CLASS 9

BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

 Circulatory system is needed to transport substances to and from the cells of the body.
Explain why unicellular organisms do not have circulatory system
 In unicellular organisms, materials can easily move around the cell without a special system for it.
 Unicellular organisms obtain substances by diffusion.
 The surface area to volume ratio of unicellular organism is higher. This helps in easier diffusion.
 Larger animals/multicellular organisms have lower surface area to volume ratio. They need a
circulatory system.
Circulatory system
 There are two types of circulatory systems
1. Single circulatory system – Circulatory system where blood is pumped from the heart to the gas
exchange organ and directly to the rest of the body is called single circulatory system. Ex : fish.
2. Double circulatory system –
 Circulatory system where the blood is pumped from the heart to the gas exchange organ, back to heart
and then to the rest of the body is called double circulatory system. Ex : human
 There are two parts to a double circulatory system
1. Pulmonary circulation – The circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs via pulmonary artery
and back to the heart via pulmonary vein is called pulmonary circulation.
2. Systemic circulation – the circulation of blood from heart to all parts of the body except the lungs
is called systemic circulation.
 Aorta carries the oxygenated blood from heart to all parts of the body and vena cava carries the
deoxygenated blood back to heart.
Difference between single and double circulatory system
Single circulatory system Double circulatory system
Blood is pumped from heart to gas exchange Blood is pumped from the heart to the gas
organ and directly to the rest of the body exchange organ, back to heart and then to the rest
of the body
Heart pumps once Heart pumps twice
Blood loses pressure Blood pressure is maintained
Blood travels slowly Blood travels quickly to organs
*draw fig 5.3 a &b
Human circulatory system
 Human circulatory system consists of blood vessel, heart, and blood.
1. Blood vessels
 The function of blood vessels is to carry blood around the body.
 The three types of blood vessels are arteries, veins and capillaries.
1. Artery (plural: arteries)
 Artery - The blood vessel with a thick muscular wall and narrow lumen carrying blood away from the
heart is called artery.
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
 Heart pumps blood at high pressure, the blood flows through arteries at high pressure.
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 The largest artery is aorta.
Structure of arteries
 The wall of arteries have thick muscle fibres and elastic tissues.
 The elastic tissue allow them to stretch and recoil. This maintains the high blood pressure.
 The thick muscular wall helps to control the flow of blood by dilating or narrowing the arteries.
 They have small lumen.
2. Capillary (plural: capillaries)
 Capillary – The microscopic blood vessel that carries blood through organs linking arteries and veins.
 Arteries branch into capillaries.
 Capillaries allow exchange of substances between the blood and the cells of the organ.
Structure of capillaries
 The wall of capillaries are one cell thick and are permeable.
 They have a very small lumen
 Capillaries are too small so they can easily go between the cells.
Explain the adaptation of capillaries for diffusion of substances
 The wall of capillaries are permeable and one cell thick so the there is a short diffusion distance.
 They have a very small lumen so the blood is closer to the wall of capillaries.
 Capillaries are too small so they can easily go between the cells.
3. Vein (plural: veins)
 Vein – The blood vessel with a thin muscular wall and a wide lumen, carrying blood towards the heart.
 Veins carry blood to heart.
 Capillaries join up to form vein.
 Blood flows at low pressure through veins.
 The largest vein is the vena cava.
Structure of veins
 The wall of veins are thin and less elastic.
 They have large lumen.
 Large lumen helps the blood to flow even the pressure is low.
 Veins have semi lunar valves to prevent the backflow of blood.
*draw fig 5.9 & 5.20
 Arteries and veins to each organ have their own names.
*draw fig 5.4
2. The heart
 Heart is the muscular organ that pumps blood through blood vessels to all parts of the body.
Structure and function of human heart
1. Septum –
 The wall of muscle that divides the heart into a right side and a left side.
 Right side has deoxygenated blood.
 Left side has oxygenated blood.
2. Atrium (plural: atria) –
 The two upper chambers of heart is called atria.
 Atrium on right side is called right atrium.
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  Atrium on left side is called left atrium.
 The walls of atria are thin.
 The walls of atria can be stretched to receive blood and can contract to push blood to ventricles.
3. Ventricle (plural: ventricles)
 The two lower chambers of the heart is called ventricles.
 Ventricle on right side is called right ventricle.
 Ventricle on left side is called left ventricle.
 The right ventricle pumps blood only to lungs.
 The left ventricle pumps blood to all parts of the body.
 The walls of left ventricle is thicker than right ventricle.
Explain why the wall of left ventricle is thicker
 Pumping blood to all parts of the body requires much more pressure.
 Hence the wall of left ventricle is thicker than right ventricle.
4. Valves
 Valves ensure that the blood flows only in one direction through the heart.
 The function of valve is to prevent the backflow of blood.
 The valve that separates atrium and ventricle is called atrioventricular valves.
 The atrioventricular valve that separates right atrium from right ventricle is called tricuspid valve.
 The atrioventricular valve that separates left atrium from left ventricle is called bicuspid (mitral)
valve.
 The valves at the base of aorta and pulmonary artery is called semi lunar valves.
5. Cardiac muscle
 The walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscle.
 Cardiac muscle can contract and relax continuously without becoming fatigued.
6. Coronary arteries & coronary veins
 Coronary arteries and veins are the part of coronary circulation.
 The cardiac muscle has its own blood supply called coronary circulation.
 The small arteries that supply blood to heart muscle is called coronary arteries.
 The small veins that carries blood away from the heart muscle is called coronary veins.
*draw fig 5.5
Cardiac cycle
 Cardiac cycle -The sequence of events taking place in the heart during one heart beat is called
cardiac cycle.
 The deoxygenated blood enters right atrium through vena cava and oxygenated blood enters left
atrium through pulmonary vein.
 Blood cannot pass to ventricles now as the tricuspid and bicuspid valves are closed.
 The walls of atria contracts.
 This pressure of blood force opens the tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve.
 Blood passes through these valves into ventricles.
 When ventricles are full, they contract.
 This pressure of blood closes the tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve.
 The ventricles continue to contract and pressure continue to increase.
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  This force opens the semi lunar valves at the base of aorta and pulmonary artery.
 The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs.
 Aorta carries the oxygenated blood from left ventricle to all other parts of the body.
 As the ventricles are empty, higher pressure of aorta and pulmonary artery closes the semi lunar
valves.
 The cycle then begins again as the atria starts to fill with blood.
 During a cardiac cycle, both atria contract at the same time and then relax. After this both
ventricles contract at the same time and then relax.
*draw fig 5.6
Coronary heart disease
 CHD – The disease caused by the blockage of coronary arteries due to build up of fatty material is
called coronary heart disease.
 It can cut off the blood supply to heart.
 The cardiac muscle no longer receives oxygen and glucose for respiration and cannot release
energy.
 This means cardiac muscle is unable to contract and result in heart attack.
Risk factors leading to CHD
1. Heredity – some people inherit a tendency to develop CHD.
2. High blood pressure
3. Diet – eating large amount of saturated fat increase cholesterol level
4. Smoking – raises blood pressure and blood clots are more likely to form
5. Stress
6. Lack of exercise
Heart rate
 Heart rate – The number of beats per minute is called heart beat rate.
 Normal heart beat rate is 70 times per minute.
 But this can change, and changes are controlled by a part of brain called medulla.
 Heart beat rate decreases when a person sleeps as all organs need less energy.
 Heart rate is increased by
1. Exercise
 During exercise muscles need more energy.
 Muscles need an increased supply of oxygen for aerobic respiration to get energy.
 To provide that extra oxygen, the heart rate and the stroke volume increases.
2. Hormone adrenaline
 When an organism is angry or afraid, hormone adrenaline is released.
 This (binds to specific receptors) increases heart so more blood is pumped to muscles.
 This allows the organism to fight or run away as the muscles get extra energy by aerobic
respiration.
Explain how brain controls heart rate
 Exercise increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood.
 High level of carbon dioxide in blood is detected by receptors in aorta and carotid artery. (artery
leading to the head).
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 These receptors send signals to the medulla of brain.
 The medulla send back signals to heart, through accelerator nerve, to contract more frequently with
more force.
 This increases heart rate.
 When carbon dioxide level returns to normal, medulla receives less impulse.
 So medulla responds by sending signal to heart, through decelerator nerve which reduces the heart rate
and brings it back to normal.
*draw fig 5.8
3. Blood
 Blood is the transport medium.
 The function of blood is
1. To transport substances like oxygen and nutrients to the cell and carbon dioxide and urea from the
cells.
2. Also transports hormones, antibodies.
3. Blood distributes heat around the body.
Composition of blood
 Blood has 4 main components – plasma, platelets, RBC, WBC.
1. Plasma –
 Plasma is the liquid part of blood (mainly water).
 It is pale yellow in colour.
 The function of plasma is 1. To carry blood cells, platelets, dissolved nutrients, hormones, urea
and carbon dioxide around the body.
2. to distribute heat around the body.
2. Platelets –
 They are fragments of other cells.
 The function of platelet is to help the blood to clot.
 If the skin is cut, the damaged tissue is exposed to air.
 Air stimulates platelets and damaged tissue to produce a chemical.
 This chemical changes fibrinogen ( a soluble plasma protein) into fibrin ( an insoluble protein).
 This fibrin form a network of fibres across the wound trapping RBC in them.
 This form blood clot.
 Blood clot prevents further loss of blood and entry of pathogens.
 The clot develops into scab which shed off when new skin grows.
3. RBC-
 Also known as erythrocytes.
 They have a biconcave disc like shape with no nucleus.
 RBC contains an iron containing protein called haemoglobin.
 The function of RBC is to transport oxygen.
Explain how RBC transport oxygen
 As the blood passes through lungs, oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin as
oxygen concentration is high in the surrounding.

