for entry. Participant

8 detailed, “We have been fortunate that an attack has not happened either from our land border

with Mexico or Canada, but those who have entered the United States to carry out attacks

primarily have come through airports of entry.” The research underscores the critical importance
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of intelligence sharing, community engagement, and the development of trust between law

enforcement and border communities as vital measures to enhance security.

Social and Psychological Factors

The relationship between illegal immigration at the Southwest Border and potential

terrorism risk is intricate and influenced by various social, psychological, and transnational

factors. Historical tensions and interdependencies between the United States and Mexico,

coupled with Mexico's pronounced emphasis on national sovereignty, often complicate

collaborative efforts regarding border management. Participant 2 mentioned, “Well, it goes back

to the 1800s and earlier. Texas was part of Mexico. Texas fought for our independence and

became our own nation. Once Texas became part of the United States, it carried over. Mexico is

a very proud country, and you know they are sovereign nations just like we are.” Participant 8

stated, “At the same time, the United States also views that same border as a security threat, both

for the movement of illicit goods and the list of people across the borders, which has led to the or

has been one of the reasons given for the tariffs imposed.”

The border region is characterized by a cohesive community comprising longstanding

Hispanic residents who express significant concerns regarding illegal immigration and advocate

for lawful entry into the United States. Additionally, the presence of cartels and corruption in

Mexico critically affects the dynamics of the border region, potentially obstructing effective

communication and collaboration between the two nations. “Mexico is a very corrupt country.

Their numerous politicians have been corrupted. They have been tied to cartels. It's almost a

military-run state by the cartels. They have a tremendous influence in Mexico, and I've seen that

my entire life along the US-Mexico border,” explained Participant 2. Participant 9: “The actual

Mexican government doesn't run anything along the border, so those are the cartels. You're
 103

talking about the Sinaloa Cartel just south of us here, and that's the cart and the horse. They're

not separated. They're not the same, but neither of them works separately, either.” Some

apprehension spikes in illegal crossings may inadvertently create opportunities for individuals

with malicious intent to enter the United States undetected. In summary, the challenges at the

Southwest Border present a complex interplay of historical, social, political, and security issues

that necessitate a nuanced understanding and holistic approach.

Narratives, Awareness, and Public Perception

The research underscores the critical importance of grassroots initiatives aimed at

mitigating potential terrorist threats, including the education of border communities and high

school students regarding the realities of terrorism, as well as promoting collaboration between

law enforcement and residents. Following September 11, 2001, there was a notable transition in

emphasis from border control to national security, resulting in a substantial expansion of the

United States Border Patrol. Participant 5 stated:

When I came to the agency in the late 80s, there were 4,000 Border Patrol agents

nationwide, including the Northern Border and Southern Border crossings. I

retired in 2011 and served as the Chief of the Tucson Sector before retiring. The

sector itself is responsible for 262 miles of the entire border. The Tucson Sector in

2011 had 4,500 Border Patrol agents in the command.

Furthermore, there is a pressing need to enhance information-sharing and cooperative

efforts among various intelligence agencies to address security challenges at the border

effectively. The interviews also recognized the intricate and sensitive dynamics of the United

States-Mexico relationship, where Mexico's strong commitment to its national sovereignty

frequently complicates cross-border collaboration initiatives.

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Community and Grassroots Efforts

The United States and Mexico have a multifaceted relationship, particularly in border

security and mitigating terrorism risks. Participant 4 testified, “When I served as the Border

Coordinator, we talked about the issues along the border. I would speak of illegal migration,

drugs, and violence. Still, I always reminded everyone that a million people and billions of

dollars’ worth of commerce would legally cross the southern border daily.” Achieving a

harmonious balance between national sovereignty, cross-border integration, and effective local

counterterrorism initiatives is essential. The conducted interviews highlighted the critical

necessity of fostering trust and collaboration among various stakeholders, including law

enforcement agencies, border patrol personnel, and community members, to effectively tackle

the challenges associated with illegal immigration and potential terrorist threats. Participant 9

noted, “…anti-terrorism counterterrorism begins at your local law enforcement level…”

Furthermore, they emphasized the importance of grassroots intelligence collection and the need

to educate the community, particularly youth, about the realities of terrorism and the significance

of vigilance and reporting. The overarching conclusion is that addressing these complex issues

necessitates a nuanced and collaborative approach that honors the distinct dynamics and

sensitivities of the border region.

Results for Supporting Research Question 3

For the third research question, the researcher examined the responses to the research

question, “How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens from a

potential terrorist attack?” The three thematic elements of this research question have been

formulated from analogous categories synthesized from relevant coding. This section provides a

detailed analysis of each theme and connects it to the primary research question. Additionally, it
 105

outlines the methodology employed in developing each theme from the corresponding codes and

categories.

Table 9

Analysis of Themes 7, 8, 9

Research Question Themes

How can the United States strengthen its Theme 7: The United States Can Strengthen
border security to protect its citizens from a its Border Security Through National Security
potential terrorist attack? and Threat Management
Theme 8: The United States Can Strengthen
its Border Security Through Policy, Society,
and Global Dynamics
Theme 9: The United States Can Strengthen
its Border Security Through Border and
Crime Control

While all three themes correspond with Research Question Three, Theme Seven, titled

"The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through National Security and Threat

Management," is deemed most significant due to the highest frequency of associated codes,

totaling 103. Theme Eight, "The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through

Border and Crime Control," follows with 74 codes. Theme Nine, "The United States Can

Strengthen its Border Security Through Policy, Society, and Global Dynamics," features 59

codes. The methodology employed to derive each theme from the respective codes is detailed

below, and the analysis of the themes is conducted concerning the initial research question.

Table 10

National Security and Threat Management

Codes Categories Theme

9/11 Hijackers
The United States Can
Aftermath of 9/11 Terrorism and Counterterrorism
Strengthen its Border
Counterterrorism
Security Through National
Counterterrorism Operations
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Counterterrorism Policy Security and Threat

Counterterrorism Strategies Management
Evolving Threat Landscape
Existential Threat
Existential Threat Perception
Grievance and Radicalization
Global Capabilities of Middle
Eastern Groups
Improvised Explosive Devices
(IEDs)
Lone Wolf Attacks
Psychological Profile of Lone
Wolf Attackers
Radicalization Pathways
Resilience and Adaptability in
Counterterrorism
Terrorism Concerns
Terrorism Designation
Terrorist Profiling
Terrorist Tactics
Threat Assessment
Threat Perception
Uncertainty and Vigilance
Adaptive Security Paradigm
Asymmetric Information and
Resource Allocation
Asymmetric Warfare
Bystander Intelligence
Cognitive Biases
Comprehensive data
collection and analysis
Connecting the Dots
Conspiracy Feasibility
Cultural Relativism in
Intelligence, Surveillance, and
Security
Law Enforcement
Data and Intelligence
Debate over Domestic
Intelligence Operations
Democratization of
Surveillance
Ethical Considerations
Evidence Collection
Fusion Centers
Information asymmetry
Information Sharing
Informational Asymmetry
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Intelligence Sharing
Intelligence-Driven Approach
Interagency Cooperation
Interagency Coordination
Intergovernmental Dynamics
Investigative Techniques
Jurisdictional Boundaries
Law Enforcement Challenges
Missed Opportunities
Missed Opportunities for
Transformation
Operational Dynamics
Operational Flexibility
Operational Friction
Operational Mindset
Proactive Versus Reactive
Policing
Proactive Vigilance
Risk Identification
Situational Awareness
Surveillance and Security
Systemic failures in threat
detection
Targeted Enforcement
Operations
Technological Integration

Theme 7: The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through National Security

and Threat Management

The research on how the United States can strengthen its border security through national

security and threat management evolved into a seventh theme. The theme, “The United States

Can Strengthen its Border Security Through National Security and Threat Management,” was

selected because it directly addresses research question three. The theme was raised to the top

based on 103 unique codes sorted into two subcategories: Terrorism and Counterterrorism and

Intelligence, Surveillance, and Law Enforcement. The category of Terrorism and

Counterterrorism comprises the following codes: 9/11 Hijackers, Aftermath of 9/11,

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Counterterrorism, Counterterrorism Operations, Counterterrorism Policy, Counterterrorism

Strategies, Evolving Threat Landscape, Existential Threat, Existential Threat Perception,

Grievance and Radicalization, Global Capabilities of Middle Eastern Groups, Improvised

Explosive Devices [IEDs], Lone Wolf Attacks, Psychological Profile of Lone Wolf Attackers,

Radicalization Pathways, Resilience and Adaptability in Counterterrorism, Terrorism Concerns,

Terrorism Designation, Terrorist Profiling, Terrorist Tactics, Threat Assessment, Threat

Perception, and Uncertainty and Vigilance.

The second subcategory, titled Intelligence, Surveillance, and Law Enforcement,

stemmed from the codes of Adaptive Security Paradigm, Asymmetric Information and Resource

Allocation, Asymmetric Warfare, Bystander Intelligence, Cognitive Biases, Comprehensive data

collection and analysis, Connecting the Dots, Conspiracy Feasibility, Cultural Relativism in

Security, Data and Intelligence, Debate over Domestic Intelligence Operations, Democratization

of Surveillance, Ethical Considerations, Evidence Collection, Fusion Centers, Information

asymmetry, Information Sharing, Informational Asymmetry, Intelligence Sharing, Intelligence-

Driven Approach, Interagency Cooperation, Interagency Coordination, Intergovernmental

Dynamics, Investigative Techniques, Jurisdictional Boundaries, Law Enforcement Challenges,

Missed Opportunities, Missed Opportunities for Transformation, Operational Dynamics,

Operational Flexibility, Operational Friction, Operational Mindset, Proactive Versus Reactive

Policing, Proactive Vigilance, Risk Identification, Situational Awareness, Surveillance and

Security, Systemic failures in threat detection, Targeted Enforcement Operations, and

Technological Integration.
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Terrorism and Counterterrorism

The United States has undertaken substantial measures to enhance its border security and

counterterrorism initiatives in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. There exists a valid

apprehension that extremist groups from the Middle East, such as Al Qaeda, Hezbollah, and

ISIS, may attempt to leverage the movement of individuals, arms, and financial resources across

the southwestern border to penetrate United States territory and execute attacks. Participant 3

construed, “Middle Eastern groups increasingly became more global in their capabilities, such as

Al Qaeda, Hezbollah, and ISIS, as the more visible, always would use the ongoing flow of

people, weapons, and money that are flowing from the South across the southwestern border?

Could they similarly flow people, weapons, and money into the states?” Although these

organizations have made efforts to transfer limited numbers of personnel and weaponry across

the border, the United States has proactively sought to thwart their attempts to establish

significant operational capabilities within its borders.

