Unit-IV

Notes
Synchronous Generator
Construction of Synchronous Generator or Alternator
As alternator consists of two main parts viz.
 Stator − The stator is the stationary part of the alternator. It carries the armature
winding in which the voltage is generated. The output of the alternator is taken form
the stator.
 Rotor − The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. The rotor produces the main
field flux.
Stator Construction of Alternator
The stator of the alternator includes several parts, viz. the frame, stator core, stator or
armature windings, and cooling arrangement.
 The stator frame may be made up of cast iron for small-size machines and of welded
steel for large-size machines.
 The stator core is assembled with high-grade silicon content steel laminations. These
silicon steel laminations reduce the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the stator
core.
 The slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core. A 3-phase armature winding
is put in these slots.
 The armature winding of the alternator is star connected. The winding of each phase is
distributed over several slots. When current flows through the distributed armature
winding, it produces an essential sinusoidal space distribution of EMF.

Rotor Construction of Alternator

The rotor of the alternator carries the field winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate DC source (also called exciter). The exciter is generally a
small DC shunt generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
For the alternator, there are two types of rotor constructions are used viz. the salient-pole
type and the cylindrical rotor type.
Salient Pole Rotor
The term salient means projecting. Hence, a salient pole rotor consists of poles projecting
out from the surface of the rotor core. This whole arrangement is fixed to the shaft of the
alternator as shown in the figure. The individual field pole windings are connected in series
such that when the field winding is energised by the DC exciter, the adjacent poles have
opposite polarities.

The salient pole type rotor is used in the low and medium speed (from 120 to 400 RPM)
alternators such as those driven by the diesel engines or water turbines because of the
following reasons −
 The construction of salient pole type rotor cannot be made b enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speed.
 If the salient field pole type rotor is driven at high speed, then it would cause windage
loss and would tend to produce noise.
Low speed rotors of the alternators possess a large diameter to provide the necessary space
for the poles. As a result, the salient pole type rotors have large diameter and short axial
length.
Cylindrical Rotor
The cylindrical rotors are made from solid forgings of high-grade nickel-chrome-
molybdenum steel.
 The construction of the cylindrical rotor is such that there are no-physical poles to be
seen as in the salient pole rotor.
 In about two-third of the outer periphery of the cylindrical rotor, slots are cut at
regular intervals and parallel to the rotor shaft.
 The field windings are placed in these slots and is excited by DC supply. The field
winding is of distributed type.
 The unslotted portion of the rotor forms the pole faces.
  It is clear from the figure of the cylindrical rotor that the poles formed are non-salient,
i.e., they do not project out from the rotor surface.

The cylindrical type rotor construction is used in the high-speed (1500 to 3000 RPM)
alternators such as those driven by steam turbines because of the following reasons −
 The cylindrical type rotor construction provides a greater mechanical strength and
permits more accurate dynamic balancing.
 It gives noiseless operation at high speeds because of the uniform air gap.
 The flux distribution around the periphery of the rotor is nearly a sine wave and hence
a better EMF waveform is obtained.
A cylindrical rotor alternator has a comparatively small diameter and long axial length. The
cylindrical rotor alternators are called turbo-alternators or turbo-generators. The alternator
with cylindrical rotor have always horizontal configuration installation.

Basis of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Salient-Pole Synchronous

Difference Generator Generator

A synchronous generator that has its A synchronous generator whose rotor

rotor which is cylindrical in shape is has poles projected on the rotor
Description
known as cylindrical rotor synchronous surface is called salient pole rotor
generator. synchronous generator.

In a cylindrical rotor alternator, the

In salient pole alternator, the rotor
portion without the slots of the
Pole poles are projecting out from the
cylindrical rotor acts as poles. Thus, the
surface of the rotor.
poles are non-projecting type.

The diameter of the salient-pole rotor

Rotor The diameter of the cylindrical rotor
alternator is larger than that of
diameter alternator is relatively smaller.
cylindrical rotor alternator.
 Cylindrical rotor alternator has large The axial length of the salient-pole
Axial length
axial length. rotor alternator is small.

In cylindrical rotor alternator, the air-

Salient pole rotor alternator has non-
gap between stator and rotor is uniform
Air gap uniform air gap because the poles are
because it has smooth cylindrical
projecting out from the surface.
periphery.

Cylindrical rotor alternator is also called Salient pole alternator is also known
Also called "non-salient rotor alternator" or "non- as "projected pole type rotor
projected pole type alternator". alternator".

The rating of the cylindrical rotor Salient pole alternator has smaller
Rating (For
alternator is higher than salient pole rating than the cylindrical type
the same size)
alternator. alternator.

Mechanical The mechanical strength of the Salient pole alternator has relatively
strength cylindrical rotor alternator is high. less mechanical strength.

Damper Cylindrical rotor alternator does not Salient pole alternator have separate
winding have separate damper winding. damper winding.

Salient pole rotor alternator is most

Cylindrical rotor alternator is suitable
suitable for low speed applications,
Suitability for high speed applications. Where, the
where the rotor speed ranges from 125
speed ranges from 1500 to 3000 RPM.
to 500 RPM.

The prime movers used for running the

The prime movers used for driving the
cylindrical rotor alternator are steam
Prime mover salient pole alternators are hydro
turbines used in thermal, gas and
turbines and IC engines.
nuclear power plants.

Working Principle and Operation of Alternator:

An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. When
the armature winding of alternator subjected to the rotating magnetic field, the voltage will be
generated in the armature winding.
When the rotor field winding of the alternator is energised from the DC exciter, the alternate
N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in the anticlockwise
direction by a prime mover, the armature conductors placed on the stator are cut by the
magnetic field of the rotor poles. As a result, the EMF is induced in the armature conductors
due to electromagnetic induction. This induced EMF is alternating one because the N and S
poles of the rotor pass the armature conductors alternatively.
The direction of the generated EMF can be determined by the Fleming’s right rule and the
frequency of it is given by, Where,
 Ns is the synchronous speed in RP
 P is the number of rotor poles.
The magnitude of the generated voltage depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor and
the DC field excitation current. For the balanced condition, the generated voltage in each
phase of the winding is the same but differ in phase by 120° electrical.
Pitch Factor
In a short-pitched coil, the induced emf from the two coil sides adds vectorially, creating the
resultant emf. The phase angle between the induced emfs is less than 180°. In a full-pitched
coil, this angle is exactly 180°.
Hence, the resultant emf of a full pitched coil is just the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced
on both sides of the loop. We well know that vector sum or phasor sum of two quantities is
always less than their arithmetic sum. The pitch factor is the measure of resultant emf of a
short-pitched coil in comparison with resultant emf of a full pitched coil.
Hence, it must be the ratio of phasor sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of
induced emfs per coil. Therefore, it must be less than unity.
Let us assume that, a coil is short pitched by an angle α (electrical degree). Emf induced per
coil side is E. The arithmetic sum of induced emfs is 2E. That means, 2E, is the induced
voltage across the coil terminals, if the coil would have been full pitched.
Now, come to the short pitched coil. From the figure below it is clear that, resultant emf of
the short pitched coil
Now, as per definition of pitched factor,