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 When the blood passes through tissues, the oxyhaemoglobin turns back to haemoglobin and release
oxygen, as the oxygen concentration in tissue is low.
*write the equation from textbook*
Adaptation of RBC to transport oxygen
 RBC do not have nucleus, so can have more haemoglobin packed in.
 RBC have a biconcave shape which increases the surface area to volume ratio, thus increasing the
diffusion rate.
 RBCs are thin which reduces the diffusion distance.
4. WBC –
 The main function of WBC is to protect body against pathogens.
 The 2 main types of WBCs are
1. Phagocytes –
 Phagocytes are larger than RBC and have a large nucleus.
 They destroy pathogens like bacteria by a process called phagocytosis.
 When a bacteria enters the body, the phagocytes change their shape by producing cytoplasmic
extension called pseudopodia.
 Pseudopodia surrounds and ingest the bacterium.
 The bacteria is enclosed in a vacuole inside the phagocytes.
 Phagocytes then secrete enzymes into the vacuole and destroys the bacterium.
*draw fig 5.14.a
2. Lymphocytes
 Lymphocytes are of same size as RBC but have a large nucleus.
 They destroy pathogens by producing a protein called antibodies.
 Pathogens like bacteria and viruses have protein markers on their surface called antigens.
 Antibodies recognises these antigens and binds to them to form antigen- antibody complex.
 This complex helps to kill the pathogen by a number of ways such as
 Causing bacteria to stick together or ‘label’ them so that phagocytes can ingest them.
 Causing bacterial cells to burst open.
 Neutralising the toxins produced by pathogens.
 The production of antibody on the first exposure of foreign antigen is called primary immune
response.
Immunity
 Immunity – the ability of the body to fight disease is called immunity.
 Some lymphocytes do not kill pathogens but they develop into memory cells.
 Memory cells remain in the blood for years and remembers specific antigen.
 If the same microorganism reinfects, the memory cells start to multiply and produce antibodies.
 This kills the microorganism even before the disease develops.
 This si known as secondary immune response and is faster and more effective.
 Vaccination can help to produce memory cells and can make a person immune to the disease.
 Vaccination – Artificially supplying antigens to stimulate an immune response and protect against a
pathogen is called vaccination.