The challenge associated with border security encompasses the need to reconcile the

differing priorities of intelligence agencies—primarily focused on external threats—and law

enforcement entities, which concentrate on domestic issues. In response to this challenge, the

United States has prioritized enhancing information sharing and utilizing international expertise

to ensure alignment with domestic protocols and awareness. “The most incredible intelligence

collectors are the local police departments or sheriff's offices,” explained Participant 5. This

approach has included discussions regarding the potential expansion of the operational roles of

agencies such as the CIA and NSA within the nation's borders. Participant 7 upheld the concept:

“The FBI is the only official agency that can conduct counterterrorism on U.S. soil. As soon as

they leave the United States, they have no authority. It falls to the intelligence community, such
 110

as the CIA.” However, apprehensions regarding the implications of these actions persist.

Participant 3 recounted, “…we ought to allow the CIA or NSA to operate within the country's

borders. In one of my previous roles, I used to hear that, and I go, OK, but you guys need to

think long and hard about this. I mean, that would be big. It wouldn't be my preference.”

Interagency collaboration has been vital to the success of United States counterterrorism

endeavors. Agencies such as the FBI, the military, and the intelligence community have

coordinated closely, with the FBI assigning agents to international locations for intelligence

collection and support of military operations. Participant 8 attested, “Interagency cooperation is

key, explicitly coordinating operations and intelligence sharing at the state, federal, and local

levels and with our international partners.” “We'd work with the military and the CIA as a

partnership and make sense of the data. We would give the military relevant, actionable data,

which they would use for their purposes. We would provide the CIA, DIA, other Intel agencies,

and allies from different countries with actionable intelligence to prevent an attack,” recalled

Participant 7. Participant 2 detailed, “We're seeing DEA, ATF, FBI, all these people have been

given delegated authority of Immigration, Naturalization Service Title 8. And you know,

working together so and they all have equities in it.” Finally, Participant 10 added, “Because

we're all in the same boat, it's all about relationship building. If we can do that, it's crucial.

Without that, another 9/11 could happen.

This strategic partnership has allowed the United States to effectively disrupt terrorist

activities by tracking materials, financial transactions, and travel patterns, thereby utilizing

judicial processes to incapacitate suspects. Furthermore, the United States has bolstered domestic

information sharing and collaboration through initiatives such as the Joint Terrorism Task Forces

and fusion centers, which facilitate cooperation amongst federal, state, and local authorities.
 111

Participant 6 stated, “One of the best results of 9/11 for domestic situations was the fusion

centers where the federal, state and local officials could share information.” Efforts to engage

communities and educate the public regarding radicalization indicators are considered crucial

complements to these initiatives.

The recent designation of drug trafficking organizations as terrorist entities represents a

significant development that may substantially influence border security and counterterrorism

strategies. This classification enables the United States military to engage directly with these

groups, potentially hampering a critical conduit for terrorist activity. Participant 1 mentioned,

“… we need to do whatever we need to do to close that border, and that includes using the US

military. I would opt for the National Guard because they report to the governors unless they’re

under Title 10, but no matter what, we have to close that border.” However, concerns remain that

such actions could inadvertently heighten the threat landscape. Ongoing challenges persist,

including the need to balance civil liberties, address the risks posed by lone-wolf actors, and

adapt to the continually evolving nature of terrorist tactics and alliances. As Participant 6

declared, “There is always the problem of the lone wolf type of terrorist attack, which we've seen

kind of an uptick.”

Intelligence, Surveillance, and Law Enforcement

The United States has the opportunity to significantly bolster its border security measures

to safeguard citizens against potential terrorist threats by effectively utilizing advanced

technology and intelligence resources. Integrating biometrics, data analytics, and technological

enhancements at points of entry is essential for improving security while promoting legitimate

trade and travel. Participant 8 verbalized, “…it is as the use of biometrics and data analytics

allows for both better security and facilitating legitimate trade and travel, allowing those
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individuals or items that seemingly do not pose a security risk to be let through while

concentrating our security efforts on those anomalies…” While Participant 4 mentioned “…the

Department of Homeland Security's Biometric Identification Transnational Migration Alert

Program [BITMAP]. BITMAP is a program where biometrical data is scanned into the database,

allowing DHS to track migrants or others to see where they are and where they're going.”

Collaboration among various agencies and sharing pertinent information are critical to

identifying early warning signs of terrorism and rectifying systemic deficiencies in threat

detection. Participant 3 highlighted, “The reality or key is that without interagency cooperation,

we can't execute because no organization is responsible for addressing this challenge. We have

multiple organizations with multiple authorities, capabilities, and insights. The challenge has

always been, how do you bring these all together in a practical, coherent way that tries to

maximize the capabilities?” Interagency cooperation and utilizing local expertise are

fundamental to fortifying border security against possible terrorist activities. Mechanisms such as

the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) facilitate this collaboration, as local law enforcement and

community stakeholders have invaluable insights into smuggling routes, traffic patterns, and

suspicious behaviors. Additionally, educating the public on recognizing and reporting concerning

activities is vital, as community intelligence often plays a crucial role in identifying potential

threats.

Enforcement of existing legislation is imperative to deter unlawful activities from

becoming entrenched and disrupting illicit operations. Bipartisan cooperation within Congress is

necessary to devise effective border security strategies that prioritize the protection of lives on

both sides of the border. Interagency collaboration and information sharing are pivotal for

maximizing the efficacy of border security and counterterrorism initiatives. Key strategies to
 113

enhance border security include formally designating drug trafficking cartels as terrorist

organizations, positioning military forces to assist Border Patrol at the border, and addressing the

root causes and ideologies that may compel individuals towards violence. Furthermore,

reinforcing border security should encompass initiatives that engage the community, such as

leveraging local law enforcement and involving community members through efforts like the

Joint Terrorism Task Force. It is also essential to educate the public on recognizing and reporting

concerning behaviors, applying lessons learned from threat assessments, and targeted violence

prevention in educational institutions and workplaces while attending to underlying grievances

that may provoke violent tendencies.

The United States is committed to improving its border security infrastructure to guard

against potential terrorist threats by capitalizing on law enforcement agencies' local knowledge

and expertise. This entails a collaborative approach that merges local intelligence with the

capabilities of national organizations to craft a more effective security strategy. Maintaining

respect for jurisdictional boundaries and engaging with local law enforcement is vital to ensure a

cooperative and legally compliant security framework. Strengthening border security calls for

robust interagency collaboration across federal, state, regional, and international levels. Key

initiatives may include formalizing coordination mechanisms established post-9/11, embedding

law enforcement personnel with military forces internationally, and enhancing the role of the

Director of National Intelligence.

The discussions within the research emphasize the potential risks posed by terrorist

organizations such as Al Qaeda, Hezbollah, and ISIS, which may seek to exploit vulnerabilities

at the United States' southern border. Effective interagency coordination is key to navigating

complex security challenges that cannot be addressed by a single agency alone. Strategies for
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enhancing border security involve fostering increased information sharing and collaboration

among various law enforcement entities, effectively utilizing the extensive databases managed

by Customs and Border Protection [CBP], and coordinating enforcement efforts targeting

criminal aliens and visa overstays. Improved collaboration and information sharing among

United States governmental agencies and law enforcement are imperative for strengthening

border security and counterterrorism operations.

The data underscores the necessity of fortifying United States border security to mitigate

potential terrorist threats. Essential measures include the deportation of undocumented

immigrants, comprehensive vetting and screening processes before entry, and the strategic

deployment of military personnel to the border. Community engagement and outreach initiatives

are equally important, with campaigns such as "See Something/Say Something" prompting

citizens to report suspicious activities and citizen academies informing the public about border

security operations. Participant 2 remembered, “…we had campaigns, if you will, at different

Border Patrol stations where we'd go out to first of all teach people about citizens academies.

These were where people could come to learn why we do what we do.” The text also raises

concerns about the potential exploitation of border vulnerabilities by Middle Eastern terrorist

groups seeking to infiltrate the country and perpetrate attacks. Caution is advised against

expanding domestic intelligence operations conducted by agencies like the CIA and NSA in

response to these threats, as it may pose significant civil liberties concerns. Strategies for

bolstering border security include the establishment of medical facilities and detention centers at

ports of entry, the deployment of additional immigration judges to the border, utilizing

intelligence and law enforcement data to identify potential threats, implementing a "remain in
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Mexico" policy to vet migrants before entering the United States, and strategically deploying

military assets to support Border Patrol efforts.

While the responses to the interview posit that strengthening border security is a vital

endeavor, it also notes that it may not suffice as the most effective measure against terrorist

attacks, mainly because the hijackers involved in the September 11, 2001, attacks entered the

United States through legal means. Therefore, an emphasis on addressing the emerging threat of

lone wolf attacks is increasingly pertinent. Interagency cooperation remains essential in

fortifying border security and counterterrorism efforts, with the military, intelligence community,

diplomatic entities, and law enforcement collaborating to gather, analyze, and disseminate

intelligence. The document further highlights the growing threat posed by fentanyl and its

potential connections to terrorism. According to Participant 9, “Back again to our cartels, which

are now terrorist organizations. Well, now you have a direct link from terrorism to fentanyl.

Because now terrorist organizations that our government designates are the primary movers and

stampers of fentanyl and then enter the country.” In summary, there is a pressing need to enhance

border security through improved collaboration and resource allocation, including leveraging

local law enforcement agencies as crucial intelligence partners, enhancing international

cooperation, and fostering trust through reciprocal support.

