Computer Networks Tutuorial-1 Solution

1. List and explain the four fundamental characteristics, five key components of a data
communication system, and what role each plays in ensuring effective communication.
Ans:
Fundamental Characteristics:
1. Delivery: Data must reach the correct destination device. The network must deliver
the message to the intended recipient.
2. Accuracy: The data received must be the same as the data sent. Any errors
introduced during transmission must be corrected.
3. Timeliness: Data must be delivered within a specific time. In real-time systems, such
as video streaming or voice calls, data arriving too late can become useless.
4. Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time, especially for streaming services, where
consistent timing ensures smooth playback. Minimizing jitter is crucial for maintaining
quality.
Key Components:
1. Message: The data being transferred, whether text, audio, video, or any form of
digital content.
2. Sender: The device that sends the message, such as a computer, phone, or sensor.
3. Receiver: The device that receives the message, ensuring it is properly processed.
4. Transmission Medium: The physical path (cable or wireless) that carries the message
from the sender to the receiver.
5. Protocol: Set of rules governing data communication, ensuring devices can
understand and respond appropriately (e.g., TCP/IP).
Each component works together to ensure data is accurately and efficiently communicated
between systems, maintaining quality and reliability.

2. Describe the three modes of data flow and provide real-world examples where each
mode is used.
Ans:
1. Simplex Mode:
o Data flows in one direction only. There is no possibility of sending information
back to the source.
 o Example: Broadcasting TV signals from a station to your home TV. The signal
flows in one direction from the station to your TV, without your TV sending any
data back.
2. Half-duplex Mode:
o Data can flow in both directions, but not at the same time. The transmission is
one way at any given moment.
o Example: Walkie-talkies, where one person talks while the other listens, and
they must take turns.
3. Full-duplex Mode:
o Data can flow simultaneously in both directions, allowing for real-time
communication.
o Example: Telephone systems, where both parties can speak and listen
simultaneously, without interruption or delay.
Each mode is suited to different types of communication needs. For instance, simplex is
used where feedback isn't required, half-duplex is efficient for alternating communication,
and full-duplex is essential for conversations requiring immediate response.

3. Describe Network Criteria, with a neat diagram explain the concept of Physical
Structures in the Network.
Ans:
Network Criteria:
1. Performance: Measured in terms of throughput (rate of data transfer) and delay
(time taken for data to travel from source to destination). Higher throughput and
lower delay indicate better performance.
2. Reliability: Focuses on how consistently and accurately the network performs. It
involves fault tolerance (the ability to handle device failures), recovery time, and
availability (uptime).
3. Security: Ensures data protection from unauthorized access and ensures data
integrity, confidentiality, and availability.
Physical Structures:
1. Point-to-Point Structure: Direct link between two devices. Each device has its own
dedicated communication path.
o Example: A direct cable connection between two computers.
 2. Multipoint Structure: A communication link shared among multiple devices. The
devices must coordinate the use of the link.
o Example: A local network (LAN) where multiple computers share the same
connection medium.
The design of physical structures is essential in determining how devices will connect and
communicate, impacting network performance and reliability.

4. Define packet switching and explain the key differences between circuit switching and
packet switching.
Ans:
Packet Switching:
 Data is split into small packets, each containing part of the message and routing
information. These packets travel independently and may take different routes to the
destination. Once all packets arrive, they are reassembled in the correct order.
Differences:
1. Connection Establishment: Circuit switching establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver before communication begins. Packet switching doesn't require a
dedicated path.
2. Efficiency: Circuit switching reserves the entire path for the communication duration,
which can lead to inefficiency. Packet switching shares the network resources, using
them only when needed.
3. Data Transmission: In circuit switching, data follows the pre-established path. In
packet switching, each packet can take a different path based on network conditions.
4. Reliability: Circuit switching provides a continuous, predictable connection. Packet
switching is less predictable, as packets can arrive out of order or experience delays.
5. Cost: Packet switching is more cost-effective as it makes better use of the network's
bandwidth by sharing resources.
6. Example of Circuit Switching: Traditional telephone systems.
7. Example of Packet Switching: Internet data transmission, where different packets can
traverse multiple routers and paths.
8. Delay: Circuit switching has lower delay once the circuit is established, while packet
switching might introduce delays due to congestion and packet queuing.
5. Explain the layered architecture of the TCP/IP protocol suite. How does each layer
contribute to overall network communication?
Ans:
1. Application Layer:
o Provides user interfaces and services to allow applications to communicate
over the network. Protocols like HTTP (web browsing) and FTP (file transfer)
operate here.
2. Transport Layer:
o Provides communication services between processes on different devices. It
manages data transfer, flow control, and error recovery. Protocols like TCP
ensure reliable delivery, while UDP offers faster, but less reliable,
communication.
3. Network Layer:
o Responsible for logical addressing and routing. It decides the best path for data
to travel from the source to the destination. The IP protocol, which assigns IP
addresses and routes data, operates here.
4. Data Link Layer:
o Ensures data is correctly formatted for transmission over the physical medium
and handles physical addressing. It also manages access control to the medium
and error detection.
5. Physical Layer:
o Involves the transmission of raw bits over a physical medium (like cables or
radio waves). It defines hardware elements such as cables, switches, and
interface cards.
Each layer operates independently but in coordination with others, ensuring that data is
transmitted efficiently and accurately across networks, from application to physical
transmission.