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 HOMEOSTASIS AND EXCRETION
 Homeostasis – Maintaining a constant internal environment is called homeostasis.
 Excretion – The removal of metabolic waste products from the body is called excretion.
 Tissue fluid – The watery solution of salts, glucose and other solutes surrounding all the cells of the
body is called tissue fluid. Tissue fluid forms a pathway for the transfer of nutrients between the blood
and the cells.
Homeostasis
 Conditions in the body need to be kept constant so that cells can function properly.
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 The control of body water content and body temperature are examples of homeostasis.
 Excretion is one of the process that make homeostasis possible.
 The kidneys have major roles in both homeostasis and excretion.
 Urine is the waste product from kidneys.
Urine
 An adult human produces about 1.5 dm3 of urine every day.
 Every litre of urine contains 40g of waste products and salts.
 The waste products in urine are nitrogenous waste.
 Urea and ammonia are two examples of nitrogenous waste.
*draw table 8.1
The urinary system
 Kidney, ureter, bladder and urethra are parts of human urinary system.
 Ureters – The tube carrying urine from kidneys to the bladder is called ureter.
 Bladder – The muscular bag that stores urine before its removal from the body is called bladder.
 Urethra – The tube carrying urine from the bladder to the outside of the body is called urethra.the
walls of urethra has two ring shaped muscles called sphincter muscles which contract to close urethra
to hold back urine and relaxes when the bladder is full.
 Kidneys –
 Kidney perform 3 main roles
1. Removal of urea from the blood. (urea is produced in the liver from excess amino acid).
2. Adjustment of ion levels in the blood.
3. Adjustment of water content of the blood (osmoregulation)
Structure of kidney
1. Renal artery – Blood enters the kidney through renal artery.
2. Renal vein – Blood leaves the kidney through renal vein.
3. Cortex –
 The darker outer part of the kidney containing kidney tubules and blood vessels.
 The blood vessels are branches of renal artery.
 The kidney tubules are the filtering units. Also known as nephrons.
4. Nephrons/ kidney tubules –
 Nephrons are the functional unit of a kidney.
 The function of nephron is to filter the blood.
 Ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption takes place in nephron.
 Nephrons starts from cortex and run down through the middle layer of kidney called medulla.
5. Medulla –
 The middle part of the kidney containing blood vessels, loop of Henle and collecting duct is called
medulla.
 Medulla has bulges called pyramids pointing inwards towards the concave side of the kidney.
 The tubules in the medulla eventually joins up to the collecting duct and leads to the tips of
pyramid.
6. Pelvis –
 The funnel like part of the kidney leading to the ureter is called pelvis.
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 The collecting duct in medulla empties urine into pelvis.
 Pelvis is connected to ureter which carries urine from kidney to bladder.
*draw fig 8.3 and 8.4
Ultrafiltration
 Nephron is the functional unit of kidney.
 The hollow cup of cells at the start of nephron is called Bowman’s capsule.
 Bowman’s capsule surrounds a ball of blood capillaries called glomerulus. Blood is filtered in this
glomerulus.
Explain the process of ultrafiltration/ role of nephron in ultrafiltration
 The pressure of blood flowing through glomerulus is very high because of the resistance caused
by glomerulus.
 This pressure forces fluid from the blood through the walls of the capillaries and the Bowman’s
capsule into the space in the middle of capsule.
 Between the capillary wall and capsule wall there is a membrane called basement membrane. This
basement membrane act as a filter.
 It allows small molecules like glucose, urea, ions and water to pass through.
 But holds back blood cells and large molecules like proteins.
 The fluid that enters the capsule space is called glomerular filtrate.
 This process of separating different sized molecules under pressure is called ultrafiltration.
Selective reabsorption
 Followed by Bowman’s capsule are two coiled regions called proximal convoluted tubule and distal
convoluted tubule.
 The proximal and distal convoluted tubule are in cortex, but are separated by a U- shaped loop called
the loop of Henle that runs down into the medulla.
 After second convoluted tubule, several nephrons join up to form a collecting duct.
 Selective reabsorption takes place in this parts of nephron.
Explain the process of selective reabsorption
 The glomerular filtrate still contain many useful substances.
 These useful substance are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood as the filtrate flows along the
rest of nephron.
 All of the glucose are reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule so that it can be used for
respiration.
 Some of the ions like Na+ and Cl- are also reabsorbed here.
 Glucose and ions are reabsorbed by active transport.
 Water is reabsorbed in collecting duct.
 Loop of Henle also plays a major role in water reabsorption, so the desert animals have long loop of
Henle.
 Water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
 Ultrafiltration – Filtration of the blood taking place in the Bowman’s capsule, where the filter
separates different sized molecules under pressure is called ultrafiltration.
 Selective reabsorption – The process in which kidney tubules reabsorbs different amount of substances
from the filtrate into the blood.
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 Glomerular filtrate – The fluid that passes through the Bowman’s capsule at the start of a kidney
tubule is called glomerular filtrate.
*draw fig 8.5, 8.6.
ADH and osmoregulation
 The amount of mineral salts and water reabsorbed into blood depends on the conditions of the body.
 This is controlled by a hormone called ADH (antidiuretic hormone).
 ADH is produced by the pituitary gland.
 ADH can change the permeability of collecting duct to water depending on the conditions of the body.
 This changes the volume and concentration of the urine.
Explain the role of ADH in osmoregulation
 When there is loss of water, the blood is highly concentrated.
 This is detected by hypothalamus.
 Hypothalamus cause pituitary gland to release more ADH.
 ADH travels in blood to kidney.
 In kidney, ADH increases the permeability of collecting duct to water, so more water is reabsorbed to
blood making the blood dilute. So the urine will be concentrated.
 Hypothalamus detect this change in concentration of blood and cause pituitary to release less ADH.
 If the level of ADH is low, less water is reabsorbed by collecting duct making blood concentrated. So
urine is dilute/more urine.
 Then ADH production rises again. This action of ADH is an example of negative feedback system.
 Osmoregulation – The regulation of salt and water balance in the body is called osmoregulation.
Control of body temperature
 Skin plays an important role in maintaining body temperature.
 The regulation of body temperature is called thermoregulation.
 Body temperature needs to be around 370C in humans for the enzymes to work well.
Skin
 The function of skin is to
1. Act as a barrier to the entry of pathogens, barrier to loss of water and to resist mechanical damage.
2. Act as a sense organ.
3. Control the loss of temperature through the body surface.
 The skin has 3 layers.
1. Epidermis –
 It is the outer layer of dead cells that stop water loss and prevent the entry of pathogens.
2. Dermis –
 It is the middle layer that contains sensory receptors, sweat glands, blood vessels and hair follicles.
 Sweat glands, blood vessels and hair follicles are involved in temperature control.
3. Hypodermis –
 It is the inner layer that contains fatty tissues.
 These fatty tissues insulates against heat loss and is a store of energy.
*draw fig 8.9
Explain the role of skin in thermoregulation
 In hot condition
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  Lots of sweat is produced. Evaporation of sweat transfer heat energy from the body to surrounding,
cooling the body.
 Blood vessels close to surface of skin widens which allows more blood to flow near the skin
surface radiating more heat to the surrounding, cooling the body.
 Hair erector muscle relax and the hairs lie flat. So only a thin layer of air is trapped next to the
skin, radiating more heat to the surrounding.
 In cold condition
 Very less sweat is produced, so less heat is lost.
 Blood vessels close to surface of skin narrows which allows less blood to flow near the skin
surface, so less heat is lost.
 Hair erector muscle contract and the hairs are pulled upright. So a layer of air is trapped next to the
skin, preventing the loss of heat.
*draw fig 8.10
 Sweating, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, hair erection, shivering and changes in metabolism,
along with behavioural actions, work together to keep the body temperature normal.
 Vasoconstriction – The narrowing of blood vessels in the skin to decrease the blood flowing
through the skin to reduce heat loss is called vasoconstriction.
 Vasodilation – The widening of blood vessels in the skin to increase the blood flowing through
the skin to increase heat loss is called vasodilation.