Table 11

Policy, Society, and Global Dynamics

Codes Categories Theme

Bipartisan Policymaking
Comparative National The United States Can
Security Challenges Strengthen its Border
Geopolitical and Policy
Cultural Embeddedness of Security Through Policy,
Considerations
Firearms Society, and Global
Ethical Dilemmas and Dynamics
Tradeoffs
 116

Geopolitical Dynamics
Geopolitical Implications
Geopolitical Tensions
Institutional Biases
Institutional Humility
Institutional Inertia
Institutional Knowledge
Institutional Maturity
Institutionalized Mechanisms
Militaristic Approach
Military Deployment
Multilateral Engagement
Nationalism and Sovereignty
Negotiation and Compromise
Negotiation Boundaries
Policy Decisions Driven by
Politics
Political Ideology
Pragmatic Optimism
Rhetoric and Framing
Shifting political priorities and
their impact
Societal Discourse and Debate
Symbolic Significance
Systemic Challenges
Tension Between Security and
Civil Liberties
Unequal Partnerships between
Federal and Local
Unintended Consequences
Balancing Priorities
Balancing Urgency and
Complacency
Collective Responsibility
Community Engagement
Desire for proactive,
community-driven action
Embedded Expertise Social and Psychological
Empowering Local Factors
Communities
Existential Threat
Ideological Perspectives
Institutional Culture Clash
Lack of Pragmatic Solutions
Moral Ambiguity
Personal Experiences
 117

Psychological Profile of Lone

Wolf Attackers
Public Health Concerns
Risk-Taking and Institutional
Trust
Sense of Powerlessness
Spatial Determinism and
Criminal Ecology
Tension between Security and
Civil Liberties
Unspoken Resentment and
Perceived Condescension
Vulnerability of Youth
Vulnerability Perception

Theme 8: The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through Policy, Society,

and Global Dynamics

The results address the eighth theme of how the United States can strengthen its border

security through Policy, Society, and Global Dynamics. The theme, “The United States Can

Strengthen its Border Security Through Policy, Society, and Global Dynamics,” was selected

because it directly addresses research question three. The theme was raised to the top based on

unique codes sorted into two subcategories: Geopolitical and Policy Considerations and Social

and Psychological Factors. The category of Geopolitical and Policy Considerations comprises

the following codes: Bipartisan Policymaking, Comparative National Security Challenges,

Cultural Embeddedness of Firearms, Ethical Dilemmas and Tradeoffs, Geopolitical Dynamics,

Geopolitical Implications, Geopolitical Tensions, Institutional Biases, Institutional Humility,

Institutional Inertia, Institutional Knowledge, Institutional Maturity, Institutionalized

Mechanisms, Militaristic Approach, Military Deployment, Multilateral Engagement,

Nationalism and Sovereignty, Negotiation and Compromise, Negotiation Boundaries, Policy

Decisions Driven by Politics, Political Ideology, Pragmatic Optimism, Rhetoric and Framing,
 118

Shifting political priorities and their impact, Societal Discourse and Debate, Symbolic

Significance, Systemic Challenges, Tension Between Security and Civil Liberties, Unequal

Partnerships between Federal and Local, and Unintended Consequences.

The second subcategory, titled Social and Psychological Factors, stemmed from the

codes of Balancing Priorities, Balancing Urgency and Complacency, Collective Responsibility,

Community Engagement, Desire for proactive, community-driven action, Embedded Expertise,

Empowering Local Communities, Existential Threat, Ideological Perspectives, Institutional

Culture Clash, Lack of Pragmatic Solutions, Moral Ambiguity, Personal Experiences,

Psychological Profile of Lone Wolf Attackers, Public Health Concerns, Risk-Taking and

Institutional Trust, Sense of Powerlessness, Spatial Determinism and Criminal Ecology, Tension

between Security and Civil Liberties, Unspoken Resentment and Perceived Condescension,

Vulnerability of Youth, and Vulnerability Perception.

Geopolitical and Policy Considerations

The enhancement of United States border security to mitigate the risk of potential

terrorist threats necessitates a multifaceted approach. Foremost, it is imperative to enforce

existing immigration laws and policies rigorously. While there are assertions that the

immigration system is "broken," the reality is that adequately enforcing these laws would

facilitate the system's practical functionality. It may also be beneficial to consider updates and

improvements to specific policies such as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals [DACA] and

Deferred Action for Parents of Americans and Lawful Permanent Residents [DAPA]; however,

the primary focus should remain on stringent enforcement. Securing the border extends beyond

the mere construction of a physical barrier. Different border regions demand customized

strategies—what proves effective in the Rio Grande Valley may not apply to Nogales, Arizona.
 119

Participant 2 mentioned:

In Nogales, when I first got there, we had five strand barbed wire fence. They

would cut it and drive vehicles through. We had areas where we had pedestrian

fencing and, because you have a lot of urban environments, so the protective

measures should be appealing to the eyes versus just an old rusty fence. When

you got outside of town, there was the barbed wire fence. In South Texas, where

the Rio Grande twists and turns, a linear fence straight along the border does not

work because you would have to have it further from the border so it could be

straight. The problem with this idea is you are now on private land.

Therefore, a comprehensive plan that includes a combination of physical barriers, advanced

technology such as cameras and sensors, and a robust law enforcement presence is essential.

Moreover, Border Patrol agents must be granted the autonomy to determine the most suitable

security measures for their unique operational environments in collaboration with Congressional

oversight.

Practical interagency cooperation and information dissemination at the federal, state,

local, and international levels are vital. In the aftermath of the events of September 11th,

mechanisms were established to facilitate such cooperation; however, challenges remain in

dismantling silos that hinder interagency collaboration. Tapping into local law enforcement's

expertise and situational awareness is critical, as they are often in the best position to recognize

and report suspicious activities and emerging trends. Participant 3 reminisced, “Remember, the

local law enforcement has knowledge of the terrain, the human dynamic, and all the other things

I loved about dealing with them. They knew what was normal and what was not expected.”
 120

Participant 5 stated, “The most incredible intelligence collectors are the local police departments

or sheriff's offices. They are the folks that are out there.” On the international front, initiatives

such as the Biometric Identity Management Agency Programs [BITMAP] are instrumental in

collecting biometric information to trace migrants and identify potential threats. The relative

accessibility of firearms within the United States, in contrast to other nations, presents a

distinctive challenge that heightens vulnerability to terrorist attacks.

While the practice of profiling based on criteria such as ethnicity and national origin is

contentious, it may be warranted to identify individuals at higher risk of radicalization.

Participant 6 pontificated, “While profiling may seem like an issue, there are profiles for a

reason. Specific origins, backgrounds, and ethnicities backgrounds may make someone more

susceptible to engaging in a terrorist act.” Additionally, reclassifying transnational criminal

organizations as terrorist entities could represent a significant strategic shift, enabling direct

military engagement. In conclusion, an adequate border security strategy necessitates a

comprehensive and multifaceted approach, encompassing stringent enforcement, tailored

solutions to regional needs, robust interagency coordination, and a readiness to make difficult yet

necessary decisions to safeguard our nation.

Social and Psychological Factors

Technological innovations and collaborative efforts among agencies are fundamental in

reinforcing border security measures. Utilizing biometrics, advanced data analytics, and

sophisticated technologies can bolster security protocols while facilitating legitimate commerce

and travel. However, effective coordination among diverse agencies is paramount, as no singular

entity has overarching responsibility for the complex challenges associated with border security.

Frameworks such as the Joint Terrorism Task Force [JTTF] have been instituted to promote this
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collaboration, yet continuous improvement and sustained efforts are essential. Participant 7

detailed, “As far as part of the community, you know, having them being part of the JTTF. When

a local is brought in to sit at the table…You bring in more of them and begin to share.”

Engagement with the community and gathering local intelligence play critical roles in this

endeavor. Individuals such as ranchers and residents residing near border areas can offer

invaluable insights and intelligence. This necessitates an administration that is open to

community contributions. Public initiatives, including the "See Something, Say Something"

campaign and citizen academies to raise awareness, are integral to this strategy. Moreover,

leveraging local law enforcement agencies and empowering community members to report

suspicious activities can enhance overall border security.

A comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of terrorism and targeted violent acts is

also essential. Terrorism exhibits parallels with other forms of targeted violence, including

school shootings, particularly regarding the sequential stages of grievance, planning, and

execution. Insights derived from these contexts, particularly concerning the significance of

bystander awareness and threat assessments, can inform proactive measures to avert terrorist

activities. The stringent enforcement of pre-existing laws and policies remains vital. Rather than

formulating new legal frameworks, the focus should be on ensuring the meticulous

implementation and enforcement of current regulations, which can substantially fortify border

security. This involves addressing challenges such as illegal immigration, smuggling activities,

and the radicalization of individuals.

International collaboration and intelligence sharing are imperative, particularly with

neighboring countries such as Mexico and Canada. Establishing direct partnerships with

equivalent agencies, like Mexico’s Centro de Investigacion Sequirdad Nacional [CISEN], can
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significantly improve cross-border information exchange and facilitate joint operational efforts.

Participant 5 elaborated on “…When I was a Chief in Tucson, I convinced our national Chief to

allow me to have two CISEN officers in my office, and they served as part of my staff for a

year.” Addressing vetting challenges and cultivating trust among international partners is critical

to success. A comprehensive strategy that integrates technological advancements, interagency

collaboration, community involvement, a thorough understanding of the threat landscape,

enforcing existing laws, and robust international cooperation is essential for effectively

enhancing border security and safeguarding against potential terrorist threats.

Table 12

Border and Crime Control

Codes Categories Theme

Addressing the Backlog of
Immigration Cases
Asylum Process Reforms
Balancing Humanitarian
Concerns and Security
Imperatives
Balancing efficiency and civil
liberties
Biometric Identification
Border Conceptualization
Border Enforcement The United States Can
Strategies Border Security and Strengthen its Border
Border Security Immigration Security Through Border
Border Security and Illegal and Crime Control
Immigration
Border Security Challenges
Bureaucratic Gatekeeping of
Asylum
Comparative Border
Dynamics
Conditional Asylum
Eligibility
Deportation
Detention and Enforcement
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Efficiency and Expediency in

Immigration Processes
Enforcement Strategies
Extraterritorial Border Control
Immigration and Border
Crossing
Immigration Policy
Institutional Inertia and
Resistance to Change
Need for Improved Border
Infrastructure
Policy-Enforcement
Disconnect
Strengthening the Border as a
Symbolic and Practical
Barrier
Vetting Process
Broken Windows Theory
Cartel Tactics and
Adaptability
Cross-Border Flows of
People, Weapons, and Money
Dehumanization of
Adversaries
Dehumanization of Asylum
Seekers
Disconnect between
Authorities and Community
Displacement and
Adaptability of Offenders
Embedded Expertise
Crime, Illicit Activity, and
Fentanyl Crisis
Enforcement Challenges
Holistic Problem-Solving
Illicit Activity and
Enforcement
Illicit Flows
Importance of Holistic
Understanding
Institutional Culture and
Power Dynamics
Normalization of Deviance
and Erosion of Social Order
Normalization of
Discriminatory Practices
Operational Agility
Organized Crime Dynamics
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Patriotism and Shared Mission

Relational Intelligence
Siloed Research Efforts
Stakeholder Engagement
Vigilantism and Retributive
Justice

Theme 9: The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through Border and

Crime Control

The research uncovered a ninth and final theme: the United States can strengthen its

border security through border and crime control. The theme, “The United States Can Strengthen

its Border Security Through Border and Crime Control,” was selected because it assists in

answering research question three. The theme is based on unique codes sorted into two

subcategories: Border Security and Crime, Illicit Activity, and Enforcement Challenges. The

category of Border Security and Crime stems from the following codes: Addressing the Backlog

of Immigration Cases, Asylum Process Reforms, Balancing Humanitarian Concerns and Security

Imperatives, Balancing efficiency and civil liberties, Biometric Identification, Border

Conceptualization, Border Enforcement Strategies, Border Security, Border Security and Illegal

Immigration, Border Security Challenges, Bureaucratic Gatekeeping of Asylum, Comparative

Border Dynamics, Conditional Asylum Eligibility, Deportation, Detention and Enforcement,

Efficiency and Expediency in Immigration Processes, Enforcement Strategies, Extraterritorial

Border Control, Immigration and Border Crossing, Immigration Policy, Institutional Inertia and

Resistance to Change, Need for Improved Border Infrastructure, Policy-Enforcement

Disconnect, Strengthening the Border as a Symbolic and Practical Barrier, and Vetting Process.