6. Describe the process of encapsulation and decapsulation in the TCP/IP protocol

suite. Why are these processes crucial for data communication?
Ans:
1. Encapsulation:
o At the sender's end, each layer of the TCP/IP model adds its own header to the
data. The application layer creates the message, which is then handed off to
 the transport layer, where a TCP/UDP header is added, followed by the network
layer (IP header), and then the data link layer (frame header).
2. Decapsulation:
o At the receiver's end, the reverse happens. Each layer removes its
corresponding header, extracting the necessary information and passing the
remaining data to the higher layer, until the application receives the original
message.
Importance:
1. Consistency: Ensures that data is correctly formatted and interpreted at every layer,
maintaining communication standards.
2. Interoperability: Different devices and networks can communicate because they all
adhere to the same encapsulation/decapsulation rules.
3. Modularity: Each layer focuses on a specific task, simplifying troubleshooting and
enabling easy updates.
4. Data Integrity: Ensures the proper handling of data as it moves through the network,
preventing errors and misinterpretation.
5. Security: Adds security features like encryption at different layers.
6. Efficient Routing: IP headers ensure that data is routed properly across networks.
7. Error Detection: Data link layer headers include checksums for error detection.
8. Flexibility: New protocols and services can be added at specific layers without
affecting the entire system.

7. Describe transmission media, with a neat diagram explain various types of

transmission media used in network communications.
Ans:
Types of Transmission Media:
1. Twisted Pair Cable:
o Consists of pairs of insulated wires twisted together. Used in telephony and
Ethernet LANs.
o Types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
2. Coaxial Cable:
o A single copper wire core surrounded by insulation and shielding. Used in cable
TV and older Ethernet networks.
 3. Fiber Optic Cable:
o Uses light to transmit data. It offers higher speed and longer distance
transmission than copper cables. Commonly used in high-speed internet and
long-distance communications.
4. Radio Waves:
o Used for wireless communication over large distances. Includes Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
5. Microwaves:
o Used for long-distance point-to-point communication, including satellite
communication.
6. Infrared:
o Used for short-range communication like TV remotes and some wireless
peripherals.
Each medium has distinct characteristics such as bandwidth, distance, and cost, making
them suitable for different network applications.

8. Illustrate the concept of datagram network with a neat diagram.

Ans:
A datagram network is a type of network where data is transmitted without the need for
establishing a dedicated path or connection between the sender and the receiver. Each data
packet, called a datagram, is treated independently and routed separately through the
network.
Characteristics:
1. Connectionless: There is no dedicated connection between sender and receiver; each
packet is routed independently.
2. Independent Packet Handling: Each packet can take a different path to reach the
destination, depending on network conditions.
3. Best-Effort Delivery: The network does not guarantee the order of packet delivery, or
even the delivery itself.
4. Routing: Routers decide the best route for each packet based on the network's
current state, such as congestion or faults.
5. Examples: The Internet (IP-based communication) is an example of a datagram
network.
 6. No Setup: There’s no need to establish a connection before sending data, which
makes it faster for smaller transactions.
7. No Reordering: Since packets may take different routes, the destination device must
reorder them.
8. Packet Fragmentation: Large data is broken into smaller packets which are
reassembled at the destination.
Diagram: Shows multiple routes from a source to a destination, illustrating how packets can
take different paths.

