L2.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
A foundation is an enlarged base of a wall and the ground that supports it.
A foundation is that part of a building which is in direct contact with the
subsoil and its purpose is to safely transfer the loads of a building to
suitable subsoil.
Foundation of building as the name implies is the starting of a building
construction on site really. Types of building, nature of soil and
environmental conditions are the major determinant of type of foundation
you will use for your building.
Foundations are usually placed below the ground level because the
surrounding ground provides:
i. Stability
ii. Protection against extremes of weather such as excessive rain or draught.
iii. Protection against impact.
Foundations are divided into two types:
a) Natural foundation
b) Artificial foundation
a) Natural foundation
This is the ground underneath the base of the building after the excavations
are completed.
b) Artificial foundation
Page5
This is the enlarged base made of concrete or masonry that lies beneath
the building wall and the natural foundation.
Note: the strength of the natural foundation must be greater than the
pressure from the building loads on the artificial foundation.
Foundations are usually made of either mass or reinforced concrete and
can be considered under two headings:
A. Shallow foundations
Those that transfer the loads to subsoil at a point near the ground floor of
the building such as strips and rafts.
Shallow foundations are those founded near to the finished ground surface;
generally where the founding depth (Df) is less than the width of the footing
and less than 3m.
These are not strict rules, but merely guidelines: basically, if surface loading
or other surface conditions will affect the bearing capacity of a foundation
it is 'shallow'. Shallow foundations (sometimes called 'spread footings')
include pads ('isolated footings'), strip footings and rafts.
Shallows foundations are used when surface soils are sufficiently strong and
stiff to support the imposed loads; they are generally unsuitable in weak or
highly compressible soils, such as poorly-compacted fill, peat, recent
lacustrine and alluvial deposits, etc.
B. Deep foundations
Those that transfer the loads to subsoil some distance below the ground
floor of the building such as pad and pile foundations.
Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground
surface for their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions,
this is usually at depths >3 m below finished ground level.
Page5
They include piles, piers and caissons or compensated foundations using
deep basements and also deep pad or strip foundations.
Deep foundations can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more
competent stratum at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.
Building Code Requirements
Building regulations requires that all foundations of buildings shall:
i. Safely sustain and transmit to the ground combined dead and imposed
loads so as not to cause any settlements or other movement in any part of
the building or any other adjoining building or works.
ii. Be capable of resisting attack by sulphates or other deleterious matter
present in the subsoil.
iii. Be of such a depth or be so constructed as to avoid damage by swelling or
shrinkage of the subsoil.
Functions of a foundation
i. To support the building.
ii. To transfer the loads (weights) of the building to a firm base.
iii. To provide a level base in which wall will be built.
iv. To cover soft areas in the firm base.
Page5
Factors Affecting the Choice of a Foundation.
The factors considered are:
i. The depth of the foundation from the ground level.
ii. The type of the soil on the site.
iii. The weight of the building to be erected.
A heavy building requires a large and expensive foundation.
iv. The level of the water table.
v. The normal variation in the water table.
vi. The distance from trees this can affect the stability of the soil.
vii. Topography: The slope of the land
Choosing the Correct Type of Foundations:
The choice of foundation depends on :
i. The strength of natural foundation.
ii. The weight of the building and its loads.
The natural foundation should be able to carry these loads with a minimum
of movement.
Page5
This capacity depends on the type of soil and the amount of water in the
soil.
Simple Checks for the Correct Foundations
Check that:
i. The foundations do not rest on made up ground.
ii. The subsoil is of consistent structure.
Hard or weak sports will cause uneven settlement of the building .which
can cause cracks in the walls.
iii. Walls are centred on the strip foundation.
iv. The foundations are wide enough.
v. The concrete thickness is about 150mm.
vi. A higher foundation projects over and meets a lower foundation for a
maximum distance of 300mm on sloping grounds.
Strip Foundation
The purpose of the foundation is to carry the total weight of the building
and spread it over a wide surface area in order to prevent the building from
sinking.
In order for the foundation to support the building, the ground on which
the foundation is built must be firm enough.
