Course Title: Power Electronics Applications
Fourth Year Electrical Power
1
Reverse Recovery Characteristics of the Diode
Diodes, used in power electronics converters, take a significant time to change from
conduction state to turn off state. This is because the minority carriers in the diode bulk
take a certain time to recombine with opposite charges and to be neutralized. During
this turning off time (toff), a reverse current flows through the diode from (Cathode to
Anode). This called the reverse recovery current and the corresponding time taken to
reach a zero value is called the reverse recovery time (trr). The reverse recovery time trr
is defined as the time between the instant that forward diode current becomes zero and
the instant at which the reverse recovery current decays to 25% of (IRR), where (IRR) is
the peak of the reverse current, as shown in Fig. 1.
The reverse recovery time (trr) is composed from two parts, ta and tb, i.e.:
trr = ta + tb ……(1)
ta is the falling time and is measured from zero value of the forward diode current until
it reaches its maximum reverse value (IRR). tb is the decay time and is measured from the
instant of IRR to the instant it reaches 25% IRR. The ratio (tb / ta) is called softness factor
or S-factor (SF).
SF= tb / ta …… (2)
A diode with unity SF is called soft-recovery diode and diode of SF less than one is
called fast-recovery diode.
With the assumption that a triangular shape of the reverse current of the diode, Fig. 1,
the following relations can be obtained:
Fig. 1 Reverse Recovery Characteristics
2
Reverse recovery charges (QRR) is:
QRR = (1/2) trr IRR …… (3)
The rate of the fall current is:
difall /dt = IRR /ta ……(4)
The rate of the decay current is:
Didecay /dt = IRR /tb …… (5)
For fast recovery diode, (tb) can be neglected, then IRR can be obtained as:
√ ( ) ……… (6)
3
Losses in Power Electronics switches
There are many losses consumed in the semiconductor switches which are used in power
electronics converters. These losses are:
1- Switching losses during turning on and turning off of the switch which is called
switching losses (Psw)
2- Conduction losses which occur during its conduction period, (Pcond)
3- Losses due to the leakage current which flows in the switch during non-
conducting period,(Pleak).
4- Losses due to the switch-control current and the snubber circuits.
Losses in Power transistor (BJT)
Fig. 2 shows approximated waveforms (iSW, vSW) of the BJT during one cycle of
operation.
Fig. 2 Switching waveforms of BJT
Switching losses, (psw), period (I and III)
The power loss during period (I) , 0≤ t ≤ ton, is:
∫ …… (7)
The expressions of vsw and isw are:
( ) ……(8)
( ) ……… .(9)
Then,
………….(10)
4
The power loss during period (III) , 0≤ t ≤ toff, is:
∫ …….. (11)
Where ( ), ( )
Then,
……(12)
The total switching losses are:
( )
……(13)
( )
{ } ………..(14)
Conduction loss, (Pcond), period II
The conduction loss can be obtained from:
( )
……..(15)
………..(16)
The switching frequency (fsw) at which the switching losses equal to conduction losses
can be obtained from:
………….(17)
( )
Where:
Vs the supply voltage, Is the current passing through the switch,
Vsw the voltage drop across the switch during conduction, ton and toff the switch turning
on and off time, TON the conduction time and D is the switch duty cycle (TON / T)
In the cases at which turning on time, (ton) is very small compared with conduction time
TON, then:
( )
…………………….(18)
Or
…………………..(19)
Leakage current of the switch is very small, then the leakage power loss period, (IV)
(VsIleakage Toff /T), can be neglected
5
Thyristor Losses Calculations
The main applications of the thyristor (SCR) are the rectifier circuits. Normally, these
rectifier circuits are fed from 50-Hz or 60-Hz ac supplies. Then, the conduction period
of the thyristors, used in these circuits, is very large compared with the switching period.
So, the switching losses in these applications can be neglected.
