Processor (CPU)

1. Definition of a Processor:

A processor, also known as the CPU (Central Processing Unit), is the brain of the
computer. It executes instructions from programs by performing arithmetic, logical,
control, and input/output operations.

In simple words: The processor is the part of a computer that interprets and carries out
commands from hardware and software.

2. Main Functions of a Processor:

1. Fetch – Retrieve instruction from memory.

2. Decode – Interpret what the instruction means.

3. Execute – Perform the required operation (arithmetic/logical).

4. Store – Save the result back to memory or register.

This is known as the Instruction Cycle or Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle.

3. Components of a Processor:

Component Description

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) Performs arithmetic and logical operations

CU (Control Unit) Directs operations of the processor

Registers Small, fast memory locations for temporary data storage

Cache High-speed memory closer to CPU for faster access

Bus Interface Unit Connects the CPU to system memory and I/O

Instruction Decoder Translates instructions into signals

Clock Synchronizes all operations

1. CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer):

 Supports a large set of instructions.

 Each instruction can do multiple tasks.

 Example: Intel x86

2. RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer):

 Simple and small instruction set.

 Faster execution with pipeline e iciency.

 Example: ARM, MIPS

3. Multicore Processors:

 Contains two or more independent cores.

 Parallel processing possible.

 Example: Intel Core i5/i7, AMD Ryzen

4. Microprocessor:

 A single-chip CPU used in PCs and small devices.

 Example: Intel 8085, 8086

5. Microcontroller:

 A microprocessor with built-in memory and I/O ports, used in embedded

 Example: Arduino, PIC, ATmega328

6. Digital Signal Processor (DSP):

 Specially designed for audio, video, and real-time processing.

 Example: Qualcomm Hexagon

Generation Key Features

1st Gen (1940s–1950s) Vacuum tubes, very slow

2nd Gen (1950s–1960s) Transistors, smaller size

3rd Gen (1960s–1970s) Integrated Circuits

4th Gen (1970s–1990s) Microprocessors introduced (Intel 4004)

5th Gen (1990s–Present) Multicore, AI support, mobile processors

6. Processor Performance Parameters:

a) Clock Speed:

 Measured in GHz (Gigahertz)

 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second

 Higher clock speed = faster processing (but not always better)

b) Cores:

 Multiple cores = more tasks at the same time

 Dual, Quad, Hexa, Octa-core processors

c) Threads:

 Virtual cores created by hyper-threading

 More threads = better multitasking

d) Cache Memory:

 L1 (smallest, fastest), L2, L3 (largest, slower)

 Reduces access time to frequently used data

e) Instruction Per Cycle (IPC):

 Number of instructions a CPU can execute in one cycle

f) TDP (Thermal Design Power):

 Indicates how much heat the CPU generates

 Important for cooling solutions

Feature Multithreading Multiprocessing

Meaning Multiple threads in one core Multiple physical CPU cores

E iciency Good for I/O-bound tasks Good for CPU-intensive tasks

Example Hyper-threading (Intel) Quad-core, Octa-core processors

8. Pipelining in Processors:

 Technique where multiple instruction stages are processed simultaneously.

 Increases instruction throughput.

 Example: While one instruction is being decoded, another can be fetched.

Stages:

1. Fetch

2. Decode

3. Execute

4. Memory Access

5. Write Back

9. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA):

 Defines the set of instructions the processor can execute.

 Examples:

o x86 – Intel/AMD processors (PCs)

o ARM – Mobile devices and embedded systems

o MIPS – Academic and routers

Feature 32-bit Processor 64-bit Processor

Max RAM Support ~4 GB Over 18 billion GB

Data Width 32 bits 64 bits

Speed Slower Faster (in modern use)

OS Support 32-bit OS Can run both 32 & 64-bit

11. Popular Processor Brands:

Brand Famous Models

Intel Core i3, i5, i7, i9, Xeon

AMD Ryzen, Threadripper, EPYC

Apple M1, M2, M3 Chips (ARM-based)

Qualcomm Snapdragon (mobile)

MediaTek Helio, Dimensity (mobile)

12. Advantages of Modern Processors:

 High speed and multitasking

 Energy e icient

 Support for virtual machines

 Enhanced security and encryption

 AI and ML capabilities (e.g., Apple M series)

13. Disadvantages:

 Expensive (especially high-end CPUs)

 Generates heat (needs cooling)

 Compatibility issues with old software/hardware

14. Summary:

 The processor is the central part of a computer that executes instructions.

 Modern CPUs are multicore, multithreaded, and highly e icient.

 Clock speed, core count, cache, and architecture a ect CPU performance.

 Understanding processors helps in selecting the right device and optimizing