The second subcategory, titled Social and Psychological Factors, resulted from the codes

of Broken Windows Theory, Cartel Tactics and Adaptability, Cross-Border Flows of People,

Weapons, and Money, Dehumanization of Adversaries, Dehumanization of Asylum Seekers,

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Disconnect between Authorities and Community, Displacement and Adaptability of Offenders,

Embedded Expertise, Fentanyl Crisis, Holistic Problem-Solving, Illicit Activity and

Enforcement, Illicit Flows, Importance of Holistic Understanding, Institutional Culture and

Power Dynamics, Normalization of Deviance and Erosion of Social Order, Normalization of

Discriminatory Practices, Operational Agility, Organized Crime Dynamics, Patriotism and

Shared Mission, Relational Intelligence, Siloed Research Efforts, Stakeholder Engagement, and

Vigilantism and Retributive Justice.

Border Security and Immigration

The United States must prioritize the establishment of medical facilities, detention

centers, and judicial resources at ports of entry along the southern border to adequately address

the needs of incoming migrants, including those who are ill, have criminal records, or are

seeking asylum. “A great example is Ellis Island. When people arrived, they arrived sick…we

had criminals. We had smugglers. What we need at our southern border…where people like to

come to those urban environments…we need to have hospitals so if someone arrives sick where

we can deal with them before we just release them...,” Participant 2 declared. These initiatives

will alleviate the current backlog and facilitate prompt processing and adjudication of cases.

Several participants shared similar sentiments to Participant 2, “The backlog is over 10 years for

these people that have been coming into the United States. They're not going to have to go see an

immigration judge for 10 years.” Furthermore, it is essential to incorporate advanced

technologies to identify potential security threats effectively.

Effective border security necessitates strong collaboration and information exchange

among federal, state, local, and international law enforcement agencies. This should encompass

utilizing local law enforcement's intelligence and firsthand knowledge while reinforcing
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partnerships with global counterparts to disrupt smuggling operations and monitor migrant

movements. Instead of narrowly focusing on the physical border as a mere demarcation, border

security initiatives should be integrated into a comprehensive, risk-based framework that

expands control measures through overseas operations, fortifies embassies, and establishes

asylum processing centers in foreign nations to mitigate migration pressures before they reach

the United States' borders. This holistic approach is critical for achieving effective operational

control.

It is imperative to uphold existing immigration laws uniformly rather than applying them

selectively. This includes the detention and deportation of individuals who enter the country

unlawfully, as opposed to their release within the United States. Maintaining operational control

necessitates a clear understanding of who is entering the country and their legal status. The

military can offer invaluable support functions, such as operating surveillance equipment and

allowing Border Patrol agents to focus on enforcement duties. Participant 9 acknowledged, “The

sensors military people can do that, and then that frees up agents that can actually go out and

arrest people and then help with, you know, processing mana checkpoint and things like that. So

the military's excellent at that.” However, it is crucial to define their role as supportive and non-

enforcement. Adequate border security requires the presence of law enforcement personnel to

conduct arrests and manage the processing of migrants. Given the complexity and significance of

border security, a collaborative, bipartisan approach between Congress and the executive branch

is essential to formulate effective, sustainable policies that protect lives and ensure the safety of

American citizens.

Crime, Illicit Activity, and Enforcement Challenges

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The United States is currently confronting considerable challenges in enhancing its

border security measures to safeguard against potential terrorist threats. It is imperative to

enforce existing laws and regulations effectively, as many issues arise from insufficient

enforcement rather than inherent weaknesses within the system. A key priority is to address the

influx of illegal drugs, particularly fentanyl, which has documented connections to terrorism.

“The drugs switch from hundreds of pounds of marijuana to 2030 lbs. of meth,” per Participant

9. To this end, it is vital to strengthen collaboration and information-sharing among federal, state,

and local law enforcement agencies and with international partners. The expertise and situational

awareness of local law enforcement and community members are essential, given their

comprehensive understanding of the local terrain, smuggling routes, and indicators of suspicious

activities. Moreover, educating the public on recognizing and reporting concerning behaviors is

essential. Additionally, it is crucial to address the underlying grievances that can lead to

radicalization and targeted violence, be it domestic or international, as a proactive measure for

prevention. The potential designation of specific criminal organizations as terrorist entities

carries significant implications that must be thoroughly evaluated. In summary, a holistic and

multifaceted strategy that integrates effective enforcement, community engagement, and

understanding offenders and their motivations is required to bolster border security and mitigate

the risk of terrorist threats.

Summary

This chapter presented the results of the qualitative survey and in-depth interviews, which

were revealed through analysis. It began by briefly introducing each participant and developing

and analyzing the codes, categories, and subcategories. Each of the nine themes was presented

with a brief discussion within the subcategory. The nine themes that were developed were:
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• Theme 1: The Intersection of Geopolitics and Terrorism Increases the Risk of Terrorism

in the United States

• Theme 2: Psychological and Ideological Drivers of Conflict Increase the Risk of

Terrorism in the United States

• Theme 3: The Challenges of Border Security and Sociopolitical Stability Increases the

Risk of Terrorism in the United States

• Theme 4: Security, Crime, and Border Enforcement Dynamics Associated with Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism

• Theme 5: Governance, Policy, and Power Dynamics Associated with Illegal Immigration

at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism

• Theme 6: Social, Psychological, and Cross-Border Relations Associated with Illegal

Immigration at the Southwest Border Increase the Risk of Terrorism

• Theme 7: The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through National

Security and Threat Management

• Theme 8: The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through Policy, Society,

and Global Dynamics

• Theme 9: The United States Can Strengthen its Border Security Through Border and

Crime Control

The next chapter will discuss the themes that emerged during this study and their implications.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION

Overview

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to examine the impact of the

unrest in the Middle East coupled with the increased illegal migration at the Southwest Border to

determine if the United States is at an increased risk of terrorism. To achieve this, the researcher

utilized a qualitative descriptive research approach, interviewing 11 participants via online video

teleconferencing. Participants must have served or be currently serving in the United States

Border Patrol, the United States military with counterterrorism experience, in intelligence roles

within the United States, or with the United States Department of State in countries closely

aligned to this study, guaranteeing a comprehensive set of viewpoints. Diversity is essential for

understanding the complex, multi-dimensional factors contributing to the risk of terrorism in the

United States. Three research questions were answered in the study by analyzing the data

collected from participants and presenting the results based on the findings of the analysis:

RQ 1: How does the turmoil in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in the

United States?

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of terrorism?

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens

from a potential terrorist attack?

The collected data underwent a comprehensive transcription, processing, and coding process

utilizing MaxQDA software. The researcher systematically identified a variety of codes,

subsequently merging these into broader categories. These categories were further synthesized

into nine overarching themes for detailed analysis. This chapter summarizes the study's results,

draws well-founded conclusions based on the findings, and thoroughly discusses the implications
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of the data analysis. Moreover, the researcher offers targeted recommendations for professionals

and researchers informed by the findings, alongside suggestions for future research avenues.

Summary of Findings

The study findings indicated that the conflicts in the Middle East, coupled with the crisis

at the Southwest Border, increase the risk of terrorism in the United States. The answers below to

the three research questions contain concise findings from the nine themes analyzed in this study.

RQ 1: How does the turmoil in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in the United

States?

The Middle East's turmoil has increased the risk of terrorism in the United States due to

the intersection of geopolitics and extremism. The United States maintains deep ties with

regional allies like Israel and adversaries like Iran, enabling military operations but also fueling

resentment. Extremist groups exploit this discontent, mainly over the United States' support for

Israel, to recruit and radicalize individuals. Regional instability, such as conflicts in Afghanistan

and Iraq, allows terrorist organizations like Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Houthis to thrive by

offering disaffected youth a sense of purpose. These groups leverage power vacuums and often

receive support from Iran, while the United States has relied mainly on allies like Israel to

counter them. Despite efforts to combat terrorism, the United States' policies, such as selective

engagement with groups like Hamas and Hezbollah, have reinforced perceptions of favoritism,

further driving anti-American sentiment.

Groups like Hamas and the Muslim Brotherhood have positioned themselves as

alternatives to governments they view as collaborators with Israel and the West. Their Islamist

and anti-Western ideology fuels resentment toward the United States and Israel, which many in

the Arab world perceive as a fundamentalist terrorist entity. The United States' foreign policy,
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particularly its support for Israel and involvement in conflicts like the Gulf and Iraq Wars, has

intensified regional resentment, creating a cycle of violence. Extremist groups exploit this history

to recruit and radicalize individuals by portraying the United States as biased against Muslim

nations. The longstanding turmoil in the Middle East, particularly the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,

has contributed to an increased risk of terrorism in the United States. Overall, a combination of

Iran's support for terrorist groups, the United States' ties with Israel, the legacy of U.S.

interventions, and internal regional divisions have created a volatile environment that heightens

the threat of terrorism against the United States.

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of terrorism?

Illegal immigration at the Southwest Border poses a potential terrorism risk, as criminal

and terrorist organizations exploit security vulnerabilities to enter the United States. Cartels

facilitate the smuggling of drugs, weapons, and potentially terrorists, with "gotaways" who evade

apprehension posing a particular concern. The border has shifted from an immigration issue to a

national security priority, with border enforcement now viewed through a counterterrorism lens.

The 9/11 attacks transformed border security, leading to the creation of the Department of

Homeland Security and expanded U.S. Border Patrol operations. While most illegal crossings do

not involve suspected terrorists, even a single successful attack could be catastrophic. Visa

overstays remain a vulnerability, as the September 11th terrorists entered legally before

exploiting gaps in the immigration system. Cooperation between U.S. federal, state, and local

agencies and international partners like Mexico and Canada is crucial in mitigating threats.

However, corruption and cartel influence in Mexico complicate enforcement efforts. Community

engagement, including educating border communities and local law enforcement, enhances

intelligence-sharing and vigilance. Balancing security with legitimate cross-border travel and
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commerce remains a challenge as transnational criminal organizations and terrorist groups

continue to adapt their tactics.

