Theme: Diversity Living Things

S1 New Curriculum Biology-Chapter 3 - Classification

Principle of classification
This is an arrangement of organisms into manageable groups based similarities of their
structures or appearance. The branch of chemistry that deals with classification is called
Taxonomy.
The smallest unit of classification is the species that include organisms that can interbreed.
Similar species make a Genus and the next levels are families, order, classes, phyla and
finally Kingdoms.
Nomenclature of organisms.
The system of naming organisms is known as binomial system of nomenclature. Here an
organism’s name consists of two names. The first name is a genus name which starts with a
capital letter and the second name is a species name which starts with a small letter for
example, man is Homo sapiens.
Levels of classification

In biological classification, organisms are systematically categorized into hierarchical levels

based on shared characteristics. Here are the main levels of classification from broadest to
most specific:

1. Domain – The highest level, categorizing life into three groups: Archaea, Bacteria,
and Eukarya.
2. Kingdom – Divides life into five major categories like Animalia, Plantae, Fungi,
Protoctista, and Monera.
3. Phylum – Groups organisms based on body plans and structures (e.g., Chordata for
vertebrates).
4. Class – Further divides phyla (e.g., Mammalia for mammals within Chordata).
5. Order – Groups organisms within a class based on more refined similarities (e.g.,
Carnivora includes meat-eaters).
6. Family – Narrows down organisms within an order (e.g., Felidae includes cats).
7. Genus – Groups closely related species (e.g., Panthera includes lions and tigers).
8. Species – The most specific level, identifying individual organisms that can breed and
produce fertile offspring (e.g., Panthera leo for lions).
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Kingdoms

There are five kingdoms i.e. Monera, Protoctista, Fungi , Plantaeand Animalia,.

The characteristics of these five kingdoms are presented in the table below

Structure Monera Protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell Unicellular Unicellular Unicellular Multicellular Multicellular
organization (single celled) and and
multicellular multicellular
Nucleus Absent Present Present Present Present
Cell wall Present Absent in Present made Presence Absent
without some but of chitin with
cellulose present in cellulose
others with
cellulose or
other
substances
Cell vacuole Absent Present or Present or Present Small and
absent absent numerous
Chloroplasts Absent Present or Absent Present Absent
absent
Flagella/Cilia Solid, Present in Absent Only Present in
rotating most present in gametes
members gametes of
some plants
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
feeding or or by absorption by ingestion
heterotrophic heterotrophic (saprophytic)
by absorption by absorption
(saprophytic) (saprophytic)
or
phagocytosis

Viruses
Viruses are not place in any kingdom because they have characteristics for both living and
non-living things. They are non-living because they can be crystalized and they are living
because they contain nucleic acid(DNA or RNA)and can replicate .
Definition
A virus is a tiny infectious agent that can only replicate inside the living cells of organisms.
It consists of genetic material (either DNA or RNA) wrapped in a protective protein coat.
Viruses invade host cells, hijack their machinery, and use it to reproduce, often causing
disease in the process.

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Viruses cannot be classified into any Kingdom because, they are on the borderline between
living and non-living things.
Viruses are smaller than bacteria and cannot be seen with a light microscope. Viruses are
living thing because they contain nucleic acid in form of DNA or RNA.
Viruses have a variety of shapes; i.e. spherical such as poliomyelitis, straight rods such as
tobacco mosaic (TMV), or flexible rods such as potato viruses.
Economic importance
1. Viruses cause diseases to plants such as tobacco bright and tomato mosaic by (TMV),
curly top, psorosis and spotted wilt.
2. Viruses cause diseases to animals as rabies, flue, polio, HIV/AIDS, Ebola and
cancers.
3. May lead to antibiotic resistance by bacteria.
4. Used in genetic engineering.
Control of the spread of viral disease
1. Burning infected plants
2. Abstinence or use of a condom to prevent HIV
3. Quarantine for highly infectious virus such small pox.
4. Vaccination
NB. Viral diseases are difficult to treat because viruses are continuously mutating.