To avoid sinking, an enlarged solid base is built under all the wall to spread
the weight over a large area.
Page5
The enlarged base constructed of concrete or masonry is called artificial
foundation.
A firm base should be reached by removing the top soil and taking the
trench deep enough where firm grounds exists.
The ground on which the enlarged base rests is called the natural
foundation.
Concrete strip foundation is made of concrete, blocks, bricks or stones. It
provides a firm base on which building walls are to be built.
The width and the thickness of the strip depend on the firmness of the soil.
A foundation should be wide enough to spread the weight of the building
on a large surface area. If the foundation is thin, it will bend and crack.
To avoid bending and cracking, the foundation should be constructed in
Page5
such a way that the projection on each side of the foundation wall is not
greater than thickness of the foundation.
A continuous strip of concrete supporting load-bearing walls. For a single
storey building strip foundations will typically be 450mm wide and at least
200mm deep, and for two storey 600mm wide and 200mm deep.
Strip foundations are used to support a line of loads, either due to a load-
Page5
bearing wall, or if a line of columns need supporting where column
positions are so close that individual pad foundations would be
inappropriate.
Page5
Drg
Note: Usually the width of the strip (W) should be three times the wall
thickness (T) i.e. W = 3T.
Projection (P) of the strip on either side of the foundation wall shall not be
greater than the thickness of the strip foundation (D) and in no case less
than 150mm.
A further method of determining strip foundation width is by the formula:
Minimum width = total load on the wall per metre run/Bearing capacity of
the soil.
Example:
Page5
Bearing capacity of ground = 72KN/m2
Wall thickness = 215mm
Load on foundation = 25KN
Step Action
Find the area of the foundation.
Area = load (KN)/Bearing capacity(KN/m2)
1. =25 ÷ 72
=0.347m2
= 347mm (say 350mm)
Find the width of the foundation. Projection = (foundation
width – wall thickness) ÷ 2.
2.
= (350 – 215) ÷ 2 =67.5mm
Find depth of foundation.
Depth = projection but should be at least 150mm
3. Projection = 67.5mm
Depth must be 150mm.
Result
4. Foundation size = 350 x 150mm
This is the most common type; it is mainly used where you have strong soil
base and non-waterlogged areas. Most small buildings of just a floor are
Page5
constructed with this type of foundation.
Depends on the structural engineers recommendation, the depth of your
foundation could be from 600mm to 1200mm mostly for small scale
buildings.
When the soil is excavated, a level at which the concrete will settle evenly is
established, then concrete is poured this may be from 150mm(6”) thick to
450mm(18”) thick depending also on building after that block is set round
the trenches at the center of foundation ,the foundation usually follows the
block lines.
The blocks are then laid to d.p.c level before another concrete is poured on
top, this is the German or over site concrete. This type seems to be the
cheapest.
Footings
In some cases the bases of the wall may be spread out to distribute the
weight of the wall over a greater area of concrete foundation and prevent
the possibility of failure in the foundation by cracking.
The courses which are used for this purpose are called footing courses.
When you are setting out the wall, the main face should be marked out in
the screed and the projection of the footing courses measured in front of
the line.
The corners are then raised and the walling in between them built to a line
which is stretched from each corner on each course.
The footing courses should be built in header bond as far as possible as this
bond distributes more efficiently the loads to be carried across the wall.
Page5
Page5
Wide Strip Foundation
Where the bearing capacity of the ground is low such that extra spread for
the load is required, wide strip foundation may be used.
This type of foundation is more suitable in marshy grounds, soft clay, silt
and made up ground.
It usual to provide transverse and longitudinal reinforcement to withstand
Page5
tension that will arise. The depth below the ground should be the same as
that for strip foundation
Where the soil is soft or of a low load-bearing capacity, wide strip
foundations can be used to spread the load over a larger area, reinforced
with steel so that the loading per m2 is reduced.
Strip foundations on subsoil with poor bearing capacity, such as soft sandy
clays, may need to be considerably wider than the wall they support to
spread the load to a sufficient area of subsoil for stability. The concrete
strip could be as thick as the projection of the strip each side of the wall
which would result in concrete of considerable uneconomic thickness to
avoid the danger of failure by shear.