This pitch factor is the fundamental component of emf. The flux wave may consist of space
field harmonics also, which give rise to the corresponding time harmonics in the generated
voltage waveform.
The 3rd harmonic component of the flux wave can be seen as produced by three poles instead
of one, as in the fundamental component.
In the view of this, the chording angle for the rth harmonic becomes r times the chording angle
for the fundamental component and pitch factor for the rth harmonic is given as,

The rth harmonic becomes zero, if,

In 3 phase alternator, the 3rd harmonic is suppressed by star or delta connection as in the case
of 3 phase transformer. Total attention is given for designing a 3 phase alternator winding
design, for 5th and 7th harmonics.
For 5th harmonic

For 7th harmonic

Hence, by adopting a suitable chording angle of α = 30o, we make most optimized design
armature winding of alternator.
Distribution Factor
If all coil sides of one phase under one pole are grouped in one slot, it’s called a concentrated
winding. The total induced emf is the arithmetic sum of the emfs from all coils of that phase
under one pole.
But in practical cases, for obtaining smooth sinusoidal voltage waveform, armature winding
of alternator is not concentrated but distributed among the different slots to form polar groups
under each pole. In distributed winding, coil sides per phase are displaced from each other by
an angle equal to the angular displacement of the adjacent slots. Hence, the induced emf per
coil side is not an angle equal to the angular displacement of the slots.
So, the resultant emf of the winding is the phasor sum of the induced emf per coil side. As it
is phasor sum, must be less than the arithmetic sum of these induced emfs.
Resultant emf would be an arithmetic sum if the winding would have been a concentrated
one.
As per definition, distribution factor is a measure of resultant emf of a distributed winding in
compared to a concentrated winding.
We express it as the ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in
some slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced. Distribution factor is,

As pitch factor, distribution factor is also always less than unity.

Let the number of slots per pole is n.
The number of slots per pole per phase is m.
Induced emf per coil side is Ec.
Angular displacement between the slots,

Let us represent the emfs induced in different coils of one phase under one pole as AC, DC,
DE, EF and so on. They are equal in magnitude, but they differ from each other by an angle
β.
If we draw bisectors on AC, CD, DE, EF ——–. They would meet at common point O.
Emf induced in each coil side,

As the slot per pole per phase is m, the total arithmetic sum of all induced emfs per coil sides
per pole per phase,

The resultant emf would be AB, as represented by the figure,

Hence, the resultant emf

mβ is also known as the phase spread in electrical degree.

The distribution factor Kd given by equation is for the fundamental component of emf.
If the flux distribution contains space harmonics the slot angular pitch β on the fundamental
scale, would become rβ for the rth harmonic component and thus the distribution factor for the
rth harmonic would be.

The generator which runs at a synchronous speed is known as the synchronous generator. The
synchronous generator converts the mechanical power into electrical energy for the grid. The
Derivation of EMF Equation of a synchronous generator is given below.
Let,
 P be the number of poles
  ϕ is Flux per pole in Webers
 N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
 f be the frequency in Hertz
 Zph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase
 Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase
 Kc is the coil span factor
 Kd is the distribution factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given as Pϕ Weber. Time taken to
complete one revolution is given by 60/N sec
Average EMF induced per conductor will be given by the equation shown below:

Average EMF induced per phase will be given by the equation shown below:

The average EMF equation is derived with the following assumptions given below.
 Coils have got the full pitch.
 All the conductors are concentrated in one stator slot.
Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced per phase is given by the equation
shown below:
Eph = Average value x form factor
Therefore,
If the coil span factor Kc and the distribution factor Kd , are taken into consideration then the
Actual EMF induced per phase is given as:

Equation (1) shown above is the EMF equation of the Synchronous Generator.
Kc=Kp=pitch factor or coil span factor
Kd=distribution factor

Numerical:
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 200 conductors per phase and the flux per
pole is 0.0654 Wb. Calculate the following −
 EMF induced per phase, and
 EMF between line terminals.
Assume the winding to be full pitched and the distribution factor to be 0.86.
Solution

The equivalent circuit of an alternator or synchronous generator is shown in Figure-1.

The equivalent circuit of the alternator is redrawn in Figure-2 by taking synchronous
reactance XS=XAR+Xl . By using the equivalent circuit, the phasor diagram of the alternator
can be drawn as given below.

By referring the equivalent circuit, we can write,

Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator
The above voltage equation is to be realised using phasor diagrams for various load power
factor conditions. For drawing the phasor diagram consider all per phase values and
remember following steps.
Steps to draw the phasor diagram :
1. Choose current Ia as a reference phasor.
2. Now if load power factor is cos ty , it indicates that angle between Vph and Ia is ty as Vph is
the voltage available to the load.
So show the phasor Vph m such a way that angle between Vph and Ia is ϕ . For lagging ϕ’,
Ia should lag Vph and for leading ϕ', Ia should lead Vph- For unity power factor load ϕ is zero,
so Vph and Ia are in phase.
3. Now the drop IaRa is a resistive drop and hence will always be in phase with Ia. So phasor
Ia Ra direction will be always same as Ia, i.e. parallel to Ia. But as it is to be added to Vph,
Ia Ra phasor must be drawn from the tip of the Vph phasor drawn.
4. The drop IaXs is drop across purely inductive reactance. In pure inductance, current lags
voltage by 90°. So ’I aXs' phasor direction will be always such that Ia will lag IaXs phasor by
90°. But this phasor is to be drawn from the tip of the IaRa phasor to complete phasor addition
of Vph,IaRa and IaXs
5. Joining the starting point to the terminating point, we get the phasor Eph. Whatever may be
the load power factor, Ia Ra is a resistive drop, will be in phase with Ia while IaXs is purely
inductive drop and hence will be perpendicular to Ia in such a way that Ia will lag IaXs by 90°.
This is shown in the Fig. 2.9.1.

By using the above steps, the phasor diagrams conditions can be drawn.

1. Lagging Power Factor Load

The power factor of the load is cos ϕ lagging so Ia lags Vph by angle ϕ. By using steps
discussed above, phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 2.9.2.

To derive the relationship between Eph and Vph, the perpendiculars are drawn on the current
phasor from points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E respectively.
Now, OD = Vph cos ϕ
AD = BE = Vph sin ϕ
DE = IaRa
Consider ∆ OCE, for which we can write,
(OC)2 = (OE) 2 + (EC) 2
(Eph) 2 = (OD + DE) 2 + (EB + BC) 2
(Eph) 2 = (Vph cos ϕ + IaRa)2 + (Vph sinϕ + IaXs)2

From this equation, the value of induced e.m.f. can be calculated.

2. Leading Power Factor Load

The power factor of the load is cos ϕ leading. So Ia leads Vph by an angle ϕ . By using steps
discussed, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 2.9.3.
To derive the relation between Eph and Vph, the perpendiculars are drawn on current phasor
from points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E respectively.
From ∆ OAD, OD = Vph cos ϕ
AD = BE = Vph sin ϕ
DE = IaRa
Consider ∆ OCE, for which we can write,
(OC)2 = (OE) 2 + (EC) 2
(Eph ) 2 = (OD + DE) 2 + (BE - BC) 2
(Eph) 2 = (Vph cos ϕ + IaRa) 2 + (Vph sin ϕ- IaXs) 2

It can be observed that the sign of the IaXs is negative as against its positive sign for lagging
p.f. load. This is because X5 consists of Xar. i.e. armature reaction reactance. Armature
reaction is demagnetising for lagging while magnetising for leading power factor loads. So
sign of IaXs is opposite for lagging and leading p.f conditions.