9. Describe the process of error detection in block coding with an example.

Ans:
Error detection is the process of identifying errors in data transmission. Block coding is a
method used for error detection, where data is divided into fixed-size blocks, and redundant
bits are added to each block to allow the detection of errors.
Process:
1. Divide Message into Blocks: The original message is divided into equal-sized blocks
(e.g., 7 bits).
2. Add Redundant Bits: Redundant bits (e.g., 1 parity bit) are added to the blocks. The
most common method is parity bit coding, where an extra bit is added to ensure an
even or odd number of 1s.
3. Transmit Blocks: The blocks, now containing redundant bits, are transmitted across
the network.
4. Receive and Check: Upon receiving, the receiver checks the blocks by recalculating
the parity. If the calculated parity does not match the received parity, an error is
detected.
5. Correction or Request for Resend: If errors are detected, the receiver can request the
sender to retransmit the block or correct the error using methods like Hamming code.
Example:
 Consider the 4-bit data block 1010. A parity bit is added to make the number of 1s
even, resulting in 10101. If the received data is 10100, the receiver knows there is an
error due to incorrect parity.
10. What are radio waves, and how are they used in wireless communication? Provide an
example of a common application.
Ans:
Radio Waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than infrared
light. They are widely used in wireless communication due to their ability to travel long
distances and penetrate buildings.
Characteristics:
1. Low Frequency, Long Wavelength: Radio waves have frequencies ranging from 30 Hz
to 300 GHz and can travel over vast distances.
2. Omnidirectional Propagation: They can spread out in all directions, making them
suitable for broadcasting.
3. Interference: Radio waves can be affected by interference from physical objects,
weather, and other signals.
4. Transmission Medium: Radio waves don’t need a physical medium and can
propagate through air, space, and even water.
5. Frequency Allocation: Different frequencies are allocated for various communication
purposes (e.g., FM radio, Wi-Fi, mobile networks).
6. Application: Wireless communication systems like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, mobile phones,
and satellite communication.
7. Bandwidth: Radio waves can carry a wide range of frequencies, allowing for high-
bandwidth applications such as streaming and telecommunication.
8. Example: Wi-Fi, which operates on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, uses radio waves to
transmit data between routers and devices without the need for wires.

11. Explain the concept of frequency allocation in radio wave communication and its
importance.
Ans:
Frequency allocation is the process of designating specific frequency bands for different
types of wireless communication to avoid interference and ensure efficient usage of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Importance:
1. Prevents Interference: Without proper allocation, signals from different devices or
systems could overlap, causing interference and making communication unreliable.
 2. Efficient Use of Spectrum: The radio spectrum is a limited resource. Allocating
specific bands for certain uses ensures that the spectrum is used efficiently and fairly
among all users.
3. Regulation: Government bodies like the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) regulate the allocation of frequencies to avoid conflicts between different
countries and industries.
4. Designated Bands: Each application, such as TV broadcasting, satellite
communication, Wi-Fi, and mobile networks, is assigned a specific frequency range.
5. Safety and Security: Critical services such as aviation, military, and emergency
services have dedicated frequencies to ensure their communications are secure and
reliable.
6. Bandwidth Allocation: Different frequency bands have different bandwidth
capacities, impacting the speed and volume of data that can be transmitted.
7. Frequency Reuse: Frequencies can be reused in non-overlapping geographical areas
to maximize their utility.
8. Example: FM Radio is allocated the 88 MHz to 108 MHz range, while Wi-Fi operates
at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.

12. Compare and contrast datagram networks with virtual-circuit networks in terms of
reliability, complexity, and overhead.
Ans:
1. Connection Setup:
o Datagram Networks: No connection setup is required. Data packets are sent
independently.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: Requires a connection setup before data
transmission, similar to circuit switching.
2. Reliability:
o Datagram Networks: Packets may arrive out of order or not arrive at all. The
network does not guarantee delivery.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: More reliable as the path is predetermined, reducing
the risk of packet loss and ensuring packets are delivered in order.
3. Complexity:
 o Datagram Networks: Simpler to implement, as routers handle each packet
independently. However, the destination must reassemble packets, which adds
complexity at the endpoints.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: More complex due to the need to establish and
maintain the virtual circuit. Intermediate devices need to maintain state
information about active connections.
4. Overhead:
o Datagram Networks: Lower overhead as there is no need for connection
maintenance, but each packet carries its own header with routing information.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: Higher overhead because of the connection setup
process and the need to maintain routing tables for the virtual circuits.
5. Routing:
o Datagram Networks: Each packet is routed independently, possibly taking
different paths.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: All packets follow the same path, reducing the need
for dynamic routing decisions.
6. Order of Delivery:
o Datagram Networks: Packets can arrive out of order, requiring reordering at
the destination.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: Packets always arrive in order, as they follow the
same path.
7. Examples:
o Datagram Networks: The Internet (IP-based communication).
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: Frame Relay and ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode).
8. Flexibility:
o Datagram Networks: More flexible, as packets can be rerouted in case of
network failure.
o Virtual-Circuit Networks: Less flexible, as the path is predetermined.
13. In a datagram network, how does the destination node determine the correct order of
packets? What issues might arise from the unordered delivery of packets?
Ans:
1. Correct Order Determination:
o Each packet in a datagram network contains a sequence number in its header.
The destination node uses this sequence number to determine the correct
order of the packets.
2. Buffering:
o The destination node may need to buffer packets temporarily until all packets
are received. This buffering allows it to reorder packets based on their
sequence numbers before reassembling the message.
3. Reordering Algorithm:
o Special reordering algorithms ensure that packets are placed in the correct
sequence once all parts of the message are received.
4. Issues with Unordered Delivery:
o Delay: Packets may arrive at different times, leading to delays as the
destination waits for missing packets.
o Packet Loss: If a packet is lost or delayed too long, the entire message might be
incomplete or corrupted.
o Reassembly Overhead: Reordering requires additional processing power and
memory at the receiver’s end.
o Time Sensitivity: In real-time applications like video streaming, unordered
packets can lead to jitter, lag, or skipped frames.
o Corrupted Data: If packets are not reassembled in the correct order, the
message may be corrupted or interpreted incorrectly.
o Example: In VoIP calls, unordered packets can cause poor audio quality or
dropped words.
5. Retransmission:
o If a packet is lost or significantly delayed, the destination may request
retransmission, further increasing the overall delay.
6. Protocol Support:
o Protocols like TCP handle unordered packets by ensuring proper sequencing,
whereas protocols like UDP leave it to the application.
 7. Application Layer Impact:
o Applications requiring real-time data (e.g., video calls, online gaming) may
suffer from performance issues due to unordered packet delivery.
8. Congestion:
o Network congestion can exacerbate the problem, increasing the likelihood of
packets being delayed or lost.