GENES AND INHERITANCE

 Gene – A section of DNA that codes for a particular protein in a cell is called a gene.
 Allele – The alternative forms of a gene is called the allele. Alleles give rise to differences in the
inherited characteristics.
 Phenotype – Phenotype is the physical characteristic (appearance) of an organism with respect to a
particular pair of alleles.
 Genotype – Genotype is the pair of alleles that an organism has for a particular feature.(appearance)
 Homozygous – If both the alleles for a characteristic are the same, then it is called homozygous.
 Heterozygous - If both the alleles for a characteristic are the different, then it is called heterozygous.
 Dominant allele – The characteristic that will show up in the offspring even if only one of the allele is
inherited.
 Recessive allele - The characteristic that will show up in the offspring only if both the alleles are
inherited.
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 F1 generation – The offspring formed from the breeding of parent organisms.
 F2 generation - The offspring formed from the breeding of individuals from F1 generation.
 Monohybrid inheritance – inheritance involving a single gene is called monohybrid inheritance.
Mendel’s experiment on inheritance
 The basis of genetics was worked out by Gregor Mendel.
 He studied how characteristics were passed on between generations of plants.
 He conducted studies with pea plants.
 Mendel studied how the characteristic ‘height’ was inherited.
 In the first experiment, he crossed a tall pea plant with a dwarf pea plant.
 In the second experiment, he crossed two of the tall offspring together.
Genetic diagram for Mendel’s experiment
*draw and write fig 18.4
Mendel's conclusions
 Three important conclusions about hereditary in plants were reached
1. Characteristics are determined by 'hereditary units' and these hereditary units are passed on from
parent to offspring unchanged
2. The offspring receives one 'hereditary unit' from each parent
3. Hereditary units can be dominant or recessive (a dominant characteristic is always expressed when
present).
Test cross
 It is impossible to tell from the phenotype whether an organism with dominant characteristic is
homozygous or heterozygous for that trait.(feature)
 To find out, a test cross can be done.
 Test cross – The cross of an organism showing dominant phenotype with one showing recessive
phenotype is called test cross.
 The F1 from the cross shows whether the parent is homozygous or heterozygous dominant.
 If the organism is homozygous dominant, all the F1 offsprings will show dominant characteristic.
 If the organism is heterozygous dominant, then half of the F1 offsprings will have dominant
characteristic and half will have recessive.
*draw fig 18.5
Family pedigree
 Pedigree – Pedigrees are the diagrams showing a family tree for an inherited characteristic.
 Pedigree shows how a genetic condition is passed on through generations of a family.
 Different symbols are used for males and females as well as affected and unaffected individuals.
 From a family pedigree it is possible to work out the genotypes of the individuals in the family.
*draw fig 18.7
Codominance
 Codominance – The pattern of inheritance where neither allele of a gene is dominant over the other, so
both alleles are expressed in the phenotype.
 An example is the flower colour in snapdragon.
 There is red allele and white allele. If both alleles are inherited, the flower will be pink.
*draw fig 18.10,18.11
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Sex determination
 In a female, there is two X chromosomes (22 pairs +XX).
 In a male, there is one X and one Y chromosome (22pairs +XY).
 Every time an egg is fertilized, there is an equal chance whether the zygote will be male or female.
*draw fig 18.12
Polygenic inheritance
 Polygenic inheritance – Characteristics controlled by two or more genes working together is called
polygenic inheritance.
 Human skin colour is an example.
 This is controlled by several genes that act together to determine the amount of melanin in the skin.
 Darker skin contains greater amount of black pigment melanin.

*give practice questions from past papers

CHEMICAL COORDINATION
Glands and hormones
 Gland – A gland is an organ that secretes or releases a substance.
 There are two types of glands- exocrine glands and endocrine glands.
 Exocrine glands secrete their products through a tube or duct. Ex: salivary gland, tear gland
 Endocrine glands have no duct, so are called ductless glands.
 Endocrine glands make hormones which are released directly into blood stream.
 These hormones are carried around the body by plasma in the blood.
 Hormones act only on organs that have special chemical receptors for that particular hormone. Those
organs are called target organs.
 Hormones are the chemical coordinators.
Difference between nervous system and endocrine system
Nervous system Endocrine system
works by nerve impulses transmitted through works by hormones transmitted through the
nerve cells blood stream
nerve impulses travel fast and usually have an hormones travel more slowly and generally

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 instant effect take long to act
response is usually short lived response is usually longer lasting
impulses act on individual cells and have hormones act only on target organs and have
localised effect widespread effect
Endocrine glands
 The pituitary gland is a link between the nervous system and endocrine system.
 Pancreas is both endocrine and exocrine gland.
*draw table 7.2
Adrenaline –The ‘flight and fight’ hormone
 Adrenaline is the hormone produced by adrenal glands.
 Adrenaline is produced when a person is frightened, angry or excited.
 Changes in the body caused by adrenaline are
1. The breathing rate increases, which increases the oxygen intake of the body.
2. The heart beat increases, sending more blood to muscles, so they receive more glucose and oxygen
for respiration.
3. Blood is diverted away from intestine and into the muscles.
4. In liver, glycogen is converted to glucose and released into blood.
5. The pupil dilates to increase the visual sensitivity.
6. Mental awareness is increased, so reactions are faster.
Control of blood glucose
 The two hormones secreted by pancreas is involved in the regulation of blood glucose.
 Those two hormones are insulin and glucagon.
 Blood glucose concentration needs to be around 4-6mmol/l. This makes sure that body cells always
have the glucose they need for respiration to give them energy.
Explain how insulin lowers blood glucose level
 Insulin is made by special cells, called smaller beta cells, in the pancreas.
 If the blood glucose level is high, usually after a meal, pancreas starts to produce insulin. Insulin
stimulates liver cells to take up glucose and convert it into glycogen. This lowers the blood glucose
level.
Explain how glucagon increases blood glucose level
 If the blood glucose level is low, the larger alpha cells in pancreas starts to produce glucagon.
 Glucagon stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen to glucose. This increases blood glucose level.
 Both insulin and glucagon work together to keep the blood glucose level constant. This is an example
for negative feed back system.
Diabetes
 Diabetes- The disease were blood glucose concentration cannot be properly controlled, usually by lack
of insulin, is called diabetes.
 Someone suffering from diabetes may have high concentration of glucose in the blood which is
excreted in urine. This is a symptom of diabetes, and can be detected by chemical test on urine.
 Another symptom of diabetes is a constant thirst. The blood glucose concentration stimulates the
hypothalamus of the brain. This makes the person to drink more water and dilute the blood.
 There are two types of diabetes – Type 1 and type 2.

14
 Type 1 (enough insulin is not made by pancreas) can happen at any age, and is common in childhood.
 Type 2 (body shows insulin resistance) is common in people who are overweight and eat a poor diet.
 Regular exercise and a diet with less carbohydrate can help to control blood glucose without taking
any medicine.