The U.S.-Mexico relationship is profoundly complex and shaped by historical tensions

over sovereignty. Mexico asserts itself as a geopolitical equal to the United States, influencing

border crossings, infrastructure, and resource-sharing negotiations. Following September 11,

2001, border security shifted from an immigration issue to a national security priority, leading to

the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the expansion of enforcement

measures. Addressing border challenges requires a nuanced, cooperative approach that respects

the region's unique dynamics while ensuring national security.

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens from

a potential terrorist attack?

Following the September 11th attacks, the United States strengthened border security to

counter potential threats, particularly from extremist groups like Al Qaeda, Hezbollah, and ISIS.

Intelligence efforts have primarily prevented these groups from establishing operational

capabilities within the United States. A significant challenge in border security lies in reconciling

intelligence agencies' focus on external threats with law enforcement's domestic priorities.

Enhanced interagency collaboration, including intelligence sharing among the FBI, military, and

international partners, has disrupted terrorist activities. Mechanisms like Joint Terrorism Task

Forces and fusion centers have facilitated federal, state, and local coordination. The recent

classification of drug cartels as terrorist organizations has broadened military engagement in

counterterrorism efforts, though concerns remain over the broader implications. Ongoing

challenges include balancing civil liberties, mitigating lone-wolf threats, and adapting to

evolving terrorist tactics. Technological advancements such as biometrics, data analytics, and
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intelligence-driven enforcement strategies are key in strengthening border security while

facilitating legal trade and travel. Effective measures include increased cooperation among

federal agencies, law enforcement, and border communities to identify potential threats.

Community engagement campaigns and public education initiatives, such as citizen academies,

further support security efforts by fostering awareness and vigilance.

Enhancing the United States border security to mitigate terrorist threats requires a

multifaceted approach. Strict enforcement of existing immigration laws is essential, as proper

implementation would improve system functionality. Border security extends beyond physical

barriers; different regions demand tailored strategies. A comprehensive approach should

incorporate physical barriers, advanced technology, and a strong law enforcement presence.

Border Patrol agents are granted flexibility to adapt security measures to their environments

under Congressional oversight. Interagency collaboration at all levels is critical. Local law

enforcement plays a key role, as their situational awareness makes them valuable intelligence

sources. International intelligence-sharing, particularly with Mexico and Canada, strengthens

border security. Direct collaboration with agencies like Mexico's CISEN enhances cross-border

cooperation.

The United States must prioritize medical facilities, detention centers, and judicial

resources at southern border ports of entry to manage incoming migrants, including those who

are ill, have criminal records, or seek asylum. Advanced technologies should be employed to

identify security threats effectively. Border security requires robust collaboration and

intelligence-sharing among federal, state, local, and international agencies. Local law

enforcement's situational awareness is invaluable, and partnerships with global counterparts are

essential to combat smuggling networks and monitor migration patterns. Consistently enforcing
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immigration laws is crucial, including detaining and deporting individuals entering unlawfully

rather than releasing them within the United States. Maintaining operational control demands

clarity on who enters the country and their legal status. A bipartisan approach between Congress

and the executive branch is necessary for effective, long-term policy solutions.

Discussion

The research conducted for this study bolsters and supports the existing literature while

adding additional insight, thus expanding the academic literature.

Turmoil in the Middle East

Alnassar (2024) and Üngör (2024) explain that even with the United States' history in the

Middle East dating back to the early part of the 1930s with the discovery of oil in Bahrain, the

relationship between America and the Gulf States is exceptionally complex. Participant 3 shared,

"We partner with other countries in the area, like the Gulf Cooperation Council [GCC], to keep

traffic flow open in and out of the Persian Gulf and keep the oil and the economic movement of

trade in and out of the Red Sea and in the Gulf."

From the conclusion of the Second World War to when this paper was written, the United

States has been significantly involved in Middle Eastern affairs (Beck, 2020; Maher, 2023).

Between the end of World War II and the end of the Cold War, Iran was a strategic ally of the

United States and, begrudgingly, Israel; however, with the collapse of the former Soviet Union

and the removal of Saddam Hussein as the Iraqi leader, the threats that created the need for the

strategic partnership were no longer viable (Beck, 2020; Maher, 2023). Therefore, the perceived

threats of the Iranian government shifted to the threats of the United States, termed the Great

Satan, and Israel, which they termed Little Satan (Maher, 2023). Participant 1 backed this
 135

sentiment, "…convincing everybody that Israel was the little Satan and America was the Big

Satan."

The terrorism threat faced by the United States today was formed in the early 1900s

(Calvert, 2021; Forest, 2024a; Schmid, 2024; Zollner, 2021). Hassan al-Banna founded the

Muslim Brotherhood in 1928 and proclaimed that all Muslims should engage in jihad against

individuals considered to be infidels in the Muslim homelands (Calvert, 2021; Forest, 2024a;

Schmid, 2024; Zollner, 2021). In reaction to certain occurrences in the West, "the Muslim

Brotherhood did not start immediately," said Participant 3. The individual elaborated further on

how the Egyptians' primary goals are based on Arab culture and Islamic beliefs, with the Muslim

Brotherhood aiming to destroy the Egyptian government despite being founded by Egyptian

prisoners.

From 1982 on, Israel would be embroiled in two major conflicts: one against Hezbollah

in Lebanon and the armed Palestinian factions led by Hamas (Berti, 2024). Participant 1 recalled,

"In 1947, the League of Nations, or the United Nations, gave a decoration saying that as soon as

the area of Palestine reached a particular population, they could declare sovereignty." Participant

6 divulged, "I believe the radical element of the Arabic world will probably never accept Israel."

"By making overt statements about relocating, people could channel the resentment more into

attacking Israel or going after Israel's enabler. Suppose you get a new swath of radicalized people

who, over the next couple of years, can get them put themselves in a position to want to do

something," explains Participant 4.

The White Revolution of 1963 saw the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, force

various Western reforms on the Iranian people, which did not sit well with citizens loyal to the

clergy (Bajalan, 2019; Owtram, 2020; Vantanka, 2022). According to Participant 1:

 136

Why was America in Iran for so long? Was it because we loved the Shah? No, it

wasn't because we loved the Shaw. The reality is we knew what the Shaw was

doing, and in fact, our CIA pulled off a coup that ultimately put him in office. It's

not that we loved the Shaw, but it wasn't oil. It was something, at that time, more

important than us, and that was we needed positions. We needed somewhere we

could place technical gear that would allow us to collect [intelligence] from the

Russian Soviet Union environment there and that up on the Caspian Sea.

Iran's usage of foreign military proxy forces to fight conflicts throughout the Middle East has

been well-established in the literature (Akbarzadeh & Gourlay, 2024; Azizi, 2022; Dostri, 2023;

Farida, 2023; Guarin, 2020; Jahanbani & Levy, 2024; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024; Kaunert &

Wertman, 2020; Mantilla, 2024; Meier & Picard, 2024; Schanzer, 2023; Vatanka, 2022).

Participant 3 expounded:

You mainly see this with Iran, where Iran uses its global consulates and its global

embassies at times to provide support to surrogates. I mean, the Iranians have

been associated with bombings from the shores of the Mediterranean to Thailand

in the Western Pacific. They've always had an enormous footprint. They engage

globally and take advantage of their global footprint as a nation, embassies,

consulate, trade, etc. Combined with the notation, they can also help build cells of

some groups aligned with them in far-ranging places.

Participant 3 also imparted, "… if you look at Iran, through its surrogates, it has probably killed

more Americans than any other nation in the world in the last 40 years through the groups they

support through the weapons they provide them through the intelligence they share through them

at times urging of these groups…"

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Hamas entered the scene to propel Muslim clerics to encourage every individual with

Palestinian heritage to fight for their holy sites and engage in political activism (Forest, 2024a).

A year into its existence, the Hamas charter called for the annihilation of Israel and the creation

of an Islamic society in the area historically known as Palestine (Awad, 2021; Berti, 2024;

Byman, 2024; Forest, 2024a; Hitman & Kertcher, 2021; Singh, 2022). Participant 3 began by

claiming, "Hamas started as a Palestinian group that initially worked with the Palestinian

Authority…argued that the Palestinian Authority has become a collaborator with Israel. The

Palestinian Authority has lost its way…doesn't reflect the actual struggle with Israel. Hence,

Hamas gets into this saying we're a legitimate and appropriate alternative to the Palestinian

Authority…"

Pearlman (2023) points to countless attacks initiated by Hamas against Israel since its

inception, including the suicide bombings following the 1994 Palestinian massacre, the 2001

New Year's Day bombing, and the various rockets fired into Israel by Hamas. "I would argue

that Hamas in Gaza…been able to become not quite as brazen in the sense that Hamas won an

election, then decided, hey, whenever you have an election again, we won," said Participant 3.

Berti (2024) explains how Hamas has engaged Israel in countless confrontations as it has fine-

tuned its various conventional and terroristic tactics that have been taken from Hezbollah's 2006

playbook. Participant 3 explained, "Hence, Hamas gets into this saying we're a legitimate and

appropriate alternative to the Palestinian Authority, to the point where the fighting in Gaza back

in 2006 gets to the point where the Israelis say, look, we're leaving, we're pulling out."

Participant 3 noted that nearly two decades have passed since the last election, and after

the Israelis withdrew, Hamas was executing Palestinian leaders by throwing them off buildings

in large numbers. Similar to Hezbollah, Hamas deems itself superior to Israel in terms of its
 138

deeply seated religious faith as part of the Muqāwama, or resistance, against the West (Eilam,

2022; Forest, 2024a; Pearlman, 2023). Hamas deems the United States as the vast threat due to

Israel being the local threat, briefed Participant 4. Participant 9 cautioned, "We are struggling to

break up Hamas, and it's primarily in Gaza, which is as big as Yuma." Participant 1 theorized, "I

tend to think that we're going to see Israel fundamentally annihilate Hamas."

The tribal lands of the Houthis in northern Yemen give Iran a proxy force close enough to

Saudi Arabia to threaten the Arab country (Johnston et al., 2020; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024).

Participant 3 detailed, "On the other hand, the Houthis are interesting because they're a terrorist

group that transcended in some ways the local issues in the sense that Hezbollah, they have a

fundamental problem with Israel—and often talked about how they were supporting."

Participant 4 discussed how the Houthis are positioning themselves as a sort of Iranian

proxy and how it would be cleaner if they were directly connected to Iran. With the direct

correlation to Iran and its location near Saudi Arabia, the Houthis became linked to the Axis of

Resistance (Haugstvedt, 2021; Johnston et al., 2020; Johnsen & Juneau, 2024). Participant 4

pontificated, "I think the Houthis have discovered, probably to their surprise, that it has been

much more difficult for us to stop them from disrupting the sea lanes of traffic through the Red

Sea. They have learned that if you do x and the United States retaliates, we will be able to

survive, so I think they're starting to get a new thought about us." When discussing the Houthis

with Participant 6, the individual concluded with "…and we just bombed the Houthis again.