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Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/AIDS

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the body's immune system,
specifically targeting white blood cells. Over time, if untreated, HIV can weaken the immune
system to the point where the body struggles to fight infections and diseases. The most
advanced stage of HIV infection is Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

Symptoms of AIDS

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the most advanced stage of HIV infection,
where the immune system is severely weakened. Symptoms can vary, but common signs
include:

 Persistent fever
 Extreme fatigue
 Significant weight loss
 Chronic diarrhea
 Swollen lymph nodes
 Night sweats
 Skin rashes or bumps
 Frequent infections
 White spots or unusual lesions in the mouth
 Neurological complications such as memory loss or confusion

These symptoms occur because the immune system is no longer able to fight off infections
and diseases effectively. Opportunistic infections, such as tuberculosis or pneumonia, often
develop in individuals with AIDS

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Testing for HIV

Presence of symptoms alone is not enough to confirm that some one has HIV because many
other diseases such as tuberculosis

There are several types of tests available:

 Nucleic Acid Test (NAT) – Detects HIV infection 10 to 33 days after exposure.
 Antigen/Antibody Test – Can identify HIV 18 to 45 days after exposure.
 Antibody Test – Detects HIV 23 to 90 days after exposure.

Testing is recommended for everyone at least once, and more frequently for those at higher
risk. Many testing options are available, including laboratory tests, rapid tests, and even
home testing kits.

Transmission of HIV

HIV is primarily transmitted through bodily fluids such as blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and
breast milk. It can spread through unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, and from
mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding. However, it is not spread through casual
contact like hugging, kissing, or sharing food.

Control of the spread of HIV

Controlling the spread of HIV involves a combination of prevention strategies, education,

and medical interventions. Here are some key approaches:

 Safe Practices: Using condoms correctly every time during sex significantly reduces
the risk of HIV transmission.
 Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP): A medication taken by HIV-negative individuals at
high risk to prevent infection.
 Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP): A treatment taken within 72 hours of potential
exposure to HIV to prevent infection.
 Regular Testing: Getting tested for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections
(STIs) helps in early detection and prevention.
 Antiretroviral Therapy (ART): People living with HIV should take ART as prescribed,
which can suppress the virus to undetectable levels, preventing transmission.
 Needle Safety: Avoiding the sharing of needles and syringes helps prevent HIV
transmission among drug users.
 Education and Awareness: Spreading accurate information about HIV transmission
and prevention reduces stigma and encourages safer behaviors.
 Mother-to-Child Prevention: Pregnant women with HIV should take ART to prevent
transmission to their babies.

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Treatment of HIV/AIDS

There is currently no cure for HIV, but antiretroviral therapy (ART) can effectively manage
the virus, allowing people with HIV to live long and healthy lives. Early diagnosis and
treatment are crucial in preventing the progression to AIDS.

Ebola

This is rare but deadly virus.

It spreads through contact with body fluids of infected person.

It causes Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever (EHF)

Symptoms of EHF

- High fever
- Vomiting
- Sore throat
- Bloody stool
- Headach
- Bleeding from body opening
- Bloody urine

How to control Ebola Hemorrhagic fever

Controlling the spread of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever involves a combination of prevention,

rapid response, and medical interventions. Here are some key strategies:

 Early Detection & Surveillance: Monitoring outbreaks and identifying cases quickly
to prevent further spread.
 Isolation & Quarantine: Infected individuals must be isolated, and those exposed
should be monitored for symptoms.
 Safe Burial Practices: Ebola can spread through contact with infected bodies, so safe
burial procedures are essential.
 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Healthcare workers must wear protective
gear to prevent exposure.
 Community Awareness & Education: Informing people about symptoms,
transmission, and prevention methods.
 Vaccination & Treatment: There are vaccines available for Ebola virus disease, and
treatments are under development.
 Avoiding Contact with Infected Animals: Ebola can spread from animals like bats
and primates to humans.

Hepatitis

It is the swelling of the liver. There are three common types of Hepatitis, that is, Hepatitis B
virus which causes a serious liver infection but is easily preventable by vaccination. Hepatitis
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C , major cause of liver cancer. And Hepatitis cause by heavy alcohol drinking, drug use,
other infections and toxin.