Conduction loss of thyristor in single-phase, fully-controlled bridge rectifier circuit
A single-phase, fully-controlled bridge rectifier feeding a resistive load is taken as an
example to calculate the conduction loss. The thyristor voltage and current during the
conduction are:
ith = (Vm/R) sin t α t …(20)
vth 1.5 V α t ……(21)
The thyristors conduction loss is:
∫ ……(22)
The conduction loss of the thyristor is:
[ ] …….(23)
For highly inductive load, the thyristor current and voltage are, Fig.3:
Fig.3 Single-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifiers
The waveforms of the load voltage, load current and thyristor current are shown in
Fig.4, and can be expressed as:
ith = Iav = (2Vm/πR) cos(α) α t ……(24)
vth 1.5 V α t ……(25)
The thyristors conduction loss is:
∫ …….(26)
6
Fig.4. Waveforms of the load voltage and thyristor current of the bridge
The conduction loss of the thyristor is:
[ ] …….(27)
Where Vm is the maximum value of the ac supply voltage, R the load resistance, (α) is
the triggering angle.
Usually, the voltage drop across the switch (vsw) is a function of its current (isw), i.e.
vsw=f(isw)
The same procedure is applied to the other rectifier circuits.
Protection of PE switches
The power electronics switches are protected from:
1- High rate of change of the switch terminal voltage (dv/dt) and high rate of change
of the current (di/dt) passing through it.
2- Over voltage across the device. The switch is protected against over voltages by
connecting a group of anti parallel selenium diodes across the device.
(Characteristics of Selenium diode are similar to Zener diode).
3- Over current and short circuit,
4- Excessive heat in the device.
Protection against high rate of change of the device terminal voltage (dv/dt)
In the forward biasing of the thyristor, if (vAK) changed by high rate (high dvAK/dt), the
thyristor will turn on without gate current. This is because the current passing in (J2) of
the thyristor (iTH = CJ2 dvAK/dt). This makes the thyristor to turn on without using the
gate current. To eliminate this capacitive current, a snubber circuit is connected across
the thyristor.
7
A simple snubber circuit is consisting from Rsn, Csn. A simple expression to obtain the
capacitance value is:
….. (28)
( )
Where vmax is the maximum value of the supply, RL the load resistance and (dv/dt)max the
maximum rate of voltage and is obtained from the data sheet of the switch.
The suitable value of the snubber resistance (Rsn) can be taken as 100Ω, ¼ W.
Protection against High rate (di/dt)
At the instant of firing of the thyristor, the anode current will pass in a small area of the
junction. This produces hot spots in the junction. To prevent this bad situation a coil of
small inductance value (Lsn) is connect in series with thyristor anode. This inductance
prevents these spots and makes the anode current to be normally distributed over the
cross sectional area of the junction. The value of coil inductance can be obtained from:
……..(29)
( )
The suitable value of the inductance is (5µH- 10µH).
Protection against over current and short circuit
Miniature circuit breakers can’t be used to protect power electronics switches. This is
because; the clearing time of these breakers is large such that the switch will be
damaged before the interruption of the breakers occurs. The best device used to protect
the thyristors against over current or short circuit is fast acting fuse, Fig.5
Fig.5 Fast acting fuse
The protection of BJT’s is more difficult than thyristor. So, transistors can be protected
by crowbar circuit. A crowbar consists of a thyristor connected across the transistors
converter, with voltage or current sensitive firing circuit. If the fault conditions are
sensed, the crowbar thyristor is turned on making a short circuit across the converter.
8
This short circuit current makes the fuse to blow (melt) and disconnecting the converter
circuit.
Protection of thyristor against excessive heat in the device
To keep the junction temperature of the switch within the specified operating range, the
heat generated in the switch must be transferred from the switch to the ambient
surrounding it. To increase the surface area of the switch, it is mounted on a part of
metal of good thermal conductivity characteristics, such as copper or aluminum. This
metal part is called Heat sink, Fig.6. The power losses in the device PT is transferred
from junction to the case of the device. Then it transferred from case to heat sink and
from heat sink to the ambient. The thermal resistance of junction-case, (RJC) and the
thermal resistance of case-heat sink (RCH) are normally specified by the manufactures.
So, the heat sink must be carefully chosen to keep the junction from overheat. The
thermal resistance of the heat sink (RHA) can be obtained from, Fig.7, as:
……(30)
Then;
( ) …..(31)
Where TJ and TA are the temperature of the junction and the ambient respectively.