The terrorist organization Hezbollah developed as a response to the 1982 Israeli invasion

of Lebanon and the subsequent feelings of ostracism of Lebanon's Shi'ite community (Dosti,

2023; Farida, 2023; Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). Ayatollah

Khomeini's unwavering despise of his perceived enemies, and his passion for spreading the
 139

Islamic revolution on foreign soil meant that Iran was willing to aid the newly formed

organization with ideological reasoning and logistical resources later (Kaunert & Wertman,

2020; Paterson & MacQueen, 2021). Participant 3 relayed, "Hezbollah is a little different, but

they have managed to operate within a legitimate nation-state, Lebanon, by becoming so

powerful that, in some ways, the government can't, at least in the government's mind, take them

on directly." Between 1982 and 1992, Hezbollah enacted defensive jihad to resist the Israeli and

American presence in Lebanon (Farida, 2023; Kaunert & Wertman, 2020; Levitt, 2021; Paterson

& MacQueen, 2021). Despite the violence enacted against the United States by Hezbollah,

Participant 3 extrapolated how the country has not conducted any drone strikes against the

Palestinian Islamic Jihad and Hezbollah directly. In the interview with Participant 1, similar to

Hamas, the individual indicated, "I tend to think that we're going to see Israel fundamentally

annihilate …Hezbollah…Hezbollah might be a little more complicated, but they will do it."

Venezuela opened its arms wide to Iran, allowing the country to generate a plethora of

Iranian projects within the borders of the country (Chasdi, 2024; Ortiz, 2022). It has been

reported that President Chávez aided Iran in circumventing sanctions imposed on the country by

the United States (Jahanbani & Levy, 2024). Hezbollah has conducted several operations at the

bequest of Iran, including numerous bombings in South America, such as the 1992 Israeli

Embassy in Argentina, a Jewish Center in 1994 in Argentina, and the 1994 Alas Chiricanas

Airlines Flight 901 in Panama, all at the behest of Iran as reprisal for Argentina's government to

end nuclear cooperation with the country (Guarin, 2020; Ortiz, 2022; Shearer, 2022). "…these

Middle Eastern groups increasingly became more global in their capabilities, such as Al Qaeda,

Hezbollah, and ISIS…always would use the ongoing flow of people, weapons, and money that

are flowing from Iran," shared Participant 3.

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Crisis at The United States Southwest Land Border

The City of Laredo claims they process over 300 billion in trade annually (Gerber, 2023;

Payan, 2023; Ramos, 2023). Approximately 66 percent of the estimated 620 billion dollars in the

United States and Mexico trade have Texas as touching it (Payan, 2023; Ramos, 2023).

Participant 4 asserted, "Still, I always reminded everyone that a million people and a billion

dollars' worth of commerce would legally cross the southern border every day." However,

Participant 11 cautioned, "…the imposition of extra surveillance at the border and longer wait

times could kill trade within the North American bloc."

The fact that individuals can cross the United States-Mexican border clandestinely or

illegally is perceived as a problem, explained Participant 8. The U.S. Customs and Border

Protection (2024a) reports that in October, November, and December of Fiscal Year 2024, there

was a total of 785,422 Southwest land border encounters. The agency reports 302,034 individual

encounters (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, 2024a). Furthermore, during the same three-

month period, the agency encountered 87,565 single adults (U.S. Customs and Border

Protection, 2024a). Participant 9 declared, "Whichever side of the political ******* fight you're

on, you're excited about the numbers one way or the other. Still, it's the numbers that you don't

talk about that are the problem when it comes to terrorism and the geopolitical situation that

exists in the Middle East." However, Participant 2 recalled how, in his area of the border, 43

deaths were reported of individuals illegally crossing into the United States from Mexico.

As of July 11, 2024, 90 non-U.S. citizens on the Terrorist Screening Database [TSDS]

were encountered at the Southwest Border by U.S. Border Patrol agents (U.S. Customs and

Border Protection, 2024c). Participant 2 uttered, "I don't have the numbers in front of me to tell

you how many people who had terrorist backgrounds were apprehended along the US-Mexico
 141

border. Still, as I like to say, you know that it was completely upside down the last four years."

Participant 9 unveiled how the number of encounters with terrorists on the watch list is

increasing. They shared how if Customs and Border Protection [CBP] are catching more, it

stands to reason that even more are slipping through undetected. Participants 5 and 9 shared how

this situation is similar to drug trafficking at the border—if CBP seizes 40 to 50 pounds of meth,

it likely means that hundreds of pounds are getting through.

With the passing of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, expansive border

enforcement actions were authorized, and the hiring of known undocumented immigrants

became a criminal act (Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk, 2021). Participant 2 indicated that, in the

context of the region they serve, individuals engaging in unlawful border crossings

predominantly originate from Guerrero, with a significant number aiming to reach Santa Maria,

California, for agricultural work, specifically strawberry picking. Furthermore, it was noted that

individuals from Guanajuato typically migrate towards Houston or the Austin area, from which

they are subsequently distributed to various locations across the United States. Finally,

Participant 2 elaborated that those individuals hailing from Hidalgo predominantly seek

employment in the Dallas-Fort Worth area, where the operations of their smuggling networks are

concentrated.

Tarlow (2023) explains how President George W. Bush expanded the number of

individual agents assigned to border protection by 6,000, completed a 375-mile fence, deployed

three unmanned aerial systems, and ended the practices and policies associated with catch and

release and entry into the United States by citizens in Mexico and Canada with only a

declaration, orally, of citizenship. In discussing the Bush Presidency, Participant 5 said, "Mexico
 142

looked at the September 11th attacks as if they had leverage and felt we would negotiate our

cooperation to get a comprehensive immigration reform program from the United States."

Bah's (2023) study reveals that countries can employ a wide range of methods to deter

illegal immigration, including border control amplification, criminalization of human trafficking

and illegal immigrant employment, and more substantial policy creation; however, the author

emphasizes that none of the measures are effective if a country has relaxed immigration policies

and lax border controls. Participant 2 expressed how the United States needs policies that save

lives and protect Americans and our borders; however, Participant 7 lectured how the country's

laws are written so that all are welcome and individuals wishing to come into the country

illegally exploit them. Participant 11 detailed how, as a country, the United States needs the

ability to collect and aggregate information, but some barriers come with privacy and

constitutional protections. "The laws exist, and if you start enforcing them and stop ignoring

them, the people who have been displaced and are seeking an everyday life will follow the law,"

said Participant 7.

The concept of a border wall along the southwestern U.S. land border predates the

administration of President Trump. Notably, President Clinton enacted the Illegal Immigration

Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, which included a directive for the construction of a

14-mile triple-layered fence along the San Diego-Tijuana border to prevent the unlawful entry of

individuals into the United States (Alley-Young, 2023; Bartnik, 2022; Feigenberg, 2020; Shirk,

2021). One participant expressed frustration regarding the lack of progress on the border wall,

while another noted that, in their specific area, there is no perceived need for a wall.

Additionally, a third participant emphasized that the principal concern has consistently been less
 143

about establishing border barriers or fences, which received significant attention during the Bush

administration.

Participant 8 recalled how there remains a concern with the significant migration flows

coming from Central America, but also around the world, as being a means for terrorists to enter

the United States through these irregular migration or illegal migration patterns. South of the

southern tip of the Mexico border lies the Darién Gap, a treacherous 70-mile stretch of roadless

jungle along the Isthmus of Panama, which serves as a critical but perilous transit route for

irregular migration between North and South America (Fonju & Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer,

2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024). Between 2021 and early 2024, more than one and a half

million foreign nationals from over 170 countries, including Venezuela, Pakistan, Iran, Angola,

Uzbekistan, Yemen, and China, braved the dangerous terrain of this wilderness (Bensman, 2024;

Fonju & Amdadou, 2024; Pramedorfer, 2024; Velasco & Miranda, 2024). Participant 4

explained, "You would go down there, and thousands of people would leave the jungle. I met

people in the Darién Gap area from places such as Bangladesh, Uzbekistan, and China, as well as

Venezuelans and Ecuadorians. You would stand there stunned at the sheer volume of humanity."

Recommendations

The research for this study has proven that there exist risks of terrorism in the United

States as a result of the conflicts in the Middle East, coupled with the crisis at the Southwestern

Border of the United States. The following recommendations are made as a result of the research

conducted.

Recommendation 1: Treat the Southwestern Border as an ecosystem rather than a line in

the sand.
 144

The United States must reevaluate its approach to border management, moving away

from the perception of the border as a straightforward, demarcated line. It is essential to

recognize that border protection functions as an intricate ecosystem influenced by various

environmental factors and elements that affect its operation. By adopting a perspective that treats

the Southwest Border as an ecosystem rather than a mere linear boundary, the United States can

identify and analyze the various components within this system. Depending on the United States

or Mexican administration in control, the border can fluctuate by 50 miles. This comprehensive

understanding will enable the country to address the multifaceted challenges effectively and

work toward a sustainable solution. In association with the ecosystem concept, it is essential to

acknowledge that no single border security measure is universally applicable. For instance,

strategies that prove effective in the Rio Grande Valley may not yield the same results in

Nogales, Arizona. For example, in Nogales, the challenges posed by inadequate security

measures, such as an easily compromised five-strand barbed wire fence. In urban settings,

aesthetic considerations must also be factored into protective measures to ensure they are

visually appealing rather than simply functional.

In regions such as South Texas, characterized by the meandering Rio Grande, a linear

fence along the border is impractical, as it would require positioning further from the actual

boundary, potentially encroaching on private land. Collaboration with landowners will be

necessary to construct effective security structures. For the ecosystem to thrive, the Border Patrol

must have the flexibility to determine the specific needs of each operational area and sector in

which they work. Additionally, it is vital to facilitate opportunities for members of Congress to

visit the border, allowing them to gain firsthand insights into our requirements and the rationale
 145

behind them. As they are responsible for passing relevant legislation, fostering bipartisan

collaboration will be essential in addressing these complex issues.

Recommendation 2: Develop complexes similar to Ellis Island.

Ellis Island represents a significant historical parallel to contemporary immigration

challenges, albeit on a much larger scale. Upon arrival at Ellis Island, many individuals

presented health issues, and there were instances of unlawful conduct among them, including

criminal activity and smuggling. The historical necessity for organized processing and medical

care was apparent then, much like the current need at the southern border. Key ports of entry,

including Matamoros to Brownsville, Laredo to Laredo, and Piedras to Eagle Pass, require well-

equipped medical facilities. Timely healthcare is crucial to manage any illnesses among migrants

before they are released, mitigating potential public health risks. Furthermore, establishing

detention centers associated with the facilities is essential for appropriately managing individuals

identified as criminals and those seeking asylum. Instead of the current practice of allowing

migrants to be released into the United States, a more regulated method of processing is

imperative.