3. Unity Power Factor Load

The power factor of the load is unity i.e. cos ϕ = 1. So ϕ = 0, which means Vph is in phase
with Ia. So phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig. 2.9.4.
Consider ∆ OBC, for which we can write,
(OC)2 = (OB)2 + (BC)2
(Eph) 2 - (OA + AB) 2 + (BC) 2
(Eph) 2 = (Vph + IaRa) 2 + (IaXs) 2

As cos ϕ = 1, so sin ϕ = 0 hence does not appear in the equation.

Armature Reaction
When the load is connected to the alternator, the armature winding of the alternator carries a
current. Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux so armature of the alternator
also produces its own flux, when carrying a current. So there are two fluxes present in the air
gap, one due to armature current while second is produced by the field winding called main
flux. The flux produced by the armature is called armature flux.
Key Point : So effect of the armature flux on the main flux affecting its value and the
distribution is called armature reaction.
The effect of the armature flux not only depends on the magnitude of the current flowing
through the armature winding but also depends on the nature of the power factor of the load
connected to the alternator.
Let us study the effect of nature of the load power factor on the armature reaction.
1. Unity Power Factor Load
Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power factor. As
induced e.m.f. Eph drives a current of Iaph and load power factor is unity, Eph and Iaph are in
phase with each other.
If ϕ f is the main flux produced by the field winding responsible for producing Eph then
Eph lags ϕ f by 90°
Now current through armature Ia, produces the armature flux say ϕ a . So flux ϕ a and Ia are
always in the same direction.
This relationship between ϕ f , ϕa Eph and Iaph can be shown in the phasor diagram. Refer to
the Fig. 2.5.1.

It can be seen from the phasor diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90° between the
armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also shown in the Fig.
2.5.1. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes oppose each other on the left
half of each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole. Hence average flux in
the air gap remains constant but its distribution gets distorted.
Key Point : Hence such distorting effect of armature reaction under unity p.f. condition of
the load is called cross magnetising effect of armature reaction.
Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage of the alternator.

2. Zero Lagging Power Factor Load

Consider a purely inductive load connected to the alternator having zero lagging power
factor. This indicates that Iaph driven by Eph, lags Eph by 90° which is the power factor
angle ϕ.
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags main flux ϕ f by 90o while ϕ a is in the same direction as that of Ia. So
the phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig 2.5.2
It can be seen from the phasir diagram that the armature flux and the main flux are exactly in
opposite direaction to each other.
Key Point So armature flux tries to cancel the main flux. Such an effect of armature reaction
is called demagnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the terminal voltage drops. This drop in the
terminal voltage is more than the drop corresponding to the unity p.f. load.

3. Zero Leading Power Factor Load

Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the alternator having zero leading power
factor. This means that armature current Iaph driven by Eph, leads Eph by 90°, which is the
power factor angle ϕ.
Induced e.m.f. Eph lags ϕ f by 90° while Iaph and ϕ a are always in the same direction. The
phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.5.3.

It can be seen from the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in the Fig. 2.5.3, the armature
flux and the main field flux are in the same direction i.e. they are helping each other. This
results into the addition in main flux.
Key Point : Such an effect of armature reaction due to which armature flux assists field flux
is called magnetising effect of the armature reaction.
As this effect adds the flux to the main flux, greater e.m.f. gets induced in the armature.
Hence there is increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor loads.
For intermediate power factor loads i.e. between zero lagging and zero leading the armature
reaction is partly cross magnetising and partly demagnetising for lagging power factor loads
or partly magnetising for leading power factor loads.
4. Armature Reaction Reactance (Xar)
In all the conditions of the load power factors, there is change in the terminal voltage due to
the armature reaction. Mainly the practical loads are inductive in nature, due to
demagnetising effect of armature reaction, there is reduction in the terminal voltage. Now this
drop in the voltage is due to the interaction of armature and main flux. This drop is not across
any physical element.
But to quantify the voltage drop due to the armature reaction, armature winding is assumed to
have a fictitious reactance. This fictitious reactance of the armature is called armature
reaction reactance denoted as Xar Ω /ph. And the drop due to armature reaction can be
accounted as the voltage drop across this reactance as Ia Xar.
Key Point : The value of this reactance changes as the load power factor changes, as
armature reaction depends on the load power factor.
Voltage Regulation By EMF method:
The synchronous impedance method or EMF method is used to determine the voltage
regulation of the larger alternators. The synchronous impedance method is based on the
concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by an imaginary reactance.
For an alternator,

At first, the synchronous impedance (Zs) is measured and then, the value of actual generated
EMF (Ea) is calculated. Thus, from the values of (Ea) and V, the voltage regulation of the
alternator can be calculated.
Measurement of Synchronous Impedance
In order to determine the value of synchronous impedance, following tests are performed on
an alternator −
 DC Resistance Test
 Open-Circuit Test
 Short-Circuit Test
DC Resistance Test
The circuit diagram for the DC resistance test is shown in Figure-1.

Consider the alternator is star-connected with the field winding open-circuited. Now, measure
the DC resistance between each pair of terminals either by using Wheatstone’s bridge or
ammeter-voltmeter method. The average of three sets of resistance values R t is taken. This
value of Rt is divided by 2 to obtain the DC resistance per phase.
While performing the test, the alternator should be at rest, because the AC effective resistance
is greater than DC resistance due to skin effect. The AC effective resistance per phase may be
obtained by multiplying the DC resistance by a factor 1.20 to 1.75 depending upon the size of
the alternator.
Open-Circuit Test
To perform the open-circuit test, the load terminals are kept open and the alternator is run at
rated synchronous speed. The circuit diagram of the open-circuit test is shown in Figure-2.

Initially, the field current is set to zero. Then, the field current is gradually increased in steps
and the open-circuit terminal voltage Et is measured in each step. The field current may be
increased to obtain 25 % more than rated voltage of the alternator.
A graph is plotted between the open-circuit phase voltage

and the field current (If). The obtained characteristic curve is known as open-circuit
characteristic (O.C.C) of the alternator (see Figure-3).
The shape of O.C.C. is same as a normal magnetisation curve. When the linear portion of the
O.C.C. is extended, it given the air-gap line of the characteristic.
Short-Circuit Test
For performing the short-circuit test, the armature terminals are short-circuited through three
ammeters as shown in Figure-4.

Before starting the alternator, the field current should be decreased to zero. Each ammeter
should have a range more than the rated full-load value. Now, the alternator is run at
synchronous speed. Then, the field current is gradually increased in steps and the armature
current is measured at each step. The field current may be increased to obtain the armature
currents up to 150 % of the rated value.
The field current (If) and the average of the three ammeter readings is taken at each step. A
graph is plotted between the armature current (Ia) and the field current (If). The obtained
characteristic is known as short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.) of the alternator and this
characteristic is a straight line as shown in Figure-5.

Calculation of Synchronous Impedance (Zs)

In order to calculate the synchronous impedance of the alternator, the O.C.C. and the S.C.C.
are drawn on the same curve sheet, as shown in Figure-6.