Symptoms of Hepatitis B

Symptoms can range from mild to severe, and some people may not experience any
symptoms at all. Here are common signs of Hepatitis B:

 Abdominal pain
 Dark urine
 Fever
 Joint pain
 Loss of appetite
 Nausea and vomiting
 Extreme fatigue and weakness
 Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes)

If left untreated, Hepatitis B can lead to serious complications such as liver failure

How to control Hepatitis B

Controlling Hepatitis B involves a combination of prevention, early detection, and medical

management. Here are key strategies:

 Vaccination: The Hepatitis B vaccine is the most effective way to prevent infection.
It is recommended for infants, healthcare workers, and those at higher risk.
 Safe Practices: Avoid sharing needles, razors, toothbrushes, or other personal items
that may come into contact with blood.
 Protected Sex: Using condoms reduces the risk of transmission through sexual
contact.
 Screening & Testing: Regular testing helps detect Hepatitis B early, especially for
pregnant women and those at risk.
 Antiviral Treatment: For chronic Hepatitis B, antiviral medications can help manage
the virus and reduce liver damage.
 Healthy Lifestyle: Avoid excessive alcohol consumption and maintain a balanced diet
to support liver health.

Cassava mosaic virus

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Cassava mosaic virus causes cassava mosaic disease shown in the image above. This disease
leads to reduced yields and poor crop quality.

Control of cassava mosaic disease

Controlling Cassava Mosaic Disease CMD involves several strategies:

 Using Disease-Free Planting Material: Starting with healthy, virus-free cassava

cuttings helps prevent the spread of CMD.
 Roguing and Sanitation: Regularly inspecting fields and removing infected plants can
reduce the spread of the disease.
 Chemical Control of Whiteflies: Since whiteflies transmit the virus, controlling their
population with insecticides can help manage CMD.
 Planting Resistant Varieties: Some cassava varieties are bred to resist CMD, reducing
the impact of the disease.

Kingdom Prokaryotae/ Monera

The main features of Kingdom monera are:

 They are unicellular (single-celled), but some bacteria such as blue-green bacteria may
form single rows of cells.
 Have varied methods of nutrition including autotrophic and heterotrophic modes
 Reproduce asexually by binary fusion and sexually by conjugation
 All bacteria are prokaryotes, i.e. they have no membrane-bound organelles such as a
nucleus
The kingdom contains cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria) and bacteria that are unicellular.
Blue-green algae photosynthesize and are capable of fixing nitrogen.
Bacteria are classified into gram positive bacteria when their cell wall is stained by gentian
violet or gram negative when their cell walls are not stained by gentian violet. Gram
negative bacteria are more susceptible to antibiotics than gram negative bacteria.
Bacteria are generally distinguished by their shapes, i.e.,

 Cocci are spherical. Cocci may stick together in chains or streptococci or in clusters or
staphylococci,
 Bacilli are rod shaped
 Spirilla are spiral shaped (illustrations)

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Common plant bacterial diseases include:
- aster yellows
- bacterial wilt
- blight
a. fire blight
b. rice bacterial blight
- canker
- crown gall
- rot
Common animal bacterial diseases include
- Cholera.
- Leprosy.
- Tuberculosis.
- Plague.
- Syphilis.
Prevention of bacterial diseases
- Keeping proper hygiene
- Eating well cooked food
- Proper sanitation
- Antibiotics

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Importance of bacteria
- Cause decay and recycling of matter
- Symbiotic bacteria in intestine synthesize vitamin B12 while those I herbivores
produce enzyme cellulase to digest cellulose.
- Food production: cheese, yoghurt and vinegar, etc.
- Manufacturing process. E.g. making soap powder, tanning leather.
- Used in genetic engineering to make useful material.

Kingdom Fungi
Characteristics
1. Have no chlorophyll; do not photosynthesize.
2. Heterotrophic
3. Cell wall contain chitin rather than cellulose
4. Body usually a mycelium
5. Carbohydrates stored as glycogen
6. Reproduction by means of spores without flagella
Examples of Fungi

Parts of Rhizopus parts of mushroom

Economic importance of fungi

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Benefits of fungi
- Decompose and recycle organic matter
- Production of antibiotics e.g. penicillin
- Production of alcohols
- Baking e.g. yeast
Disadvantages of fungi
- Cause diseases e.g. ringworm,

- Food decay

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Example fungal disease in plants

Example of fungal diseases to animals

- meningitis

Kingdom Protoctista
The kingdom Protoctista consists of eukaryotic organisms which are assemblages of similar
cells. It includes algae, all protozoa and slime moulds.
Characteristics
1. Have no stems, roots or leaves
2. No sclerenchyma
3. No vascular tissue
4. No archegonia
5. Have other photosynthetic pigments in addition to chlorophyll a.