BREATHING AND GAS EXCHANGE

 Cellular respiration – The process in which food is oxidised in the presence of enzymes to produce
energy, carbon dioxide and water is known as cellular respiration.
 Respiration needs a continuous supply of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide. This is done by the
gas exchange system.
 Lungs and associated structures such as ribs, intercostal muscles, the diaphragm, the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli and pleural membrane form the gas exchange system.
 The circulatory system transports oxygen to all parts of the body and brings back carbon dioxide to the
lungs.
 Breathing/ ventilation – The mechanism that moves air into and out of the lungs is called ventilation.
 Inhalation – intake of oxygen is known as inhalation.
 Exhalation – giving out or release of carbon dioxide is called exhalation.
Structure and function of the different parts of gas exchange system
1. Nostril and nasal cavity - They perform the function of inhalation and exhalation of air.
2. Larynx – It is the first part of wind pipe. It has vocal cord which produces sound when it collides with
air.

15
3. Trachea – It is also known as wind pipe. The function of trachea is to carry air from nostril to lungs
and again from lungs to nostril.
4. Thorax/ chest cavity - It is the area enclosed by ribcage and diaphragm. The lungs are in thorax.
5. Diaphragm – It is a shallow dome shaped muscle with a fibrous middle part forming the roof of the
dome and muscular edges forming the walls. The diaphragm seperates the contents of the thorax from
the abdomen.
6. Bronchi (Bronchus) – The trachea splits into two tubes called the bronchi, one leading to each lung.
The walls of trachea and bronchi contain rings of cartilage. In the bronchi, the cartilage forms
complete circular rings, but in trachea the rings are incomplete.
7. Bronchioles – Each bronchus divides into smaller and smaller tubes known as bronchioles, eventually
ending at microscopic air sacs, called alveoli.
8. Alveoli (alveolus) – It is the site of gas exchange. The alveoli are well adapted for efficient gas
exchange between lungs and blood.
9. Pleural membrane – The inside of the thorax is separated from the lungs by two thin membranes called
pleural membranes. They form a continuous envelope around the lungs, forming an airtight seal. The
space between the two membranes is called pleural cavity. Pleural cavity is filled with a liquid called
pleural fluid.
10. Pleural fluid - Pleural fluid acts as lubrication, so that the surface of lungs don’t stick to the inside of
the chest wall when we breathe
*draw fig 3.1
Explain the role of rings of cartilage in trachea and bronchi
 Rings of cartilage support the airways.
 They keep the airways open when we breathe in.
Explain why the rings of cartilage is incomplete or ‘C’ shaped in trachea
 In the trachea, the rings are incomplete and shaped like letter ‘C’.
 When the food passes along the oesophagus by peristalsis, the gaps in the rings allow the lumps of
food to pass through more easily, without the peristalsis wave catching on the rings.
*draw fig 3.3
Explain the adaptation of the alveoli for efficient gas exchange
1. Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries to maintain a high concentration gradient.
2. Alveolus is one cell thick and the blood capillaries surrounding it is also one cell thick. So there is
a short diffusion distance.
3. They have large surface area.
4. The cells of alveolus walls are permeable, so gases can diffuse across easily.
5. Each alveolus is filled with fluid. Gases are dissolved in this fluid for exchange, by diffusion.
*draw fig 3.7
Process of gas exchange in the alveoli
 The inhaled air passes through nostril, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
 These inhaled air is dissolved in the fluid in alveolus.
 Alveolus is surrounded by capillaries that bring deoxygenated blood.
 Blood flows very slowly through these capillaries and as they flows, carbon dioxide diffuses from
blood to the alveolus and oxygen diffuses back from the alveolus to the blood.
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 This process continues till the deoxygenated blood becomes oxygenated. So when the blood leaves the
alveolus, it is rich in oxygen.
Ventilation of the lungs
 In between ribs, intercostal muscles are present.
 There are two types of intercostal muscles - external intercostal muscle and internal intercostal muscle
which work antagonistically.
 The movement of ribs and diaphragm during ventilation is done by the intercostal muscles.
Explain the role of intercostal muscles during inhalation
 During inhalation, the external intercostal muscle contract and internal intercostal muscle relax.
 Ribs move up and out.
 The diaphragm contracts and flattens. This increases volume of thorax.
 Air pressure in the thorax decreases and air rushes in.
Explain the role of intercostal muscles during exhalation
 During inhalation, the external intercostal muscle relax and internal intercostal muscle contract.
 Ribs move down and in.
 The diaphragm relaxes and become dome shaped. This decreases volume of thorax.
 Air pressure in the thorax increases and air rushes out.
*draw fig 3.6
*H.W Q5 copy and complete the table.pg.no:50
Volume of gases in inhaled and exhaled air*draw table 3.1
Keeping the airways clean
 Some of the cells lining the trachea and airways secrete a sticky liquid called mucus.
 Other cells are covered with tiny hair like structures called cilia.
 Mucus traps dirt, or bacteria that are breathed in.
 The cilia beat backwards and forwards sweeping the mucus and trapped particles out towards mouth.
 This helps to prevent bacteria and dirt from entering lungs, where they might cause an infection.
Effects of smoking
 Smoking can severely affect lungs and circulatory system.
 Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to give birth to underweight babies.
1. Bronchitis
 The cilia in the trachea and bronchi of a smoker are destroyed by the chemicals in cigarette smoke.
 The reduced numbers of cilia means that the mucus is not swept away from the lungs. This block the
air passages.
 The smoke also irritates the lining of airways leading to smoker’s cough.
 Irritation of the bronchial tree along with infection cause the lung disease bronchitis.
 Bronchitis blocks normal air flow, so the sufferer has difficulty in breathing properly.
2. Emphysema
 Cigarette smoke damages the walls of alveoli.
 The walls of alveoli breaks down and fuse together again forming an enlarged, irregular air spaces.
 This greatly reduces the surface area for gas exchange.
 The blood of the person with emphysema carries less oxygen.

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 The sufferer is unable to carry out even mild exercise such as walking. There is no cure for
emphysema.
*draw fig 3.9
3. Lung cancer
 Tobacco smoke contains carcinogens. Carcinogens are the chemicals that cause cancer.
 Carcinogens contained in the tar collects in a smoker’s lungs. They mutate the cells.
 They mutated cells start to divide uncontrollably forming a tumour.
 Tumours in the lungs usually cause no pain, so they are not discovered until it is too late.
4. Coronary heart disease
 The carbon monoxide in the smoke reduces the amount of oxygen carried by blood.
 To make up for this, the heart rate increases which leads to an increase in the blood pressure.
 High blood pressure damages the artery walls and forms blood clots. This increases the risk of
coronary heart disease.
Giving up smoking
 The nicotine in tobacco is a very addictive drug and causes withdrawal symptoms when people stop
smoking.
 There are various ways that smokers can be helped to give up their habit.
1. Vaping – inhaling a vapour containing nicotine from e-cigarette.
2. Nicotine patches
3. Nicotine chewing gum
 All these methods provide the smoker without the harmful effect of tar from the smoke.
 Gradually the patient reduces the nicotine dose until they give up the habit.