Over recent years, the escalation in the number of individuals released without thorough

adjudication has contributed to systemic dysfunctions. The immigration case backlog has now

extended beyond a decade, which signifies how individuals entering the country may experience

delays of ten years before their appearances before immigration judges. To ameliorate this

situation, assigning judges directly to border facilities would streamline the adjudication process.

A more immediate resolution would alleviate prolonged uncertainty for applicants and contribute

to a more structured immigration framework. By developing centers such as the ones suggested,

agencies such as the United States Attorney's Office, the United States Marshals Service, the
 146

Bureau of Prisons, and others would have a cohesive location to address immigration issues. It is

vital to implement sufficient detention centers, necessary medical care, and an adequate number

of immigration judges to facilitate timely resolutions of border-related concerns. Addressing

these systemic delays is crucial for the effective management of immigration.

Recommendation 3: Develop programs to foster collaboration and intelligence between

landowners, students, and communities with local, state, and federal law enforcement.

Developing initiatives to promote collaboration and information sharing among

landowners, students, communities, and law enforcement agencies at all levels is imperative for

enhancing national security. Landowners, particularly near border areas, play a vital role as key

observers in detecting unusual activities. Landowners frequently serve as the first point of

intelligence when unauthorized crossings go undetected by the U.S. Border Patrol, local law

enforcement, or state agencies. Their consistent presence in remote regions offers invaluable

human intelligence, ensuring that suspicious activities are promptly identified. This collaborative

effort enhances situational awareness and fortifies the security framework among various

agencies and the communities they serve. A successful model has been the establishment of local

intelligence networks among ranchers and landowners. These stakeholders routinely observe and

report atypical movements, significantly bolstering law enforcement efforts.

Additionally, initiatives aimed at high school students have been instituted to raise

awareness regarding security issues. Educational programs facilitate students' understanding of

the distinction between legitimate threats and misconceptions, promoting the recognition that not

all individuals of a particular background pose a threat. Such initiatives empower students to

identify and report suspicious behavior, fostering a more knowledgeable and vigilant

community.
 147

Local law enforcement agencies, including police departments and sheriff's offices, are

among the most proficient intelligence gatherers; however, they face ongoing challenges related

to sufficient training and resources. For example, sheriff's deputies struggle to balance

counterterrorism responsibilities alongside routine law enforcement duties in Cochise County,

Arizona, a region with constrained financial resources. Finances raise pertinent questions

regarding the most effective solutions, such as increasing personnel, securing funding through

grants, or enhancing training programs. Historically, local law enforcement agencies have often

been positioned as subordinate partners rather than equal collaborators, which has impeded

seamless cooperation. Addressing these disparities through improved training and resource

allocation is essential for fostering more effective collaboration.

Tactical intelligence is critical for identifying specific smuggling routes, entry methods,

and individuals engaged in illicit activities. Community members, even those residing outside

border areas, contribute significantly to intelligence gathering. Average citizens frequently report

suspicious activities, such as groups entering vehicles believed to be associated with human

smuggling. Emergency calls to 9-1-1 from vigilant citizens and landowners yield valuable leads

that enhance law enforcement operations. Border Patrol stations have also initiated outreach

programs, including citizen academies, where community members can gain insights into border

security operations. Such programs promote transparency and trust, ensuring residents are well-

informed about law enforcement objectives and the complexities involved in border security.

Intelligence sharing and collaboration can be significantly enhanced by reinforcing partnerships

among landowners, students, communities, and law enforcement entities. By providing

education, training, and resources to local agencies and community members, a more integrated
 148

and effective security framework can be established, ultimately contributing to safeguarding

national borders and enhancing public safety.

Recommendation 4: Target the countries that supply visas and permit passage.

One of the significant vulnerabilities within the immigration system pertains to the

capacity of individuals to enter the United States legally via visas and subsequently remain

undetected even after their visa has expired. A notable illustration of this issue can be found in

the case of the 9/11 terrorists, who legally entered the country yet remained largely unnoticed

once inside. The enforcement of visa overstays often hinges on random encounters with

immigration officials rather than a systematic tracking mechanism. This loophole poses

considerable challenges to national security and immigration enforcement initiatives. Evaluating

the United States border and the countries facilitating transit is essential to effectively addressing

illegal migration and security concerns. Many migrants traverse multiple nations before arriving

at their final destination. For instance, officials in Panama have noted that a significant number

of individuals entering their country originate from Colombia. In response, Colombian

authorities have articulated that these migrants do not directly enter their country from high-risk

nations without visas. They highlight Ecuador and Brazil, which permit individuals from certain

countries to enter without a visa, allowing them to travel northward via bus routes. This situation

emphasizes the necessity of engaging with multiple nations, each requiring tailored strategies to

address immigration and security challenges effectively.

Historically, terrorist organizations have not predominantly relied on illegal border

crossings as their primary means of infiltration into the United States. Instead, they have

preferred to exploit legal migration pathways, as demonstrated by the Frankfurt terrorist cell, in

which individuals employed visas to enter the United States. As mentioned earlier, the example
 149

underscores the critical need for the meticulous examination of visa policies and the assurance

that national security measures encompass not only border enforcement but also visa regulations

and international collaboration. Efforts to mitigate migration and security risks in Panama

frequently encountered resistance. Panamanian officials have expressed a willingness to preclude

individuals from traveling northward but have insisted on financial compensation from the

United States for such enforcement, a request the U.S. government has declined. Similarly, other

nations in the region have often redirected responsibility, necessitating engagement with multiple

governments to cultivate comprehensive strategies. Migration patterns in and out of Panama

have been rigorously analyzed, especially concerning potential terrorism-related movements.

Understanding and addressing these patterns requires coordinated international efforts rather than

placing unilateral responsibility on any nation.

Recommendation 5: Remain consistent in policies and enforce existing laws.

The immigration system is functional; however, the federal government has struggled to

maintain a consistent and effective enforcement of existing regulations. Over recent

administrations, there has been a marked inconsistency in policy implementation, particularly

concerning border security and immigration practices. Notably, the Border Patrol has achieved

significant advancements in border security, which witnessed enhancements in coordination and

enforcement. Nevertheless, the underlying challenge pertains to the political will to sustain these

initiatives, as fluctuating policies and a lack of continuity often hinder progress. In comparison to

the varying policies of the United States, certain neighboring nations, such as Canada, have

exhibited a more stable and comprehensive strategy regarding immigration and border security.

Following the September 11 attacks, Canada implemented stringent regulations aimed at

countering terrorism, reflecting a similar need for enhanced security alongside that of the United
 150

States Collaborative efforts, such as the deployment of a U.S. Customs and Border Protection

[CBP] officer in Canada at the Detroit-Windsor border, underscore the significance of shared

responsibility in safeguarding security. Conversely, Mexico has adopted a different approach,

leveraging negotiations to advocate for a comprehensive immigration reform agreement with the

United States. The diplomatic challenge confronted by Mexico's president, who withdrew from a

scheduled meeting in 2017, exemplifies the complexities involved in engaging with neighboring

countries as each nation navigates the issue from its perspective.

The United States possesses established immigration laws that could serve effectively if

rigorously enforced. These laws foster opportunity within the country while addressing security

concerns. Unfortunately, they are frequently circumvented by individuals entering the country

illegally, thus evading established legal pathways. This situation has resulted in a system that

struggles to monitor individuals' post-entry and inadvertently fosters an environment conducive

to radicalization. Extremist factions have taken advantage of this vulnerability, disseminating

radical ideologies that specifically target disenfranchised individuals, particularly those within

prison systems, further exacerbating societal challenges. In certain instances, this has led to

enclaves within communities, such as in Dearborn, Michigan, where local authorities exhibit

reluctance to enforce laws, rendering these areas susceptible to radicalization and extremism.

The crux of the issue resides in the insufficient enforcement of existing immigration laws. While

the United States extends a welcome to immigrants via appropriate channels, individuals who

unlawfully cross the border, such as by swimming across the Rio Grande, are violating the law.

This matter necessitates attention through the consistent enforcement of immigration statutes. If

such rules are appropriately implemented, individuals seeking better opportunities will likely

pursue the legal avenues available to them. Furthermore, there is a pressing need to modernize
 151

the immigration system to ensure adequate resources, including immigration judges and

detention facilities, to facilitate the proper processing of individuals entering the country.

The robust enforcement of existing laws and maintaining policy consistency are

paramount for ensuring national security and immigration integrity. While barriers such as

privacy considerations and constitutional protections exist, seeking methods to balance security

imperatives with safeguarding individual rights is essential. Consistent enforcement, in

conjunction with a cohesive approach to immigration policy, can effectively address security and

humanitarian concerns, affirming the United States' commitment to being a nation grounded in

law and opportunity.

Delimitations and Limitations

This study acknowledges certain inherent limitations resulting from constraints related to

time and available resources. It is crucial to recognize these limitations and suggest future

research avenues. As a qualitative inquiry, this research provides valuable insights into the

complexities and nuances of the subject matter. Yet, it is essential to note that it does not

facilitate establishing causal relationships between the identified variables. Determining such

relationships necessitates demonstrating a clear cause-and-effect connection between dependent

and independent variables, a notably pronounced challenge in qualitative research

methodologies.

Furthermore, a key research consideration pertains to the researcher's potential impact on

the overall experience and subsequent interpretation of the collected data. This concern arises

from the inherent biases and subjectivity that researchers may introduce, which can undermine

the objectivity and reliability of the findings. To address this limitation, the researcher engaged

in reflexivity, characterized by a commitment to self-awareness and critical reflection throughout

 152

the research process. This practice enables researchers to identify and acknowledge their biases,

assumptions, and preconceptions, which may influence the research outcomes and data

interpretation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).

In this study, a purposive sampling technique was employed. However, it is essential to

recognize the limitations associated with this approach, as it entails a deliberate selection process

that may inadvertently exclude a range of potential experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;

Creswell & Poth, 2024). As a result, this limitation may restrict the research's ability to capture

significant and insightful experiences that could provide valuable perspectives beyond those

represented in the selected participant sample. In qualitative case study designs, transferability is

derived from identifying themes and principles within participant narratives rather than relying

on statistical data, as is standard in quantitative research (Crenshaw & Crenshaw, 2018;

Maxwell, 2019; Yin, 2018). The focus of this study was specifically on the Southwest Border,

and while it could have been beneficial to include perspectives from all or additional borders of

the United States, limitations in time and resources precluded such an extension of the research

scope.