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Algae

Structure of Spirogyra

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction by fragmentation
Sexual reproduction by conjugation
Stages of conjugation in spirogyra

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Economic advantage of algae
1. Primary producer
2. Food
3. Provide oxygen in water through photosynthesis.
4. Alginic acid derivatives are used as thickener in foo, cosmetic and drug industry.
5. Algal bloom cause water to smell and may lead to depletion of oxygen and death of
fish.

Kingdom plantae
Characteristics
- Are made of more than one eukaryotic cell.
- Have cell wall containing cellulose
- Have chlorophyll as their main photosynthetic pigment.
Phylum Bryophyta(moss)

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a. It is made of small plants generally found in moist terrestrial habitats
b. They have no root and no vascular tissue
c. Show alternation of generation in which the sporophyte and gametophytes are almost
equally conspicuous, although the sporophyte is attached to and depends on,
gametophyte throughout life.
Drawing of moss

Phylum Filicinophyta (ferns)

Ferns have large leaves with chlorophyll called fronds which are coiled in bud.
Have roots and well developed vascular systems.

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 Phylum Angiospermophyta: Flowering plants
They are made of two classes, monocotyledoneae (monocotyledonous plants) and
dicotyledoneae (dicotyledonous plants).
Comparison of monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous plants.

Monocotyledoneae Dicotyledoneae

Embryo has one cotyledon Embryo has two cotyledons

Narrow leaves with parallel venation Broad leaves with net work veins

Scattered vascular bundles in stem Ring vascular bundles

Rare cambium present and normally no Vascular cambium present which can lead
secondary growth to secondary growth

Many xylem groups in root Few xylem groups in root

Flower parts in threes Flower parts in fours or fives

Calyx and corolla not usually Calyx and corolla are distinct.
distinguishable

Often wind pollinated Often insect pollinated

e.g. maize and rice e.g. bean

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 Coniferous plant

Economic importance of plants

1. For decoration
2. For food, timber, medicine, raw materials for industries (fruits juices), fibre
producing plants (sisal, hemp, cotton)

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Kingdom Animalia
The organism included in this kingdom are non-photosynthetic multicellular organism with
nervous coordination.
Phylum protozoa
Examples; amoeba, Euglena, paramecium and trypanosome
Characteristics
1. they are single celled.
2. they are microscopic
3. they reproduce by means of binary fission.
4. they move by pseudopodia (amoeba), cilia (paramecium) or flagella (euglena)
5. reproduce by binary cell division or by cell fission

Common protozoa Feeding of amoeba

Amoeba feeds by use of cell membrane to
engulfs the food particle. The food particle is
taken in the cytoplasm and enclosed in food
vacuole where it is digested.

Locomotion
By pseudopodia

Excretion
- Ammonia diffused through the cell
membrane
- Excess water by contractile vacuole

Reproduction: Binary cell division

Economic importance
- Entamoeba histolytica cause amoebic dysentery
- They feed and control other disease-causing organisms e.g. bacteria

Feeding: Cilia push food into the gullet and

ingestion takes place only at the end of the gullet.
The food vacuole move in a very definite path
through the body of the paramecium and egestion
takes place at only one part near the region of
ingestion.

Movement: cilia

Excretion
- Ammonia diffused through the cell
membrane
- Excess water by contractile vacuole

Reproduction: by binary cell division

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Economic importance: source of food to other aquatic organisms

Economic impotence trypanosome

. - Is a parasite
- Causes nagana in cattle and
sleeping sickness in man
Transmission: By tsetse fly
Prevention: by spraying tsetse flies

Plasmodium

Causes malaria and transmitted by female anopheles mosquito

Prevention of malaria
- Sleeping in mosquito net.
- Using mosquito replant
- Draining stagnant water
- Using insecticide
- Treatment of malaria

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

Characteristics
1. their bodies are flat with distinct head.
2. they are parasitic
3. are hermaphrodite (have both sexes)
4. They are triploblastic with a body wall composed of an outer epidermis and inner
gastrodermis separated by a relatively undifferentiated region of mesoderm called
mesenchyme.

They are subdivided into three classes

1. Turbellaria: these are carnivorous flat worms found in flesh water, streams and
ponds. It remain under water during day and comes out to feed at night e.g.
planarian
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 2. Trematoda; are generally endo or ecto-parasites e.g.
- fasciola hepatica or liver fluke is a parasite found in the liver.
- Blood fluke cause bilharzias.