COORDINATION
 Coordination in the body means making things happen at the right time by linking up different body
activities.
 Nervous system is an example of coordination.
 The sequence of events that brings about this coordination is
stimulus receptor coordination effector response
 Stimulus – Any change in the internal or external environment of an organism is called a stimulus.
 External environment – the surroundings outside the body.
 Internal environment – the inside of the body.
 Receptor – A cell or organ that detect stimulus (eg- retina) is called receptor.
 Effector – Organs that carry out the response (eg- muscle/glands) is called effector.
 Response – Reaction to the stimulus or change is called response.
 Nerve impulse – The tiny electrical signal that passes down a nerve cell is called nerve impulse.
 The role of receptor is to detect the stimulus, change its energy into electrical energy of nerve
impulses. For example, the retina in eye converts the light energy to nerve impulses.
 Receptors communicate with effectors through the nervous system by transmitting information as
nerve impulses.
Nervous system

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 There are two types of nervous system – central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system.
 Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS helps in coordination of the
stimulus and response.
 Peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that runs throughout the body.
 A nerve contains thousands of individual nerve cells called neurons.
 There are three main types of neurons – sensory neurons, relay neurons and motor neurons.
 Sensory neurone – Nerve cell that carries impulses from a receptor into the CNS is called sensory
neurone.
 Relay neurone – Short neurone that connects a sensory neurone with a motor neurone in the CNS is
called relay neurone.
 Motor neurone – Nerve cell that transmits impulses from the CNS to an effector organ is called motor
neurone.
Structure of motor neurone
 The cell body is present at the end of the motor neurone.
 The cytoplasm of the cell body extends and forms dendrons. Dendron further extends and forms
dendrites.
 The long cytoplasmic extension is called the axon.
 Axon is covered by a type of fatty layer called myelin sheath.
*draw fig 6.3
Structure of sensory neurone
 The cell body is located on a side branch of the fibre, just outside the CNS.
 The fibre from sensory receptor to the cell body is the dendron.
 The fibre from the cell body to the CNS is the axon.
 Dendron and axon has myelin sheath.
Explain how neurons are adapted to transmit nerve impulses
 Neurone has dendron to carry impulse from other neurons to cell body.
 It has axon to carry impulses away from cell body.
 Axon has myelin sheath for fast conduction of impulses.
 Axon ends at special junctions where the impulse is converted to chemicals.
Explain the function of myelin sheath
 Myelin sheath is a protective layer.
 Myelin sheath helps in the rapid conduction of impulses.
 It also helps to prevent short circuit with other neurons
Difference between motor neurone and sensory neurone
Motor neurone Sensory neurone
Cell body is present at the end of the cell Cell body is present at the middle of the cell
Short dendron Long dendron
Long axon Short axon
Carries impulses from CNS to effector organ Carries impulses from receptor organs to CNS
 Axon – The long extension of a neurone that carries nerve impulses in a direction away from the cell
body is called axon.

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 Dendron – The cytoplasmic extension of a neurone that carries impulses towards the cell body is
called dendron.
 Dendrites – the fine extensions of the dendrons of a neurone is called dendrites.
Synapse
 Synapse – The gap between two neurons is called synapse.
 Electrical impulses cannot cross this gap. Hence the nerve impulses are transferred by chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
 Neurotransmitter – The chemicals released at the end of the neurone by the arrival of a nerve impulse
is called neurotransmitter.
 Because synapses are crossed by chemicals, it is easy for other chemicals to interfere with the working
of the synapse. This is the way that many drugs work.
The sequence of events happening at a synapse (how impulses travel from one neurone to another)
1. Impulses arrive down the axon of first neurone.
2. Neurotransmitters are released to the synapse.
3. Neurotransmitter diffuse across the synapse.
4. Neurotransmitter attaches to the membrane of second neurone.
5. Impulse starts in second neurone.
6. Neurotransmitter is broken down by enzyme from second neurone.
*draw fig 6.10
Reflex actions
 Reflex action – A reflex action is the rapid, automatic (fast, involuntary) response to a stimulus.
 Reflex arc – The nerve pathway of a reflex action is called reflex arc.
Explain how reflex action help to protect the body/function of reflex action
 A reflex action is a fast involuntary action
 It protects the body from harm by this rapid action.
Explain the reflex action pathway using the example of withdrawal of finger from a hot/sharp object
 The pathway is as follows
1. The stimulus (touching hot/sharp object) is detected by pain or temperature receptors in the skin.
2. An impulse is sent along the sensory neurone to CNS (spinal cord/unconscious part of the brain).
3. The impulse enters the CNs through dorsal root.
4. Relay neurone in the spinal cord relay the impulse to a motor neurone.
5. Motor neurone emerges from the spinal cord through the ventral root.
6. The impulse then travels along the motor neurone to the effector (muscle of arm).
7. The muscle then contract, pulling the arm, thus the finger away from the harmful stimulus.
*draw fig 6.9
 Dorsal root – The part of the spinal nerve that emerges from the back (dorsal) side of the spinal cord.
 Ventral root - The part of the spinal nerve that emerges from the front (ventral) side of the spinal cord.
 Dorsal root ganglion – The swelling in the spinal nerve that contains the cell bodies of sensory
neurons.
The eye
 The eye is a good example of a sense organ.
 Sensory receptors are found in sense organs.
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Structure and function of the different parts of the eye
1. Conjunctiva – the thin layer covering the surface of the eye. The function of conjunctiva is to
prevent the entry of any dust and dirt particles.
2. Sclera – A white, tough protective layer of the eye.
3. Cornea – At the front of the eye, sclera becomes transparent and forms cornea. The function of
cornea is to refract (bend) the light rays and let light enter into the eye.
4. Iris – The coloured part of the eye. The function of iris is to control the amount of light entering
the eye by controlling the size of pupil.
5. Pupil – the hole in the centre of iris. The function of iris is to let light enter the eye.
6. Lens – The transparent structure that refracts the light ray. The function of lens is to refract and
focus the light on retina. The shape of lens can be changed when we see object at different
distances.
7. Suspensory ligaments – The function of suspensory ligament is to hold the lens in place.
8. Ciliary muscles – The ring of muscles around the lens. The function of ciliary muscle is to change
the shape of lens when we see object at different distances.
9. Choroid – The black layer underneath the sclera. Its function is to prevent the reflection of light
inside the eye.
10. Retina – The innermost and light sensitive layer of the eye. The image of the object is formed in
the retina.
11. Fovea – A site of the retina that is concentrated with cone cells. An image is formed in the fovea of
the retina.
12. Blind spot – A site of the retina where there is no light sensitive cells.
13. Optic nerve – Light ray is converted to electrical impulse in the retina. The function of optic nerve
is to carry these impulses to brain. Optic nerve has sensory neurons.
14. Aqueous humor – A watery liquid present between pupil and cornea.
15. Vitreous humor – A clear gel that fills the eye ball between lens and retina.
*draw fig 6.4
Light sensitive cells in retina
 The retina contains two types of light sensitive cells called rods and cones.
 Rod cells work well in dim light, but can’t sense colour.
 Cone cells will work only in bright light, but are sensitive to colours.
 Cones give a sharper image than rod cells. Rod cells help to see in dim light.
 Both rods and cones react to light producing nerve impulses to carry to brain through optic nerve.
Forming an image
 To form an image on retina, light needs to be refracted.
 The light entering the eye is first refracted at the air/cornea boundary and again at the lens.
 As a result of these refractions, the image on the retina is inverted.
 The brain interprets the image the right way up.
*draw fig 6.5
Iris reflex
 Very bright light can damage the retina. Iris reflex helps to protect the retina from this.
 Iris contains two types of muscles- circular muscles and radial muscles.
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 In bright light, the circular muscles contract and the radial muscles relax. This makes the pupil smaller,
allowing less light in.
 In dim light, the radial muscles contract and circular muscle relax. This makes the pupil bigger
(dilate), allowing more light in.
*draw fig 6.6, 6.8 explain key point showing pathway of iris reflex,pg.no:90.
Accommodation
 Accommodation – The changes taking place in the shape of lens to focus on objects at different
distances is called accommodation.
 To look at distant objects:
1. The ciliary muscles relax.
2. This makes the suspensory ligaments to pull tight.
3. As a result, the lens become flat (thin/ less convex/ less curved).
4. So it refracts light by a smaller amount.
 To look at near objects:
1. The ciliary muscles contract.
2. This slackens the suspensory ligaments.
3. As a result, the lens become more rounded (fat/ more convex/ more curved).
4. So it refracts light by more amount.
*draw 6.7