Then, determine the value of short-circuit current (ISC) at the field current that gives t

The rated voltage per phase of the alternator. The synchronous impedance (Zs) will then be
equal to the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the short-circuit current at the field current
which gives the rated voltage per phase
Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method
The main advantage of this method is the value of synchronous impedance ZS for any load
condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the alternator at any load condition and load
power factor can be determined. Actual load need not be connected to the alternator and
hence method can be used for very high capacity alternators.
The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous
reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results. Hence
this method is called pessimistic method.
The synchronous impedance is practically variable and not constant. If there is saturation, it
remains constant but it decreases towards the saturation while it increases for the low
saturation region. In synchronous impedance method, in short circuit test, the field current
required is very small to pass the short circuit current hence the flux density is low and the
region is low saturation region. Hence the synchronous impedance is much higher than its
normal value. Thus the drop IaZs is high due to which the regulation is also high than the
actual value, by synchronous impedance method. Hence the method is called pessimistic.

Example 2.12.2 A 3 ph, 1500 kVA, star connected 50 Hz, 2300 V alternator has a resistance
between each pair of terminals as measured by direct current is 0.16 Q. Assume that the
effective resistance is 1.5 times the ohmic resistance. A field current of 70 A produces a short
circuit current equal to full load current of 376 A in each line. The same field current
produces an emf of 700 V on open circuit. Determine the synchronous reactance of the
machine and its full load regulation at 0.8 pfi lag.
Solution :
1500 kVA, VL = 2300 V
From the Fig. 2.12.6, Ra = 0.08 Ω /ph
Ra (effective) = 1.5 × 0.08 Ω /ph
.-. Ra = 0.12 Ω / ph
Iasc = 376 A for If = 70 A and Voc (line) = 700 V
For star connection, line current is same as phase current.
Example 2.12.3 Calculate from the observations taken on a 125 kVA, 400 V, 3 phase
alternator, the % regulation for half load condition at 0.8 leading pfi O.C. Test observation :

While full load current is obtained on short circuit condition at a field current of 8 A. Assume
star connection and Ra = 0.1 Ω/ph. The short circuit current variation with respect to field
current is linear.
Solution :
VL = 400 V, kVA = 125
kVA = √3 VL IL × 10-3
125= √3 × 400 × IL × 10-3
IL = 180.42 A This is full load current
Iaph = 180.42 A on full load.
Now If = 8 A to get Iasc = Ia full load and as If against Iasc is linear variation to get half load
current on short circuit, the If required is
8/2 = 4 A
The graph need not be plotted but shown to clear the calculations. Now referring to O.C. Test
observations, without plotting graph we can get Voc value for If = 4 A, which is 140 V.

Example 2.12.4 From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation fcy E.M.F.
method of a 2000 V, 1 phase alternator delivering a current of 100 A at i) Unity p.f; ii) 0.8
leading p.f; and iii) 0.71 lagging p.f. Test results : full load current of 100 A is produced on
short circuit by a field excitation of 2.5 A. An e.m.f. of 500 V is produced on open circuit by
the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8 Ω.
Solution : Note that the given alternator is single phase hence all the voltage and currents are
obviously per phase and there is no question of line values.

Example 2.12.4 A 3-phase, star-connected, 1000 kVA, 11,000 V alternator has rated current
if 52.5 A. The ac resistance of the winding per phase is 0.45 Ω. The test results are given
below :
OC Test : field current = 12.5 A, voltage between lines = 422 V.
SC Test : field current = 12.5 A, line current = 52.5 A
Determine the full load voltage regulation of the alternator
i) 0.8 pf lagging and ii) 0.8 pf leading.
Solution :
1000 kVA, VL = 11000 V, Ra = 0.45 Ω

M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation

This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn method
or Rothert's M.M.F. method. The method is based on the results of open circuit test and short
circuit test on an alternator.
For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires M.M.F. which is product of field
current and turns of field winding for two separate purposes.
1. It must have an M.M.F. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit.
2. It must have an M.M.F. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f.
Key Point : In most of the cases as number of turns on the field winding is not known, the
M.M.F. is calculated and expressed in terms of the field current itself.
The field M.M.F. required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit can be
obtained from open circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted as
FO
We know that the synchronous impedance has two components, armature resistance and
synchronous reactance. Now synchronous reactance also has two components, armature
leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance. In short circuit test, field M.M.F. is
necessary to overcome drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance and also to
overcome effect of armature reaction. But drop across armature resistance and leakage
reactance is very small and can be neglected. Thus in short circuit test, field M.M.F. circulates
the full load current balancing the armature reaction effect. The value of ampere-turns
required to circulate full load current can be obtained from short circuit characteristics. This
is denoted as FAR.
Under short circuit condition as resistance and leakage reactance of armature do not play any
significant role, the armature reaction reactance is dominating and hence the power factor of
such purely reactive circuit is zero lagging. Hence F^ gives demagnetising ampere turns.
Thus the field M.M.F. is entirely used to overcome the armature reaction which is wholly
demagnetising in nature.
The two components of total field M.M.F. which are Fo and F, Circuit Characteristics) and
S.C.C. (Short Circuit Characteristics) as shown in the Fig. 2.14.1.

If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field M.M.F. is the vector sum ofits two
components FO and FAR- This depends on the power factor of the load which alternator is
supplying. The resultant field M.M.F. is denoted as FR. Let us consider the various power
factors and the resultant FR.
Zero lagging p.f. : As long as the power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction is
completely demagnetising. Hence the resultant FR is the algebraic sum of the two
components FO and FAR. Field M.M.F. is not only required to produce rated terminal voltage
but also required to overcome completely demagnetising armature reaction effect.
This is shown in the Fig. 2.14.2.

OA = Fo
AB = FAR Demagnetising
OB = FR = FO + FAR
Total field M.M.F. is greater than FO.
Zero leading p.f. : When the power factor is zero leading then the armature reaction is totally
magnetising and helps main flux to induce rated terminal voltage. Hence net field M.M.F.
required is less than that required to induce rated voltage normally, as part of its function is
done by magnetising armature reaction component. The net field M.M.F. is the algebraic
difference between the two components FO and FAR. This is shown in the Fig. 2.14.3

OA = FO
AB = FAR Magnetising
OB = FO - FAR = FR
Total M.M.F. is less than FO
Unity p.f. : Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction is cross magnetising
and its effect is to distort the main flux. Thus FO and F^ are at right angles to each other and
hence resultant M.M.F. is the vector sum of FO and FAR. This is shown in the Fig. 2.14.4.
OA = FO
AB = FAR Cross magnetising

General Case : Now consider that the load power factor is cos . In such case, the resultant
M.M.F. is to be determined by vector addition of FO and FAR.
Cos ϕ , lagging p.f. : When the load p.f. is cos lagging, the phase current Iaph lags Vph by
angle . The component FO is at right angles to Vph while FAR is in phase with the current Iaph.
This is because the armature current Iaph decides the armature reaction. The armature
reaction FAR due to current Iaph is to be overcome by field M.M.F. Hence while finding
resultant field M.M. F-/ - FAR should be added to FO vectorially. This is because resultant field
M.M.F. tries to counterbalance armature reaction to produce rated terminal voltage. The
phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.14.5.