Recommendations for Future Research

Border Security Between the Contiguous United States and Canada

As this study focused on the southwest border of the United States, research also needs to

focus on the northern border of the contiguous United States. A qualitative multi-thematic case

study using semi-structured interviews with purposive sampling techniques would be

appropriate. Participants could include individuals who have served or are currently serving in

the United States Border Patrol, the United States military with counterterrorism experience,
 153

intelligence roles within the United States, or individuals from the Royal Canadian Mounted

Police and other Canadian officials, guaranteeing a comprehensive set of viewpoints.

Border Security Between Alaska and Canada

A future research project could entail examining the border between Alaska and Canada.

Two areas of focus are: if a terrorist were to get into Alaska from Canada, could they make it to

the United States? What would be the impact of a terrorist attack in Alaska on the contiguous

United States' psyche? A qualitative multi-thematic case study using semi-structured interviews

with purposive sampling techniques would be appropriate. Participants could include individuals

who have served or are currently serving in the United States Border Patrol, the United States

military with counterterrorism experience, intelligence roles within the United States, or

individuals from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and other Canadian officials, guaranteeing

a comprehensive set of viewpoints.

Border Security Along the Maritime Borders of the United States

Another recommendation for future studies is to examine the contiguous United States

maritime borders about terrorists exploiting the openness and vastness of the country's

shorelines. A qualitative multi-thematic case study using semi-structured interviews with

purposive sampling techniques would be appropriate. Participants could include individuals who

have served or are currently serving in the United States Border Patrol, the United States military

with counterterrorism experience, intelligence roles within the United States, and Naval or Coast

Guard officials, guaranteeing a comprehensive set of viewpoints.

Immigration Patterns in Europe, Terrorism, and the Parallels to the United States

With European countries' relative proximity to countries that have experienced war and

refugee issues in recent years, a future research study examining migration patterns and links to
 154

terrorism may prove beneficial to the United States in understanding migration and terrorism.

Several methodologies and research designs would be appropriate for conducting the study.

Mexican Cartels and the Hiring of "Terror" Experts

With the recent terrorist organization designation assigned by the United States to the

Mexican Drug Cartels, a future study examining the probability of Cartels hiring knowledgeable

individuals in drone strikes from Ukraine or members of the Taliban on knowledge on how to

stymie a force of significant size like the United States military should be undertaken. A

qualitative multi-thematic case study using semi-structured interviews with purposive sampling

techniques would be appropriate. Participants could include individuals who have served or are

currently serving in the United States military with counterterrorism experience, intelligence

roles within the United States, federal law enforcement agencies, and former or current law

enforcement or intelligence officials from Mexico.

Summary

The purpose of this qualitative multiple case study was to examine the impact of the

unrest in the Middle East coupled with the increased illegal migration at the Southwest Border to

determine if an increased risk of terrorism exists for the United States. The study was a

qualitative multiple-case study using semi-structured interviews. The results of the interviews

were analyzed using thematic analysis and triangulation to develop themes to answer each of the

three research questions. In-depth interviews were conducted with 11 individuals.

Seventy years after engaging in the intricate dynamics of the Middle East and

experiencing significant overextension, the United States will remain a prominent focal point for

terrorist activities as a consequence of the region's persistent conflicts. For the United States to

best protect itself against individuals taking advantage of the crisis at the Southwest Border, it
 155

must not only enforce the existing laws but also treat the border ecosystem with the respect it

deserves. By developing complexes analogous to what Ellis Island was, the wait time for

individuals to see immigration judges should be reduced, and there should be an area where the

people can be medically treated, incarcerated, or held, depending on their needs. The concept

contrasts sharply with providing an immigrant with a court date, releasing them into the country,

and having them hopefully show up for their court date ten years later.

For the United States federal government to be successful in securing its Southwest

Border against terrorists infiltrating the country, agencies must forge better bonds with the local

communities. While some of the agencies do work closely, many of the individuals interviewed

for this study expressed how more could be done. Landowners must be educated on who they

can contact and who will immediately respond to their ranch if they see something. Students who

are crossing the border daily for school need to be educated on what a terrorist is and is not.

Local law enforcement should be better integrated with the intelligence collected by federal

agencies. The federal government can also share intelligence without bureaucratic layers,

fiefdoms, and silos impeding or over-imposing the need at the end of the day: Protect the citizens

of the United States against foreign enemies.

 156

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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

RQ 1: How does the turmoil in the Middle East increase the risk of terrorism in the United

States?

• How have the historical relationships between the United States and key Middle

Eastern countries influenced current regional geopolitical dynamics?

o This question explores the historical context of U.S. involvement in the Middle

East and how past interactions shape present-day conflicts and alliances.

• How do ongoing conflicts in the Middle East influence the strategies and operational

methods of terrorist organizations operating within the region?

o This question explores how the dynamics of Middle Eastern conflicts shape the

tactics, strategies, and organizational structures of terrorist groups in the region.

• In what ways do Middle East conflicts contribute to the emergence and growth of

transnational terrorist networks?

o This question aims to understand the mechanisms through which conflicts in the

Middle East facilitate the rise and expansion of terrorist networks that operate

across national borders.

• How do various Middle Eastern terrorist organizations perceive and respond to U.S.

foreign policy interventions in their regional conflicts?

o This question seeks to explore the perspectives of terrorist organizations in the

Middle East regarding U.S. foreign policy and how these perceptions influence

their tactics and goals.

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• What role do local grievances and power struggles within Middle Eastern conflicts

play in fueling recruitment and radicalization by terrorist groups?

o This question investigates how local conflicts and grievances within Middle

Eastern countries contribute to the recruitment and radicalization processes of

terrorist organizations operating in the region.

RQ 2: Does illegal immigration at the Southwest Border increase the risk of terrorism?

• How have the historical relationships between the United States and Mexico

influenced geopolitical dynamics?

o This question explores the historical context of the U.S.-Mexico border and

how past interactions shape present-day conflicts and policies.

• Describe the individuals who are illegally crossing the U.S.-Mexico border (i.e.,

country of origin, how they arrive)

o This question explores the nature of the individuals illegally entering the

United States through the U.S.-Mexico border.

• How have security concerns related to terrorism influenced U.S. border policies

and enforcement practices at the United States-Mexico border?

o This question explores the impact of terrorism-related security concerns on

developing and implementing border policies and enforcement strategies

between the U.S. and Mexico.

• What are the perceptions and concerns of border security personnel regarding

potential terrorist threats emerging from or impacting the U.S.-Mexico border

region?
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o This question seeks to understand how border security personnel view and

respond to the risk of terrorism in the context of their daily operations and

duties at the border.

• In what ways do terrorist organizations exploit or interact with the dynamics of

migration and border security issues between the United States and Mexico?

o This question examines how terrorist groups may take advantage of migration

flows and border security challenges to further their objectives or operations

in the U.S.-Mexico border region.

• How do local communities and stakeholders along the U.S.-Mexico border

perceive and address the threat of terrorism concerning ongoing border crises

and immigration issues?

o This question aims to uncover the perspectives of local communities and

stakeholders in the border region regarding the intersection of terrorism

threats with immigration and border crisis management.

RQ 3: How can the United States strengthen its border security to protect its citizens from a

potential domestic terrorist attack?

• How can U.S. border security measures be adapted to effectively address the dual

challenges of managing migration and mitigating the risk of terrorism influenced by

Middle Eastern conflicts?

o This question explores strategies for enhancing border security to balance the

need for effective immigration management with the imperative to prevent

terrorist threats connected to ongoing Middle Eastern conflicts.

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• What role can interagency coordination play in addressing the risk of terrorism that

may arise from both the U.S.-Mexico border crisis and the influence of Middle

Eastern terrorist organizations?

o This question investigates how improved coordination between various U.S.

agencies—such as homeland security, immigration, and counterterrorism—can

help mitigate terrorism risks related to the border and Middle Eastern conflicts.

• How can community engagement and local intelligence initiatives be strengthened to

identify better and address potential terrorist threats linked to migration patterns

and radicalization from conflicts in the Middle East?

o This question seeks to understand how enhancing community outreach and local

intelligence efforts can contribute to the early detection and prevention of

terrorism threats associated with migration and external radical influences.

• What strategies can be developed to integrate lessons learned from past terrorist

incidents related to border issues and Middle Eastern conflicts into current

counterterrorism policies and practices?

o This question focuses on how past experiences with terrorism linked to border

issues and Middle Eastern conflicts can better inform and improve current

counterterrorism strategies and practices to address emerging threats.

General

• What additional information would you like to share concerning the Middle East,

the United States-Mexican border, or terrorism?

o This question permits participants to include any additional information they

wish.
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APPENDIX B: RECRUITMENT EMAIL

Dear <Potential Participant>,

As a doctoral candidate in the Helms School of Government at Liberty University, I am

conducting research as part of the requirements for a doctoral degree. The purpose of my
research is to examine the impact of the unrest in the Middle East coupled with the increased
illegal migration at the Southwest Border to determine if an increased risk of terrorism exists for
the United States, and I am writing to invite you to join my study.

Participants must be 18 years or older. They must have served or be currently serving in the
United States Border Patrol, the United States military with counter-terrorism experience, in
intelligence roles within the United States, or with the United States Department of State in
countries closely aligned to this study. Participants will be asked to take part in an audio- and
video-recorded online interview that should take approximately one hour. Participants will also
be asked to review the transcript for their interview to confirm accuracy. Names and other
identifying information will be requested as part of this study, but participant identities will not
be disclosed.

To participate, please contact me at to schedule an interview.

A consent document is attached to this email. The consent document contains additional
information about my research.

If you choose to participate, you will need to sign the consent document and return it to me via
email prior to the time of the interview.

Sincerely,

Brad Perkins
Doctoral Candidate, Liberty University
 185

Whom do you contact if you have questions or concerns about the study?

The researcher conducting this study is Bradly J. Perkins. You may ask any questions you have
now. If you have questions later, you are encouraged to contact him/ at and/or
. You may also contact the researcher’s faculty sponsor, Dr. Jarrod
Sadulski, at .

Whom do you contact if you have questions about your rights as a research participant?

If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and want to talk to someone other
than the researcher, you are encouraged to contact the IRB. Our physical address is
our phone
number is , and our email address is .

Disclaimer: The Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensures that human subjects research will be
conducted ethically as defined and required by federal regulations. The topics covered and
viewpoints expressed or alluded to by student and faculty researchers are those of the
researchers and do not necessarily reflect the official policies or positions of Liberty University.

Your Consent

By signing this document, you are agreeing to be in this study. Make sure you understand what
the study is about before you sign. You will be given a copy of this document for your records.
The researcher will keep a copy with the study records. If you have any questions about the study
after you sign this document, you can contact the study team using the information provided
above.

I have read and understood the above information. I have asked questions and have received
answers. I consent to participate in the study.

The researcher has my permission to audio- and video-record me as part of my participation

in this study.

____________________________________
Printed Subject Name

Signature & Date