GENETIC MODIFICATION (GENETIC ENGINEERING)

 Genetic engineering – It is a technique that involves cutting a useful gene out of one organism and
inserting it into the DNA of another. This helps to change the characteristics of a plant, animal or
microorganism.
 Recombinant DNA – Two different bits of DNA of two different species combined together are
known as recombinant DNA.
 Transgenic organism (genetically modified organism/GMO) – An organism that receives a new gene
from a different species.
 Enzymes can be used to cut DNA or to join DNA pieces together.
 The enzymes used are
1. Restriction enzymes – Restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases) are used to cut DNA
molecules at specific points. They are also known as biological scissors.
2. Ligases – DNA ligases are enzymes that join the cut ends of DNA molecules.
 Vectors (carriers) are used to transfer the pieces of DNA from one organism to another.
 Vector – It is any structure or molecule used in genetic engineering to transfer genes from one
organism to another.
 Two types of vector are
1. Plasmids – Plasmids are the small circular pieces of DNA found in bacteria. It can be transferred
between bacteria.
2. Viruses (bacteriophage) – Viruses insert DNA into the organisms they infect. Bacteriophage is a
virus that attacks a bacterium.
22
How restriction enzymes cut DNA
 Restriction enzymes can cut DNA in either of the two ways -
1. Forming blunt ends
C-G-A-A-T-T-C-G C-G-A-A and T-T-C-G
G-C-T-T-A-A-G-C G-C-T-T A-A-G-C

Restriction enzyme cuts here DNA fragments with blunt ends

2. Forming sticky ends
C-G-A-A-G-C-T-T-A-A C-G-A and A-G-C-T-T-A-A
G-C-T-T-C-G-A-A-T-T G-C-T-T-C-G-A A-T-T

Restriction enzyme cuts here DNA fragments with sticky ends

Explain how enzymes can be used to genetically modify an organism
 Restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA at specific points.
 Ligases are used to join the cut ends of DNA molecules of different species.
Describe the role of vector in genetic modification
 A vector is a structure or molecule used in genetic engineering to transfer genes from one organism to
another. It can be a plasmid or bacteriophage.
Producing genetically modified bacterium
 Transgenic bacterium can be produced either by using a plasmid or by using a bacteriophage.
1. Using plasmid - How to produce transgenic bacterium for production of human protein insulin
 The plasmids from the bacterium are isolated.
 Cut open the plasmid by using restriction enzyme leaving sticky ends.
 The desired gene is obtained by cutting the DNA using the same restriction enzyme leaving sticky
ends. (for human insulin, take DNA from pancreatic cell )
 The desired gene is joined with the plasmid using the enzyme DNA ligase. This is now called as
recombinant DNA/ recombinant plasmid.
 A marker gene is also inserted to the plasmid along with the desired gene.
 Recombinant plasmid is inserted into the bacterium. The marker gene helps to check whether the
bacterium has accepted or rejected the recombinant plasmid.
 Those bacterium that accepted the recombinant plasmid are now called transgenic bacterium.
 These bacterium is cultured in a fermenter providing suitable conditions to produce huge amounts of
insulin.
*draw fig 22.4
2. Using bacteriophage
 The desired gene is inserted into the DNA of the bacteriophage.
 Bacteriophage is the virus that attacks bacterium. Phage attaches to the cell wall of bacterium.
 Then injects its own DNA along with the desired gene into the bacterial cell.
 This DNA becomes incorporated into the DNA of the host cell (bacterium).
*draw fig 22.5
Explain how the plasmid is modified to contain recombinant DNA
 Desired gene is identified and isolated using restriction enzyme.
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 Using the same restriction enzyme, cut open the plasmid.
 DNA ligase is used to join the sticky ends of plasmid and desired gene to form the plasmid that
contain recombinant DNA.
Uses of a transgenic bacterium
1. To make human insulin.
2. To make enzymes for washing powders that work at relatively high temperatures.
3. To make human growth hormones.
4. To make bovine somatotropin.
5. To make human vaccines.
Producing genetically modified plants
 Transgenic plants can be produced either by using Agrobacterium or by using gene gun.
1. Using Agrobacterium
 The plasmid is isolated from the Agrobacterium.
 Plasmid is cut open using the restriction enzyme leaving sticky ends.
 The desired gene is obtained by cutting the DNA using the same restriction enzyme leaving sticky
ends.
 The desired gene is joined with the plasmid using the enzyme DNA ligase. This is now called as
recombinant DNA/ recombinant plasmid.
 Obtain leaf discs from the plant that we want to modify.
 Leaf discs and recombinant plasmids are kept together in a liquid medium.
 Some leaf discs will take up the recombinant plasmid.
 Leaf discs with the recombinant plasmid are cultured in nutrient medium.
 The leaf discs will develop into young plants.
2. Using a gene gun (direct method)
 Tiny pellets of gold are coated with DNA that contains the desired gene.
 These are then fired directly into plant tissue.
Uses of a transgenic plant
1. To increase food production by making them resistant to pest or pathogen (no need to spray
insecticide) and resistant to herbicide (can kill weeds without affecting crops).
2. To increase heat and drought tolerance
3. To increase salt tolerance
4. To maintain a better balance of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and minerals.
Producing genetically modified animals
 Obtain the desired gene using restriction enzyme
 Inject the desired gene directly into a newly fertilized egg cell.
 The egg cell develops into an embryo and then into an adult which will be transgenic.
 This transgenic animal is the cloned. This helps to produce large number of animals with the desired
gene.
Uses of a transgenic animal
1. To produce human protein.
For example, human protein AAT is involved in the immune response. Transgenic sheep with AAT in
their milk, can be used to treat people with AAT deficiency.
24
2. To produce human organs (Xenotransplantation).
Explain the benefit of cloning transgenic animal
 Cloning helps to produce genetically identical animals that have the desired gene.
 It saves the need to genetically modify each and every organism.
 Only once genetically modified animal needs to be produced and then cloned.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 Organelle- The part of the cell with a particular function is called organelle. Ribosome is the organelle
in a cell that carry out protein synthesis.
 The genetic information flow only in one direction, that is, from DNA to RNA to protein. This is
known as the central dogma of protein synthesis.
Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
DNA is a double stranded molecule RNA is a single stranded molecule
It has deoxy ribose sugar It has ribose sugar
Four bases are adenine, thymine, guanine and Four bases are adenine, uracil, guanine and
cytosine cytosine
Most of the DNA is present in the nucleus RNA is present in the nucleus and cytoplasm
DNA is a large molecule RNA is a small molecule compared to DNA.
Three types of RNA are mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA
Stages of protein synthesis
 There are two stages in protein synthesis – transcription and translation.
 Transcription – The process by which the information in a segment of DNA (base sequence) is copied
into a molecule of mRNA using RNA nucleotides. Transcription occurs in nucleus.
 Translation – The process by which a cell makes protein using the genetic information carried in
mRNA. Translation occurs in ribosome.
Steps in transcription (Explain the process of transcription)
1. Part of DNA double helix unzips using the enzyme DNA helicase.
2. RNA polymerase binds to template strand infront of a gene.