From the phasor diagram the various magnitudes are,

OA = FO,
AB = FAR' OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. The FAR is split into two parts as,
AC = FAR
sin ϕ and BC = FAR cos ϕ
(FR)2 = (FO + FAR sin ϕ)2 + (FAR cos ϕ)2 … (2.14.1)
From this relation (2.14.1), FR can be determined.
Cos ϕ J leading p.f. : When the load p.f. is cos ϕ leading, the phase current Iaph leads Vph by ϕ
• The component FO is at right angles to Vph and FAR is in phase with Iaph. The resultant
FAR can be obtained by adding - FAR to FO. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.14.6.

From the phasor diagram, various magnitudes are,

AC = FAR sin ϕ and
BC = FAR COS ϕ
OA = FO, AB = FAR and OB = FR
Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle.
(OB)2 = (OC)2 + (BC)2
(FR)2 = (Fo - FAR sin ϕ) 2 + (FAR cos ϕ)2 …(2.14.2)
From the relation (2.14.2), FR can be obtained.
Using relations (2.14.1) and (2.14.2), resultant field M.M.F. FR for any p.f. load condition can
be obtained.
Once FR is known, obtain corresponding voltage which is induced e.m.f. Eph, required to get
rated terminal voltage Vph. This is possible from open circuit characteristics drawn.
Once Eph is known then the regulation can be obtained as,
% Reg. = Eph - Vph / Vph × 100
Note : To obtain Eph corresponding to FR, O.C.C. must be drawn to the scale, from the open
circuit test readings.
Key Point : This ampere-turn method gives the regulation of an alternator which is lower
than that actually observed. Hence the method is called optimistic method.
Important note : When the armature resistance is neglected then Fo is field m.m.f. required
to produce rated Vph at the output terminals. But if the effective armature resistance Raph is
given then Fo is to be calculated from O.C.C. such that Fo represents the excitation (field
current) required to produce a voltage of Vph + Iaph Ra cos ϕ
where Vph = Rated voltage per phase
Iaph = Full load current per phase
Ra = Armature resistance per phase
cos ϕ = Power factor of the load
It can also be noted that, FR can be obtained using the cosine rule to the triangle formed by
FO, FAR and FO as shown in the Fig. 2.14.8.
Using cosine rule to triangle OAB,
(FR)2 = (FO) 2 + (FAR) 2 - 2 FO FAR COS (FO Λ FAR)
FO Λ FAR = 90 + ϕ if ϕ is lagging
= 90 - ϕ if is leading
Students can use equations (2.14.1), (2.14.2) or (2.14.3) to calculate FR.
The angle between EO and Vph is denoted as 8 and is called power angle.
Neglecting Ra we can write,
IaXs cos ϕ = EO sin δ
Pd = VphIa cos ϕ = Internal power of machine
Pd = Vph ( EO / XS ) sin δ
Key Point This equation shows that the internal power of the machine is proportional to sin
δ.
Example 2.14.2 A 1.1 MVA, 2.2 kV, 3 phase, star - connected alternator gave the following
test result during OC and SC tests :

The effective resistance of the 3 - phase winding is 0.22 Ω /ph. Estimate the full - load
voltage regulation at 0.8 pf. lagging.
i) By Synchronous impedance method and ii) Ampere – turn method
Solution :

Plot O.C.C. and S.C.C. on graph. Convert the open circuit voltage values to phase values
while sketching O.C.C., by dividing each value by √3 as alternator is star connected. The
graphs are shown in the Fig.2.14.12
i) Synchronous impedance method
ii) Ampere - turn method :
As Ra is given, FO is the field current to obtain the voltage equal to Vph + Iaph-Ra cos ϕ
Vph + Iaph Ra cos ϕ = 1270.17 + 288.67 × D.22 × 0.8 = 1320.97 V
From O.C.C. in Fig .2.14.12, If corresponding to 1320.97 V is FO = 32.5 A.
While FAR is If required to circulate full load short circuit current of 288.67 A i.e. FAR = 14 A
Consider the phasor diagram for 0.8 lagging p.f. as shown in the Fig. 2.14.13. From the Fig.
2.14.13,

(FR)2 = (FO + FARsin ϕ) 2 + (FAR cos ϕ) 2 = (32.5 + 14 × 0.6)2 + (14 × 0.8)2

FR = 42.4 A
From O.C.C. in the graph, Eph corresponding to FR = If = 42.4 A is 1520 V.

Example 2.14.3 A 3.3 kV alternator gave the following results :

A field current of 18 A is found to cause the full load current to flow through the winding
during short circuit test. Predetermine the full load voltage regulation at (1) 0.8 pf lag and
(2) 0.8 pf lead by MMF method. AU : May-13, Marks 8
Solution : The field current required for producing rated terminal voltage of 3.3 kV is 37.5 A
i.e. FO = 37.5 A. The field current required to circulate full load current during short circuit is
18 A i.e. FAR = 18 A
Vph = 3.3 kV / √3 = 1905.2558 V
73
i) cos ϕ = 0.8 lagging : The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.14.14 (a).

(FR)2 = (FO + FAR sin ϕ)2 + ( FAR cos ϕ)2 = (37.5 + 18 × 0.6)2 + (18 × 0.8)2
i.e. FR = 50.4 A
Alternative method to obtain FR is to use consine rule to triangle OAB.
To find Eph corresponding to FR, plot open circuit characteristics to the scale from given table
as shown in the Fig. 2.14.14 (b). Note that phase values are obtained by dividing the given
voltages by √3 and are used to obtain the graph.
ii) cos ϕ = 0.8 leading
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.14.14(c).

Potier's Triangle Method or Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method

This method is also called Potier method. In the operation of any alternator, the armature
resistance drop IRa and armature leakage reactance drop IXL are actually e.m.f. quantities
while the armature reaction is basically m.m.f. quantity. In the synchronous impedance all the
quantities are treated as e.m.f. quantities as against this in M.M.F. method all are treated as
m.m.f. quantities. Hence in both the methods, we are away from reality.
Key Point : This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and
armature reaction effects. The armature leakage reactance XL is called Potier reactance in
this method, hence method is also called Potier reactance method.
To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction m.m.f. separately, two tests
are performed on the given alternator. The two tests are,
1. Open circuit test 2. Zero power factor test

1. Open Circuit Test

The experimental setup to perform this test is shown in the Fig. 2.15.1.

The steps to perform open circuit test are,

1. The switch S is kept open.
2. The alternator is driven by its prime mover at its synchronous speed and same is
maintained constant throughout the test.
3. The excitation is varied with the help of potential divider, from zero upto rated value in
definite number of steps. The open circuit e.m.f. is measured with the help of voltmeter. The
readings are tabulated.
4. A graph of If and (VOC)ph i.e. field current and open circuit voltage per phase is plotted to
some scale. This is open circuit characteristics.
2. Zero Power Factor Test
To conduct zero power factor test, the switch S is kept closed. Due to this, a purely inductive
load gets connected to an alternator through an ammeter. A purely inductive load has power
factor of cos 90° i.e. zero lagging hence the test is called zero power factor test.
The machine speed is maintained constant at its synchronous value. The load current
delivered by an alternator to purely inductive load is maintained constant at its rated full load
value by varying excitation and by adjusting variable inductance of the inductive load. Note
that, due to purely inductive load, an alternator will always operate at zero p.f. lagging.
Key Point : In this test, there is no need to obtain number of points to obtain the curve. Only
two points are enough to construct a curve called zero power factor saturation curve.
This is the graph of terminal voltage against excitation when delivering full load zero power
factor current.
One point for this curve is zero terminal voltage (short circuit condition) and the field current
required to deliver full load short circuit armature current. While other point is the field
current required to obtain rated terminal voltage while delivering rated full load armature
current. With the help of these two points the zero p.f. saturation curve can be obtained as,
1. Plot open circuit characteristics on graph paper as shown in the Fig. 2.15.2.