The alternative is to form a strip of reinforced concrete, illustrated in Fig. 8,
which could be no more than 150 mm thick.
The reason for the use of reinforcement of steel in concrete is that
concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. The effect of the
downward pressure of the wall above and the supporting pressure of the
soil below is to make the concrete strip bend upwards at the edges,
creating tensile stress in the bottom and compressive stress under the wall.
These opposing pressures will tend to cause the shear cracking illustrated in
Fig.8. It is to reinforce and strengthen concrete in tension that steel
reinforcing bars are cast in the lower edge because steel is strong in
tension.
There has to be a sufficient cover of concrete below the steel reinforcing
rods to protect them from rusting and losing strength.
Page5
Page5
Popularity: 1%
Stepped Foundation
These are usually considered in the context of strip foundations and are
used mainly on sloping sites to reduce the amount of excavation and
materials required to produce an adequate foundation.
On sloping sites concrete strip foundation is used. This reduces the expense
of a foundation that is of the same level around the perimeter of the
building.
Where the site is steep, gradual regular rises are introduced in the
foundation. This reduces the digging of the trenches and the soil to be
removed.
Page5
Page5
Page5
Requirements for Stepped Foundations
i. The steps are arranged in short length at regular heights, usually a multiple
of the building unit courses.
ii. The overlap of the higher level to the lower level should not be less than
the thickness of the foundation and in no case less than 300mm.
Deep Strip Foundation
This is a strip foundation laid to a depth of about 1.0m to 2.0m. They are
used in soils where changes in volume of the soil are expected e.g. Stiff clay
or compact sand.
Where strip foundations need to be at a lower level to reach soil with
suitable bearing capacity, a wider, deeper trench can be dug to work in, and
the strip foundations dug and poured at a lower level. Walls are then built up
to ground level in masonry.
This type of foundation reduces the expenses entailed in constructing the
traditional strip foundations to depths of 900mm or more in shrinkable clay
soils, to counteract the variable soil conditions at different seasons.
In reducing the width of the foundation trench, the quantity of excavation,
back-fill and surplus soil removal are also reduced. The deeper foundation
also provides greater resistance to fracture from unequal settlement.
Page5
Raft foundation
This is a concrete raft or platform on which a building is erected in order to
spread the weight of the building over the whole are under the building.
This is where you have concrete spread around your building from the base
of foundation all through to the German floor/over site concrete/ground floor
slab. It is mainly used in areas where the soil are sandy and loose, you spend
more on this than the other previous two most of the time. It is also
recommended in waterlogged areas but with buildings of less storeys
It has a ground beam which shuts out from the foundation base and is also
attached to the ground floor slab to form a network of concrete embedded
round the building space. The ground beams are usually from 600mm to
1200mm for low buildings.
The foundation consists of a continuous reinforced concrete slab under the
whole building. The foundation uses the principle of a floating raft and the
weight of the building is evenly distributed over a large area so that no
particular area is made to receive heavier loads.
For ordinary housing purposes a raft of 150mm to 225mm reinforced
concrete is sufficient, this thickness can be increased from 225mm to
375mm for slightly larger buildings.
Raft foundation may be used together with ground beams for greater load-
bearing capacities.
This type of foundation is suitable for buildings where the bearing capacity
of the soil is low e.g. soft natural grounds or made up grounds.
Page5
The raft is normally in the form of slab 300mm thick.
A reinforced concrete raft or mat is used on very weak or expansive soils
such as clays or peat. They allow the building to ‘float’ on or in the soil.
A raft is used where the soil requires such a large bearing area that wide
strip foundations are spread too far, making it more economical to pour
one large reinforced concrete slab. A raft is an alternative to piles as it can
be less expensive.
Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large
area, normally the entire area of the structure. They are used when column
loads or other structural loads are close together and individual pad
foundations would interact.
A raft foundation normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over
the entire loaded area. It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated
into the foundation.
Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as
the concrete slab resists differential movements between loading positions.
They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as
they can spread the loads over a larger area.