Fig.6 Heat sink and the equivalent thermal resistances
Fig.7 Electrical analog of heat transfer
9
Fig.8 shows the thermal resistance characteristics of two types of commercial heat sink
with natural cooling and with forced cooling. The figure shows that the thermal
resistance is decreased by a significant value when forced cooling is used.
Fig.8 Thermal resistance characteristics of two commercial heat sinks
10
Benha University 4th year
Faculty of Engineering (Shoubra) 2nd Semester, 2024-2025
Electrical Engineering Department Power Electronics Applications
Sheet(4)
(1) The reverse recovery time of a diode is trr=5µs, and the rate of fall of the diode current is
di/dt=80 A/µs. If the softness factor is SF=0.5, determine:
(a) the storage charge (Qrr)
(b) the peak reverse recovery current (Irr)
(2) A dc source of 400 V feeds a highly inductive load with free-wheeling diode via an
electronic switch. There is an inductance of 10H connected with the source, and the load
current has a constant value of 40 A. The free-wheeling diode has the following data:
IRR=25 A, difall/dt=20 A/s
Find:
(a) Reverse recovery time
(b) Storage charges
(c) The peak diode voltage
(3) The storage charge (Qrr) of a general purposes diode is 120 C and its peak reverse recovery
current (IRR) is 60 A. The rate of the decay current is 24 A/s. Determine:
(i) The reverse recovery time of the diode.
(ii) The softness factor.
(4) A single-phase, voltage source inverter is fed from 50 V dc source and feeding a resistive
load of R=5. The output frequency is 0.5 kHz with a duty cycle of 0.6. The voltage-
current characteristics of the switch can be expressed as:
vsw= 1.6 + 0.1 isw V
Determine the maximum instantaneous power loss and the average power loss of the switch.
(5) A three-phase, half-wave, controlled- rectifiers circuit is fed from an ac supply voltage of a
maximum phase value of 622 V and the triggering angle is 300. Each thyristor of the circuit
has forward characteristics which may be approximated as:
vThy=0.9 + 0.03 iThy
The thermal resistance of the junction to the heat sink, Rjh, =1.0 oC/W and the ambient
temperature is 40o.
Determine:
(i) the mean power loss of each thyristor, if the load is a resistive of R= 10.
(ii) the mean power loss of each thyristor, if the load is a highly inductive load of R=10,
the load current is level and ripple free.
(iii) the thermal resistance of the heat sink to limit the junction temperature to 125o in cases
(i) and (ii).
(iv) the values of the inductance and the capacitance of the thyristor snubber circuit, the
thyristor has (dv/dt)max of 150 V/s and (di/dt)max of 80 A/s.
11
(6) An NPN power transistor has the following parameters:
VCC=100 V, RC=5, VCEsat=1.5 V, hFE (β) =50, VBEsat=1.8 V, RB=10
Determine:
(a) The minimum base voltage (VB) to ensure a satisfactory ON state.
(b) ON-state power dissipation.
(c) ON-state power dissipation, if the base current is decreased by 10% for the same VCC.
(7) A power transistor is used as a switch has the parameters are:
VCC=200 V, VCE (sat) =2 V, ICS=100 A, ton=1.35µs, toff=5µs, fSw=10 kHz, D=75%, ICEo=3mA.
Determine the power losses in the switch during:
(i) Conduction-state time (tON) (ii) off- state time (tOFF)
(iii) Total average power loss (iv) Maximum instantaneous power
(v) Switching frequency at which the switching loss is equal to exceed the static loss
(8) A thyristor with a simple turn-off snubber circuit has a maximum dv/dt rating of 35 V/μs,
and a maximum di/dt rating of 10 A/μs, it supplies a resistive load 10 Ω. Maximum step
change in voltage is 350 V. Find the minimum value of the snubber capacitance and
inductance used to protect the thyristor from over dv/dt and di/dt.
(9) A thyristor with steady power loss of 30 W has a junction to heatsink thermal resistance of
0.7oC/W. If the ambient temperature is 40oC and the junction temperature is limited to
125oC Determine:
(i) The maximum value of the thermal resistance of the heatsink.
(ii) The base (case) temperature.
(iii) The maximum power can be transferred, if the ambient temperature becomes 50oC.
12