14. Explain how a datagram network handles packet fragmentation and reassembly. What
are the potential impacts on network performance and reliability?
Ans:
1. Packet Fragmentation:
o If a packet is too large to be transmitted over the network (exceeds the
Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of a link), it is broken into smaller
fragments. Each fragment contains its own header and part of the original data.
2. Fragment Header:
o The header of each fragment contains information such as the fragment offset
and identification number, which helps the destination node reassemble the
fragments in the correct order.
3. Fragmentation Occurs at Routers:
o If a packet arrives at a router that has a smaller MTU than the size of the
packet, the router performs the fragmentation.
4. Reassembly at Destination:
o The destination node reassembles the original packet using the information in
the fragment headers, such as sequence numbers and offset values.
5. Potential Impacts on Performance:
o Increased Overhead: Each fragment carries its own header, leading to higher
overhead.
o Processing Time: The reassembly process requires additional processing time
at the destination.
o Delay: Fragmentation can increase delay, as all fragments must arrive before
reassembly can occur.
6. Potential Impacts on Reliability:
 o Packet Loss: If one fragment is lost, the entire original packet is considered lost,
requiring retransmission of all fragments.
o Reordering: Fragments may arrive out of order, further complicating the
reassembly process.
o Congestion: Fragmented packets consume more bandwidth, potentially leading
to congestion in the network.
7. Examples of Fragmentation:
o Occurs when sending large data packets over a network with varying MTU
sizes, such as sending a 5 MB file through multiple routers with different
capacities.
8. Network Performance Impact:
o Excessive fragmentation can degrade performance, especially in high-traffic
environments, by increasing the number of packets in the network and the
time taken for reassembly.

15. Explain the difference between unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-
pair (STP) cables. What are their primary uses?
Ans:
1. UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair):
o Composed of twisted copper wires without any shielding. The twisting of the
wires reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI).
o Less Expensive: UTP is cheaper and easier to install due to its simpler design.
o More Flexible: It is thinner and more flexible than STP, making it easier to
install in tight spaces.
o Applications: Commonly used in LANs, telephone lines, and Ethernet cables
(e.g., Cat 5, Cat 6 cables).
2. STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair):
o Similar to UTP but with an added shielding (foil or braided) around the twisted
wires to reduce EMI and crosstalk.
o Better Noise Protection: The shielding provides extra protection against
external interference and crosstalk, making it more suitable for environments
with higher EMI.
o Higher Cost: STP cables are more expensive due to the additional materials and
complexity in installation.
 o Applications: Used in industrial settings or environments where there is
significant EMI, such as factories or data centers.
3. Key Differences:
o Shielding: UTP lacks shielding, while STP has extra protection.
o Cost: STP is more expensive than UTP.
o Interference: STP offers better protection against interference, making it more
reliable in noisy environments.
o Installation: UTP is easier to install and more commonly used in standard office
networks.
4. Signal Quality:
o STP provides better signal quality due to its shielding, especially over long
distances.
5. Speed:
o Both UTP and STP support high data transmission speeds, but STP may perform
better in environments with high interference.
6. Durability:
o STP is more durable due to its shielding but is also less flexible and harder to
work with.
7. Applications:
o UTP: Used in home and office networks where interference is minimal.
o STP: Used in settings where data integrity is critical, such as industrial networks
and data centers.
8. Example:
o UTP: Standard Ethernet cables (Cat 5e).
o STP: Ethernet cables in high EMI environments (Cat 7).