Life cycle of the blood fluke

Eggs in water are hatched into

swimming forms in the snail (vector)

Eggs in
urine of Several stages in
feces snail

Sexual form
Boring form enter the
develops in man
skin of man

Economic importance
Liver fluke cause liver diseases, large number block bile ducts.
Blood fluke cause bilharzias.

3. Cestoda (tape worms)

- they are endo parasites found in the alimentary canal of vertebrates.
- They are ribbon-like with distinct head or scolex and a series of segments or
proglottis
- The proglottis contain both male and female reproductive system.
- Lack a digestive system
- Lack any means of locomotion

They are two types

a. Taenia saginata uses a cow as a secondary host.
b. Taenia solium uses a pig as a secondary host

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 Life Cycle of a tape worm

Eggs

in feces

eaten

Mature

Tapeworm in man
Bladder worm in
eaten
muscles of pig

or cow

Harmful effects of tape worms

- They are parasites
- They may block the intestine and cause constipation and other problems
- Lead to anemia

Control of spread of tapeworms

- proper disposal of feces
- eat well cooked food
- proper sanitation
- regular deworming with drugs

Dangers of parasitic mode of life

- failure to find a host
- Failure to penetrate a host
- Failure to protect self from host defense mechanisms.

Adaptations of the tape worm parasitic mode of life

1. possesses suckers and hooks for attachment
2. produces a lot of mucus that protects it from the host digestive enzyme
3. produces a large number of eggs to increase chance of finding a host
4. has intermediate secondary host e.g. pig or cow.
5. lack unnecessary organs to reduce on energy demands.
6. its hermaphrodite to increase the rate of egg production.
7. it survives in low oxygen area by using anaerobic respiration
8. has resistant stage in the soil.
9. its flat and long to increase absorptive surface.
10. can regenerate

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Phylum Nematoda
Characteristics
a. they are un segmented
b. they are laterally symmetrical
c. have cylindrical bodies
d. have separate sexes
e. gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion over the body surface

Examples
1. Round worms e.g. ascaris or hook worm

Round worms are parasites in duodenum are

transmitted in feces.

Transmission is controlled by proper hygiene, eating

fruits after washing them

Ascaris

2. Filarial worms
These are parasites that cause elephantiasis/filariasis in man.

Filarial worms are transmitted by

mosquitoes

Its spread is controlled by sleeping in

mosquito net.
Filariasis

Phylum Annelida: segmented worms

E.g. earthworm, leech, lungworm
Characteristics of segmented worms

- Has segmented body

- It is hermaphrodite
- Has complete digestive system
- Its excretory organ is called nephrida
- Gaseous exchange occurs over the body
- Uses chaeta for locomotion

Economic importance of earthworms

- Tunnels improve aeration and drainage of soil

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 - causes decay and formation of humus
- source of food to other animals e.g. chicken
- die and rot to form manure.
- Mixes soil layer

Phylum mollusca
e.

Snail slug

Characteristics of mollusca Importance of mollusca

- have soft bodies - food source
- protected by shell
- have well developed digestive system
- have well developed gaseous exchange
system

Phylum: Coelenterate/cnidaria
Characteristics:
- diploblastic with a body composed of two cell layers, an inner gastrodermis and outer
epidermis.
- single body cavity with one opening surrounded by tentacles
- radial symmetry
- polymorphism
Examples

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Phylum: Arthropods
General characteristics They are divided into five classes
1. have segments bodies a. crustacea
2. have exoskeleton b. chilopoda
3. have jointed legs c. diplopoda
4. they have a dorsal heart with open d. arachinida
vascular system e. insecta

Class crustacean
Characteristic
- have two compound eyes
- mostly aquatic
- have five or more pairs of legs.

Examples

crab
Water flea

Economic importance
Source of food to man and other animals
Few are parasitic

Class Chilopoda
Characteristics
Have cylindrical bodies with numerous segments each with one pair of leg.
Carnivorous
Example

Centipede

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Class Diplopoda
Characteristics
- their bodies are cylindrical with numerous segments that are similar except around the
head region.
- Each segment has two pair of walking legs

Example: millipede

Adaptations of millipedes to the Adaptations of the head of a millipede to

environment survival of organism
- Exoskeleton prevents excess water loss. - Eyes to see food
- Has a dark color for camouflage from - Strong mandibles for
predators. feeding
- Have eyes to see food and predators. - Antennae for feeling
- Have legs for locomotion to look for
food and run away from predator.
- Has strong mandible for chewing.

