🔹 Traditional File Processing System Applies to both the external and conceptual schema of ANSI/SPARC architecture.

 Each application has its own data files, leading to data isolation.
 There is high data redundancy because the same data is stored in multiple places. 2. Attribute
 Data inconsistency occurs often due to lack of integration.
 There is strong program-data dependence; a change in data format affects all The vertical dimension (column) of a table (relation).
related programs.
 Data sharing is limited, making cross-departmental access difficult.
 Security and integrity are hard to enforce due to scattered control. Represents a property or field that holds information.
 System is difficult to maintain and scale as it grows.
🔹 Database Approach 3. Domain
 Uses a centralized database shared across applications.
 Minimizes data redundancy by storing data only once. A domain defines the valid set of values an attribute can have.
 Ensures data consistency through integrated management.
 Provides program-data independence via the DBMS.
 Enhances data sharing across users and departments. Each attribute is associated with a domain.
 Offers centralized security and integrity control.
 Is easier to maintain, scale, and adapt for future needs.
Example: A "Gender" attribute with domain {M, F, Other}
Logical database design focuses on what data is stored and how it is organized. It defines
tables, relationships, and constraints based on the conceptual model, ensuring data 4. Tuple
integrity and usability without considering how data is physically stored.Physical
database design deals with how the data is stored and accessed in a specific DBMS. It A row in a relation.
involves choosing storage structures, indexing methods, and file organization to optimize
performance and efficiency.
Represents a record with values for all attributes.
Components of DBMS
Hardware
Physical devices like servers, storage devices, and client machines. The horizontal dimension of a table.
Supports storage and processing of the database.
Software 5. Degree
Includes the DBMS software itself (e.g., Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server).
Also includes operating system and application programs that interact with the DBMS. The number of attributes in a relation.
Data
The actual information stored in the database.
Includes user data, metadata (data about data), and system data (like indexes, logs). Indicates the structure or schema of the relation.
People
Users involved in managing and using the database system:
Database Administrators (DBAs) – Manage and maintain the DBMS
Examples: Unary (1), Binary (2), Ternary (3), etc.
Developers – Design and build applications
End Users – Use the database via applications or queries
6. Cardinality
System Analysts – Design system architecture and logic
Procedures
The number of tuples (rows) in a relation.
Instructions and rules for designing, using, and managing the DBMS.
Includes backup routines, access controls, and documentation standards.
Types of Database Designers
Conceptual Database Designer Indicates the amount of data stored.
Focuses on high-level data modeling (conceptual models like ER diagrams).
Defines entities, relationships, and business rules without concern for implementation.
Works closely with business stakeholders to understand requirements. Cardinality can vary as rows are added or deleted.
Logical Database Designer
Converts conceptual models into logical models suitable for a specific type of DBMS. 7. Relational Database
Defines tables, attributes, primary/foreign keys, and normalization levels.
Ensures data integrity and avoids redundancy. A collection of normalized relations (tables) with distinct names.
Physical Database Designer
Translates the logical model into a physical schema for implementation.
Deals with storage structures, indexing, partitioning, and access methods.
Optimizes performance and resource use on the actual hardware.

Types of Database Models

Historically, various database models have been used in different computing
environments from the 1960s till today. These are categorized into three generations:

First Generation DBMS

Second Generation DBMs
Third Generation DBMS

Common Types of Database Models

Hierarchical Model
Network Model
Relational Model
Object-Oriented Model
Object-Relational Model
NoSQL Model

Need for a Database Model

A data model provides essential guidelines to:
Organize dat
Define relationships
Ensure data integrity and security
Facilitate data retrieval
Guide database design

Relational Database Model

The most dominant model in use today by most database systems.
Belongs to the second generation of DBMS.
Proposed by E.F. Codd in 1970.
Objectives of the Relational Model
Eliminate drawbacks and deficiencies of earlier models (Hierarchical, Network).
Provide a better logical representation and organization of data.
Use a simple logical structure called a relation (i.e., table).
Terminologies of Relational Database Model
The Relational Database Model is based on the mathematical concept of a relation. It
uses similar terms mostly from set theory and predicate logic.
1. Relation

A relation is a table with columns and rows.

It is the user's perception of a table.