2. Plot the excitation corresponding to zero terminal voltage i.e. short circuit full load zero
p.f. armature current. This point is shown as A in the Fig. 2.15.2 which is on the x-axis.
Another point is the rated voltage when alternator is delivering full load current at zero p.f.
lagging. This point is P as shown in the Fig. 2.15.2.
3. Draw the tangent to O.C.C. through origin which is line OB as shown dotted in the Fig.
2.15.2. This is called air line.
4. Draw the horizontal line PQ parallel and equal to OA.
5. From point Q draw the line parallel to the air line which intersects O.C.C. at point R. Join
RQ and join PR. The triangle PQR is called Potier triangle.
6. From point R, drop a perpendicular on PQ to meet at point S.
7. The zero p.f. full load saturation curve is now be constructed by moving a triangle PQR so
that R remains always on O.C.C. and line PQ always remains horizontal. The dotted triangle
is shown in the Fig. 2.15.2. It must be noted that the Potier triangle once obtained is constant
for a given armature current and hence can be transferred as it is.
8. Through point A, draw line parallel to PR meeting O.C.C. at point B. From B, draw
perpendicular on OA to meet it at point C. Triangles OAB and PQR are similar triangles.
9. The perpendicular RS gives the voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance
i.e. IXL.
10. The length PS gives field current necessary to overcome demagnetising effect of
armature reaction at full load.
11. The length SQ represents field current required to induce an e.m.f. for balancing
leakage reactance drop RS.
These values can be obtained from any Potier triangle such as OAB, PQR and so on. So
armature leakage reactance can be obtained as,

This is nothing but the Potier reactance.

3. Use of Potier Reactance to Determine Regulation

To determine regulation using Potier reactance, draw the phasor diagram using following
procedure :
Draw the rated terminal voltage Vph as a reference phasor. Depending upon at which power
factor (cos ϕ) the regulation is to be predicted, draw the Current phasor Iph lagging or leading
Vph by angle ϕ.
Draw Iph Raph voltage drop to Vph which is in phase with Iph. While the voltage drop Iph XL ph
is to be drawn perpendicular to Iph Raph vector but leading Iph Raph at the extremity of Vph.
The Raph is to be measured separately by passing a d.c. current and measuring voltage across
armature winding. While XLph is Potier reactance obtained by Potier method.
Phasor sum of Vph rated, Iph Raph and Iph XLph gives the e.m.f. which is say Elph.
Obtain the excitation corresponding to E lph from O.C.C. drawn. Let this excitation be Ffl.
This is excitation required to induce e.m.f. which does not consider the effect of armature
reaction.
The field current required to balanc triangle, which is say FAR
FAR = l (PS) = l (AC) = ...
The total excitation required is the vector sum of the Ffl and FAR. This can be obtained exactly
similar to the procedure used in M.M.F. method.
Draw vector Ffl to some scale, leading Elph by 90°. Add FAR to Ffl by drawing vector FAR in
phase opposition to Iph. The total excitation to be supplied by field is given by FR
The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.15.3.

Once the total excitation is known which is FR the corresponding induced e.m.f. Eph can be
obtained from O.C.C. This Eph lags FR by 90°. The length CD represents voltage drop due to
the armature reaction. Drawing perpendicular from A and B on current phasor meeting at
points G and H respectively, we get triangle OHC as right angle triangle. Hence Elph can be
determined analytically also.
Once Eph is known, the regulation of an alternator can be predicted as,
% R = Eph - Vph / Vph × 100
This method takes into consideration the armature resistance and leakage reactance voltage
drops as e.m.f. quantities and the effect of armature reaction as m.m.f. quantity. This is the
reality hence the results obtained by this method are nearer to the reality than those obtained
by synchronous impedance method and ampere-turns method.
The only drawback of this method is that the separate curve for every load condition is
necessary to plot if potier triangles for various load conditions are required.

4. Assumptions and its Effect on Accuracy in Potier Method

Assumptions made in the Potier method are,
1. In the entire calculation procedure of Potier method, the armature resistance is neglected.
But practically armature resistance is very small and hence this assumption does not cause
significant error in the accuracy.
2. In Potier method, a zero power factor test is required to be done. But practically when
inductors are used, a perfect zero power factor can not be achieved.
3. Consider the graphical interpretation of Potier method shown in the Fig. 2.15.4.

In this graph, the distances RS, R' S' and BC are assumed equal. This represents the voltage
drop across the leakage reactance which is (Iaph)FL × XLph- This indicates that the point P in
the zero power factor test and point A in the short circuit test represent same leakage
reactance of the machine. But this is not true as the excitation under short circuit condition is
OA while that for point P is OA' as shown. Now the excitation OA' is much higher than OC
and hence point P corresponding to saturated conditions represents larger leakage flux which
in the method assumed unchanged. Hence practically the leakage reactance corresponding to
saturated conditions is higher than that assumed in the method. This introduces the error in
the calculations
Example 2.15.1 A 10 kVA, 440 V, 50 Hz, 3 phase star connected alternator has the open
circuit characteristics as given below :

With full load zero p.f, the applied excitation required is 14 A to produce 500 V of terminal
voltage. On short circuit, 4 A excitation is required to give full load current. Determine the
voltage regulation for full load, 0.8 p.f. lagging and leading.
Solution :
Convert the given open circuit line voltages to phase voltages.

For zero p.f. saturation curve two points are given. One is short circuit full load current
excitation of 4 A and terminal voltage zero. This is point A (4 A, 0 V) on x-axis. Second point
If = 14 A required to get 500 V line voltage at terminals.
This gives point P (14 A, 500 / √ 3 = 288.67 V). The O.C.C. and Potier triangle is shown in
the Fig. 2.15.5
From Potier triangle PQR, the armature leakage reactance drop is I (RS) = 1.1 cm.
Iph × XLph = l(RS) × scale = 1.1 × 50 = 55 V
Case i) : cos ϕ = 0.8 lagging
Find E1 ph by adding vectorially Iph XLph to Vph as shown.

Elph = 290.382 V
From O.C.C., corresponding Ffl = 6.1 A
From potier triangle, field current balancing armature reaction is l (PS).
FAR = l(PS) × scale = 3.1 × 1 = 3.1 A
Add vectorially, Ffl and FAR as shown in the Fig. 2.15.7.
Using cosine rule for triangle,
The corresponding voltage to FR = 8.33 A is equal to,
Eph = 328 V ... from O.C.C.