Page5
Pad Foundations
Pad foundations are isolated foundations that support concrete columns or
freestanding brick piers.
They may be square or rectangular in section and are normally of
reinforced concrete though they may also be of plain concrete.
This is where isolated columns (pillars) are casted from the foundation to
carry a slab at the top of the ground. This is mostly used when you want to
make use of the under of building as parking space or when the other space
is not conducive to have foundation.
Imagine you are planning to build a house across a flowing stream and you
want a situation where you can use your boat to pass under the building
because the stream is under. Then you may not need to dig foundation that
will cut across the river but just by applying columns (pillars) at the edge of
the river like a bridge, these columns are thus isolated and the foundations
are referred to as pad.
The thickness of the foundation must not be less than the projection from
the column (unless reinforced) and must in no case be less than 150mm.
The size of the foundation can be reduced by providing steel
reinforcements towards the bottom of the foundation running in both
directions.
The size and spacing of the pads will be determined by the load from the
column above and the soil bearing capacity.
Page5
The area of the base is determined by dividing the load on the column by
the bearing capacity of the soil.
Designing Pad Foundations
In the design of pad foundation the calculation uses the following sample
loading pressures:
Roof = 6.0 KN
Brick pier = 3.36 KN
Concrete base = 2.16 KN
Total building loads = 11.52 KN
Soil bearing capacity = 65KN/m2
Page5
Pier size = 215 x 215mm
Step Action
Find the area of the foundation.
Area = load (KN)/Bearing capacity(KN/m2)
1. =11.52 ÷ 65
= 0.177m2
Find the size of the foundation
For a square foundation the length of each side is the square
root of the area.
2.
E.g. √0.177 = 0.42m
= 420mm
Find depth of foundation.
Depth = projection
Minimum depth must be at least 150mm
3. E.g. (420 – 215) ÷ 2 = 102.5mm
Minimum depth 150mm.
Page5
Pad foundations are used to support an
individual point load such as that due
to a structural column. They may be
circular, square or rectangular.
They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but they may be
stepped or haunched if they are required to spread the load from a heavy
column.
Pad foundations are usually shallow, but deep pad foundations can also be
used.
Pad foundations are used to support individual or multiple columns,
spreading the load to the ground below. They are generally square or
rectangular in plan, with the plan area being determined by the permissible
bearing pressure of the soil. The shape in plan will be dictated by the
arrangement of the columns and the load to be transferred into the soil.
The thickness of the slab must be sufficient to ensure distribution of the
load. The top of the pad may be sloping (i.e. the pad is thicker in the centre
than it is at the edge). This is an economic solution, although there may be
construction problems involved with casting the slope.
In simple cases the pad may be constructed from mass concrete. In general,
some reinforcement (either welded steel fabric or reinforcing bars,
depending on the loads involved) will be required in both directions. For
design purposes, the pad is treated as if it were an inverted cantilever
carrying the soil pressure and supported by the column.
Page5
Trench fill Foundation
Due to the high cost of labour, deep strip foundations have largely been
replaced by trench fill.
Trenches are dug to a depth where the subsoil provides sufficient load-
bearing capacity, and the whole trench is filled with concrete. Steel
reinforcement may be added in areas close to trees.
Compared to deep strip foundations, trench fill minimizes the width of the
dig and the labour and materials required for building masonry below
ground level, offsetting the cost of the additional concrete.
Piles are relatively long, slender members that transmit foundation loads
through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock strata
having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for economic,
constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable to transmit
loads to strata beyond the practical reach of shallow foundations.
In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures
Page5
against uplift forces and to assist structures in resisting lateral and
overturning forces.
Piers are foundations for carrying a heavy structural load which is
constructed in-situ in a deep excavation.
Caissons are a form of deep foundation which are constructed above
ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging
material from within the caisson.
Compensated foundations are deep foundations in which the relief of
stress due to excavation is approximately balanced by the applied stress
due to the foundation. The net stress applied is therefore very small . A
compensated foundation normally comprises a deep basement.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MAT FOUNDATION & SPREAD
FOOTING FOUNDATION
MAT FOUNDATION
Mat foundation for use in construction work in a pit excavation in the
ground, a foundation lattice framework is provided by juxtaposing concrete
lattice frames on the bottom of the excavation.