Economic importance
a. Millipedes are herbivores and pest to farm crops.
b. They burrow and aerate the soil and improve drainage.

Class: Arachnida
Characteristics
a. the body is divided into two main body parts, cephalothorax and abdomen
b. have no antennae
c. have four walking legs on cephalothorax

Examples

Spider Tick

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Economic importance Adaptations of the tick to the mode of life
- Tick and mites are parasites to domestic - Hard cuticle to prevent water loss and
animals protects in parts
- Tick spreads diseases to man e.g. coastal - Has dark color for camouflage
fever - Has strong teeth to cling on the host
- Spiders feed on vectors. - Has eyes to look for host.
- Scorpions and spiders inflict fetal stings

Phylum: Chordata
Characteristics
1. Gill slits presents in pharynx/ Pharyngeal pouches/ gill clefts
2. Post-anal tail at some stage in the development

3. Notochord
4. Dorsal tubular/tubular nerve chord

They are subdivided into four classes

Pisces- fish
Amphibia- amphibian (frog and toads)
Reptilia- reptiles (lizard, snake, crocodiles)
Aves – the bird
Mammalia - the mammals e.g. man, dogs
Fish, amphibian and reptiles do not maintain constant body temperature and are referred to
as poikilothermic or cold blooded. Bird and mammal maintain their constant body
temperature and referred to as hoiothermic or warm blooded.
Fish
Is classified into two types:
1. Bony fish e.g. tilapia have their skeleton made of bones.
2. cartilaginous fish have a skeleton made of cartilages e.g. shark

Tilapia Shark

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Characteristics
They live permanently in water.
Their bodies are protected with scales or hard skin
They extract oxygen from water using gills.
Adaptations of the gills for gaseous exchange
- Well supplied with blood to supply deoxygenated
- Numerous to increase the surface area for gaseous exchange..
- Have thin epithelium to facilitate diffusion.
- Equipped with a ventilation mechanism that draw continuous fresh water streams over
the gills

A drawing of a tilapia

Functions of parts of fish

1. Operculum protects gills
2. Dorsal fin prevents fish from rolling.
3. lateral lines detect sound waves
4. caudal fin used for propulsion
5. pectoral, pelvic and ventral fins for balancing.

Class Amphibia
These are amphibians which include Toads, newts, and frogs.
Characteristics
1. they live both on land and in water.
2. The require water for breeding
3. They have soft moistened skin with no scales

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4. They lay eggs in water and are fertilized externally.
5. they are poikilothermic. That is, their body temperature varies with environmental
temperature.
Adaptations of a toad to way of life

1. has eyes to see food

2. has legs for locomotion
3. dark to camouflage to the environment
4. has muscular legs for locomotion.
5. has elastic tongue to catch distant prey

Class Reptilia
Reptiles include: snakes, crocodiles, lizards, turtles, tortoise and chamelions.
General characteristics
1. they have a dry skin with horny scales
2. they have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs (limbs with five digits)
3. they use lungs for gaseous exchange
4. they are poikilothermic.
5. they lay eggs with a leathery shell
6. no gills
7. homodont (all teeth of the same type)

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Examples

Class Aves
These are birds e.g cock, hens, ducks, eagles, peacock.
Characteristics of birds
1. Their skin is covered with feathers except legs that are covered with scales.
2. they have skeletons made of hollow bone.
3. they have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs of which the fore limb is modified into wings.
4. have beaks for feeding.
5. they are homoiothermic. That is, they regulate their body temperatures.
6. they lay eggs with shells
7. they undergo internal fertilization
Parts of a bird

Feathers
Functions of feathers
1. protect inner part of the body.

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2. Keep the body warm and dry
3. Some feathers e.g. quill feather is used for flight.
Types of feathers.

(a) Quill feather: used for flight, protection and warmth.

(b) Contour Feathers, Down feathers and filoplume are used for protection, and warmth.

Class: Mammalia
Characteristics
1. endothermic
2. Hair
3. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands
4. Mammary glands
5. Pinna (external ear)
6. Heterodont (specialized teeth)
7. Diaphragm
Examples

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