Case ii) : cos ϕ = 0.8 leading

The drop Iph XLph remains same, only its direction changes due to leading p.f. current. Find
Elph by adding Iph XLph to Vph as shown in the Fig. 2.15.8.

In triangle OBC,
(Elph)2 = (OC) 2 + (BC) 2 = (Vph cos ϕ) 2 + (Vph sin ϕ - Iph XLph)2
= (254.03 × 0.8)2 + (254.03 × 0.6 - 55)2
Elph = 225.366 V
From O.C.C., corresponding to Elph, Ffl = 4.1 A
FAR = 3.1 A remains same, from Potier triangle
Add vectorially Ffl and FAR to get FR, as shown in the Fig. 2.15.9.
Applying cosine rule to ∆ OAB,
(FR)2 = (Ffl) 2 + (FAR) 2 -2Ffl FAR cos(90- ϕ)
= (4.1)2 + (3.1)2 - 2 × 4.1 × 3.1× cos (90 - 36.86)
FR = 3.34 A
The corresponding open circuit voltage to FR = 3 .34 A is equal to,
Eph = 90 V

Example 2.15.2 A 11 kV, 1000 kVA, 3 phase, star connected alternator has a resistance of 2
Ω per phase. The open circuit and full load zero power factor characteristics are given
below. Find the voltage regulation of the alternator for full load current at 0.8 pf. lagging by
using Potier method.

Solution : The given open circuit voltages are line values hence while sketching O.C.C.
convert to phase by dividing each by 1/√3

From Potier triangle PQR, shown in Fig. 2.15.13 (b), the armature leakage reactance drop is
l(RS) = 2.4 cm
From O.C.C., Ff1 = 109 A
The field current for balancing armature reaction can be obtained from Potier triangle which
is length PS.
FAR = l (PS) × Scale = 2.8 × 10 = 28 A
Adding vectorially Ff1 and FAR as shown in Fig. 2.15.13 (a).

Using cosine rule for A OAB,

(OB)2 = (OA) 2 + (AB) 2 -2(OA) (AB) cos (OA AB)
(FR) 2 = (Ff1) 2 + (FAR) 2 -2 (Ff1) (FAR) cos (90 + ϕ)
= (109) 2 + (28) 2 - 2 (109) (28) cos (90 + 36.86°)
(FR) 2 = 11881 + 784 - 6104 × (- 0.5998)
FR = 127.77 A
From O.C.C. shown in the Fig. 2.15.13 (b), the corresponding E ph is 7700 for FR = 127.77 A
Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine)
It is known that in case of nonsalient pole type alternators the air gap is uniform. Due to
uniform air gap, the field flux as well as armature flux vary sinusoidally in the air gap. In
nonsalient rotor alternators, air gap length is constant and reactance is also constant. Due to
this the m.m.f.s of armature and field act upon the same magnetic circuit all the time hence
can be added vectorially. But in salient pole type alternators the length of the air gap varies
and the reluctance also varies. Hence the armature flux and field flux cannot vary
sinusoidally in the air gap. The reluctances of the magnetic circuits on which m.m.f.s act are
different in case of salient pole alternators.
Hence the armature and field m.m.f.s cannot be treated in a simple way as they can be in a
nonsalient pole alternators.
The theory which gives the method of analysis of the disturbing effects caused by salient pole
construction is called Two Reaction Theory. Professor Andre Blondel has put forward the two
reaction theory.
Key Point : According to this theory the armature m.m.f. can be divided into two components
as,
1. Component acting along the pole axis called direct axis.
2. Component acting at right angles to the pole axis called quadrature axis.
The component acting along direct axis can be magnetising or demagnetising. The
component acting along quadrature axis is cross magnetising. These components produce the
effects of different kinds.
The Fig. 3.10.1 shows the stator m.m.f. wave and the flux distribution in the air gap along
direct axis and quadrature axis of the pole.

(a) Direct axis (b) Quadrature axis

The reluctance offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when it is aligned with the field pole axis.
This axis is called direct axis of pole i.e. d-axis. The reluctance offered is highest when the
m.m.f. wave is oriented at 90° to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis.
The air gap is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on moving away
from the centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the field winding wound on salient
poles produce the m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal and it always acts along the pole
axis which is direct axis.
Let Ff be the m.m.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the direct
axis. This m.m.f. is responsible to produce an excitation e.m.f. Ef which lags Ff by an angle
90°.
When armature carries current, it produces its own m.m.f. wave PAR- This can be resolved in
two components, one acting along d-axis (magnetising or demagnetising) and one acting
along q-axis (cross-magnetising). Similarly armature current Ia also can be divided into two
components, one along direct axis and one along quadrature axis. These components are
denoted as,
Fd = Component along direct axis
FAR :
Fq = Component along quadrature axis
Id = Component along direct axis
Ia
Iq = Component along quadrature axis
The positions of FAR, Fd and F, in space are shown in the Fig. 3.10.2.

The instant chosen to show these positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum
positive and is lagging Ef by angle ψ.
The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is shown in the Fig. 3.10.3.
The Ia, lags Ey by angle ψ.
It can be observed that Fd is produced by Id which is at 90° to Ef while Fq, is produced bzy Iq,
which is in phase with Ef
The flux components of ϕAR which are ϕd and ϕq along the direct and quadrature axis
respectively are also shown in the Fig. 3.10.3.

It can be noted that the reactance offered to flux along direct axis is less than the reactance
offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux ϕAR is no longer along FAR or Ia.
Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and quadrature axis, the flux ϕAR lags
behind Ia,

1. Direct and Quadrature Axis Synchronous Reactances

We know that, the armature reaction flux ϕAR has two components, ϕd along direct axis and
ϕq along quadrature axis. These fluxes are proportional to the respective m.m.f. magnitudes
and the permeance of the flux path oriented along the respective axes.
ϕq = PdFd
where Pd = Permeance along the direct axis
Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which flux can travel along
the path.
But Fd = m.m.f. = Kar Id in phase with Id
The m.m.f. is always proportional to current. While Kar is the armature reaction coefficient.
ϕq = Pd Kar Id
Similarly ϕq = Pd Kar Id
As the reluctance along direct axis is less than that along quadrature axis, the permeance
Pd along direct axis is more than that along quadrature axis, (Pd > Pq).
Let Ed and Eq be the induced e.m.f.s due to the fluxes ϕd and ϕq respectively. Now Ed lags
ϕd by 90° while Eq lags ϕq by 90°.

The resultant e.m.f. is the phasor sum of Ef, Ed and Eq.

Substituting expressions for ϕd and ϕq

Now Xard = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the d-axis component of armature reaction
= Ke Pd Kar
and Xarq = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the q-axis component of armature reaction
= Ke Pd Kar

For a realistic alternator we know that the voltage equation is,

Where Vt = Terminal voltage

XL = Leakage reactance

But
Substituting in expression for
where Xd = d-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xard ...(3.10.2)
and Xq = q-axis synchronous reactance = XL + Xarq ...(3.10.3)
It can be seen from the above equation that the terminal voltage Vt is nothing but the voltage
left after deducting ohmic drop Ia Ra, the reactive drop Id Xd in quadrature with Id and the
reactive drop Iq Xq in quadrature with Iq, from the total e.m.f. Ef.
The phasor diagram corresponding to the equation (3.10.1) can be shown as in the Fig.
3.10.4. The current Ia lags terminal voltage Vt by Then add Ia Ra in phase with Ia to Vt. The
drop Id Xd leads Id by 90° as in case purely reactive circuit current lags voltage by 90° i.e.
voltage leads current by 90° . Similarly the drop Iq Xq leads Xq by 90°. The total e.m.f. is Ef.