Foundation blocks are placed in alignment on the foundation lattice
framework so as to be astride adjacent lattice frames, adjacent joints of the
foundation blocks being so disposed as to be located over an open space of
the foundation lattice framework.
There, joints are connected and secured to each other by metal
implements, a reinforcing bar being located on connecting metal
implements. The lowermost end of the reinforcing bar extends to the open
space of the foundation lattice framework, which open space of the foundation blocks are filled
with concrete.
Page5
"The mat (or raft) foundation can be considered a large footing extending
over a great area, frequently an entire building. All vertical structural
loadings from columns and alls are supported on the common foundation.
Typically, the mat is utilized for conditions where a preliminary design
indicates that individual columns or footings would be undesirably close
together or try to overlap. The mat is frequently utilized as a method to
reduce or distribute building loads in order to reduce differential settlement
between adjacent areas.
To function properly, the mat structure will be more rigid and thicker than
individual spread footing." A mat foundation is typically used when there
are poor and weak soil conditions.
FOOTING FOUNDATION:
A firm foundation, including properly installed footings of adequate size to
support the structure and prevent excessive settlement, is essential to the
satisfactory performance of buildings including raised floor systems.
Page5
Foundation systems are often classified as shallow or deep foundations,
depending on the depth of the load-transfer member below the super-
structure and the type of transfer load mechanism. The required
foundation system depends on the strength and compressibility of the site
soils, the proposed loading conditions, and the project performance criteria
(i.e. total settlement and differential settlement limitations).
Foundation designs are based on the assumed bearing capacity of the soil
at the building site (see Table 7). In construction sites where settlement is
not a problem, shallow foundations provide the most economical
foundation systems. Shallow foundation construction is typically utilized for
most residential and light commercial raised floor building sites.
TYPES OF FOOTINGS
Footing requirements are generally covered in the building code and sized
in accordance with the bearing capacity of the soil and the weight of the
building. In areas subject to seasonal frost, the bottom of the footing must
be placed below the frost line to prevent damage to the footing and
structure due to frost heave. Typical footing types include:
1. spot footings
2. Continuous spread footing
3. Grade beam footing
1. Spot Footings
A spot or pad footing is used to support a single point of contact, such as
under a pier or post. A spot footing is typically a 2' by 2' square pad, 10" to
12" thick, and made with reinforced concrete rated to 3,000 to 5,000
pounds per square inch (psi) in compression.
2. Continuous Spread Footing
A continuous spread footing is commonly used to provide a stable base
Page5
around the entire perimeter of a structure. Buildings with spread footings
often include interior spot footings.
A spread footing supports the weight (load) from the exterior or foundation
walls. The footing thickness provides the strength needed to support the
weight. The wider width of the footing base creates a large area to transfer
this weight to the ground and to prevent settlement.
The dimensions of a continuous spread footing vary according to the soil
conditions under the building, the load placed on the footing, and the
construction style of the structure being supported. It is common practice
to make the footing thickness equal to the thickness of the foundation wall,
and to provide a footing projection on each side of the foundation wall
equal to one-half the foundation wall thickness.
Spread footings are frequently 16" to 24" wide, 6" to 16" thick, and made
with reinforced concrete rated to 2,000 to 5,000 psi in compression. Table 9
lists the minimum footing widths required for a range of allowable bearing
capacities and building sizes.
3. Grade Beam Footing
A grade beam footing is a continuous reinforced-concrete member used to
support loads with minimal bending. Grade beams are capable of spanning
across non-load bearing areas, and are commonly supported by soil or
pilings.
A continuous grade beam is frequently constructed by digging a trench at
least 8" wide to the depth needed to span the distance between supports.
Grade beam footings differ from continuous spread footings in how they
distribute loads.
The depth of a grade beam footing is designed to distribute loads to
bearing points, while the width of a continuous spread footing is designed
to transfer loads to the ground.
Page5