2. Detail Analysis of Phasor Diagram

In the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 3/10.4 the angles ψ and δ are not known, though Vt,
Ia and ϕ values are known. Hence the location of Ef is also unknown. The components of Ia ,
Id and Iq can not be determined which are required to sketch the phasor diagram.
Let us find out some geometrical relationships between the various quantities which are
involved in the phasor diagram. For this, let us draw the phasor diagram including all the
components in detail.
We know from the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 3.10.4 that,

Id = Ia sin ψ …(3.10.4)
Iq = Ia cos ψ …(3.10.5)
cos ψ = Iq / Ia … (3.10.6)
The drop Ia Ra has two components which are,
Id Rd = Drop due to Ra in phase with Id
Iq Ra = Drop due to Ra in phase with Iq
The Id Xd and Iq Xq can be drawn leading Id and Iq by 90° respectively. The detail phasor
diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.10.5.

In the phasor diagram,

OF = Ef
OG = Vt
GH = Id Ra and HA = Iq Ra
GA = Iq Ra
AE = IdXd and EF = Iq Rq
Now DAC is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor Ia and CB is drawn perpendicular to
AE.
The triangle ABC is right angle triangle,

But from equation (3.10.6),

Thus point C can be located. Hence the direction of Ef is also known.
Now triangle ODC is also right angle triangle.

As Ia Xq is known, the angle ψ can be calculated from equation (3.10.10) As ϕ is known we

can write,
δ = ψ – ϕ for lagging p.f.
Ef = Vt cos δ + Iq + Ra + Id Xd …(3.10.11)
Hence magnitude of Ef can be obtained by using equation (3.10.11).
Note In the above relations, ϕ is taken positive for lagging p.f. For leading p.f., ϕ must be
taken negative.

Example 3.10.1 For a salient pole synchronous machine, prove the d-axis synchronous
reactance Xd, can be obtained from its OCC and SCC. Neglect armature resistance. AU :
Dec.-05, Marks 8
Solution : The phasor diagram for a salient pole synchronous machine with zero armature
resistance is shown in the Fig. 3.10.6.
Under steady state, during short circuit conditions, the terminal voltage Vt, is zero.
Iq X q = 0
Iq = 0
The armature current I, during short circuit conditions is given as,

From the above phasor diagram it can be seen that

Et = Vt cos δ + Id Xd
But Vt = 0 during short circuit conditions .:
Ef = Id Xd
and lasc = Id
The phasor diagram is modified as shown in the Fig. 3.10.6 (a).

The excitation voltage Ef can be obtained from open circuit characteristics while Iasc can be
obtained from short circuit characteristics for a given field current.
Here K' is constant while Ld is d-axis synchronous inductance of the synchronous machine.
From the above equation it can be seen that the armature short circuit current remains
substantially constant over wide range of frequency or alternator speed. So during the short
circuit test, the speed of alternator should not be necessarily the synchronous speed. But at
low speeds, the armature resistance of alternator is comparable with the reactance and thus
the change in armature current is obvious.
Determination of Xd and Xq using Slip Test
The method used to determine Xd and Xq, the direct and quadrature axis reactances is called
slip test.
In an alternator we apply excitation to the field winding and voltage gets induced in the
armature. But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the armature, having voltage
much less than the rated voltage while n the field winding circuit is kept open. The circuit
diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.11.1.
The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less than synchronous value.
The three phase currents drawn by the armature from a three phase supply produce a rotating
flux. Thus the armature m.m.f. wave is rotating at synchronous speed as shown in the Fig.
3.11.2.

Note that the armature is stationary, but the flux and hence m.m.f. wave produced by three
phase armature currents is rotating. This is similar to the rotating magnetic field existing in an
induction motor.
The rotor is made to rotate at a speed little less than the synchronous speed. Thus armature
m.m.f. having synchronous speed, moves slowly past the field poles at a slip speed (ng - n)
where n is actual speed of rotor. This causes an e.m.f. to be induced in the field circuit.
When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux (d per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xd.
When the stator m.m.f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux ( per pole is set up
and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq.
As the air gap is nonuniform, the reactance offered also varies and hence current drawn by
the armature also varies cyclically at twice the slip frequency.
The r.m.s. current is minimum when machine reactance is Xd and it is maximum when
machine reactance is Xq. As the reactance offered varies due to nonuniform air gap, the
voltage drops also varies cyclically. Hence the impedance of the alternator also varies
cyclically. The terminal voltage also varies cyclically. The voltage at terminals is maximum
when current and various drops are minimum while voltage at terminals is minimum when
current and various drops are maximum.
The waveforms of voltage induced in rotor, terminal voltage and current drawn by armature
are shown in the Fig. 3.11.3.

It can be observed that when rotor field is aligned with the armature its flux
linkages are maximum, but the rate of change of flux is zero. Hence voltage induced in field
goes through zero at this instant. This is the position where alternator offers reactance Xd.
While when rate of change of flux associated with rotor is maximum, voltage induced in field
goes through its maximum. This is the position where alternator offers reactance X q.
The reactances can be calculated as,

Example 3.11.1 An alternator has a direct axis synchronous reactance of 0.7 per unit and a
quadrature axis synchronous reactance of 0.4 per unit. It is used to supply full load at rated
voltage at 0.8 pf. Find the total induced e.m.f. on open circuit.
Solution : The given values are,

Example 3.11.2. A 400 V, 50 Hz delta connected alternator has a direct axis reactance of 0.1
Q and a quadrature axis reactance of 0.07 Q per phase. The armature resistance is
negligible. The alternator is supplying 1000 A at 0.8 pf. lagging pf. i) Find the excitation emf
neglecting saliency and assuming Xs = Xd; ii) Find the excitation e.m.f. taking into account
the saliency.
Solution :
Example 3.11.3. A salient pole alternator has direct axis and quadrature axis reactances of
0.8 p.u. and 0.5 p.u. respectively. The effective resistance is 0.02 p.u. Compute percentage
regulation when the generator is delivering rated load at 0.8 pf. lag and lead. Assume rated
voltage and rated current as one per unit.
Example 3.11.4. A 50 Hz, 3-phase, 480 V, delta connected salient pole synchronous
generator has Xd = 0.1 ohm and Xq = 0.075 ohm. The generator is supplying 1200 A at 0.8
p.f. lagging. Find the excitation e.m.f. Neglect armature resistance.
Solution :
Alternate solution :
The problem can also be solved on equivalent star basis. So converting values of Xd and
Xq from delta into star.

Example 3.11.5. A 3-phase star-connected salient pole synchronous generator is driven at a

speed near synchronous with the field circuit open and the stator is supplied from a balanced
3-phase supply. Voltmeter connected across the line gave minimum and maximum readings of
2800 volts and 2820 volts. The line current fluctuated between 360 A and 275 A. Find the
direct and quadrature-axis reactances per phase. Neglect armature resistance.
Solution :