25
3. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand adding on RNA nucleotides based on the base
pairing rule.
4. The ribose sugar and phosphate of RNA nucleotides are then joined together to form mRNA molecule.
5. Once made, the mRNA molecule moves out of nucleus and joins with a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
6. The DNA helix zips up again using the enzyme DNA ligase by forming the hydrogen bond between
the bases.
*draw fig16.7
Steps in translation (Explain the process of translation)
1. mRNA bind to ribosome.
2. Amino acids are brought to the ribosome by tRNA.
3. tRNA has two ends. One end of the tRNA has anticodon which is complimentary to the codon of
mRNA. Other end is called ‘amino’ end which carries amino acid to the mRNA.
4. The first tRNA binds at the start codon which always has the base sequence AUG. This codes for the
amino acid methionine.
5. Hydrogen bond forms between the start codon on mRNA and anticodon on tRNA.
6. Another tRNA brings along a second aminoacid and binds to the next codon on the mRNA.
7. A peptide bond forms between mwthionine and the second amino acid.
8. The first tRNA molecule is released and goes off to collect another amino acid.
9. This process continues until it reaches a stop codon.
10. A stop codon tells the translation machinery that the protein is complete and the protein molecule is
released.
*draw 16.9
Types of RNA and their function (Explain the role of RNA in protein synthesis)
1. mRNA (messenger RNA) – mRNA has a linear structure. The function of mRNA is to provide the
template for protein synthesis during translation.
2. tRNA (transfer RNA) – tRNA has a clover leaf shaped structure. One end of the tRNA has anticodon
which is complimentary to the codon of mRNA. Other end is called ‘amino’ end which carries amino
acid to the mRNA. The function of tRNA is to bring amino acids to the ribosomes during translation.
*draw fig 16.8
3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) – rRNA has a spherical structure. It associates with proteins to form
ribosomes.
 Template strand – The strand of DNA that RNA polymerase use as the basis to synthesize the mRNA,
by base paring rule. Also known as coding strand.
 Non template strand – The strand of DNA that has identical sequence of the mRNA. Also known as
non coding strand.
 Codon – The triplet sequence found on mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid during
translation.
 Anti codon – The triplet sequence found on tRNA that is complementary to the sequence on mRNA.
 Monomers – Monomers are small molecules which may be joined together in repeating fashion to
form a larger molecule. Ex: amino acid is the monomer of protein.
 Polymers – Polymers are large molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together. Ex:
protein.
26
 Base pairing rule – complementary bases always bind or link with each other only and never with
other bases.
 In DNA, A and T, C and G are complementary bases.
 In RNA, A and U, C and G are complementary bases.
*H.W – If the bases of one strand of DNA is
CAT TAG GAC
Write the complementary mRNA sequence.
ANS: GUA AUC CUG

 Non overlapping codon -

NATURAL SELECTION AND EVOLUTION

 Species – A group of similar organisms having similar characteristics, and can breed to produce fertile
offspring is called species.
 Evolution – Change in the form of organisms over the course of time. It is the process by which
species develop from earlier forms during the history of the Earth.
 Natural selection – It is a process where certain individuals in a population survive because they are
better adapted to their environment. They are more likely to pass on their genes to their offspring. It is
a mechanism of evolution.
 Variation – The differences among the organisms due to mutation or sexual reproduction is called
variation.
 Selection pressure – Any environmental component that causes mutation is called selection pressure.
 Selective advantage – A character that favours the organism to survive is called selective advantage.
 Adaptation – Structure or feature of an organism that suits its structure to its function is called
adaptation.
Darwin’s theory of evolution
1. Organisms in a species show variation in their characteristics.
2. The resources that organisms need to survive are limited. So individuals have to compete for these
resources to survive.
3. The organisms with the most suitable characteristics for the environment would be more successful
competitors. So would have a better chance of survival. This is known as survival of fittest.
4. The successful organisms will then have an increased chance of breeding and passing on their genes.
5. This means that a greater proportion of individuals in the next generation will have better alleles, and
so the characteristics that help in survival.

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6. Over many generations, the characteristics that increases survival become more common in the
population.
How natural selection works
Variation selection pressure mutation frequency of favoured form increases.
1. There is variation within the species. (ex: difference in structure or behavior)
2. The changing conditions in the environment exerts force (selection pressure) by nature which favours
one particular trait of the species over other (selective advantage).
3. The frequency of the favoured form increases under these conditions (survival of fittest). Frequency of
less adapted form decreases under these conditions (selective disadvantage).
4. In this way, over a period of time, the population will loss all the poorly adapted individuals. The
population gradually become better adapted to its environment (gradual change).
Some examples of how natural selection works
 Hover fly – Hover fly mimic the warning colouration (yellow and black stripes) of wasp, so the
predators treat them as if they do have sting. Mimicking a wasp is an advantage to the hoverfly.
 Polar bear – Polar bear have thick white fur which act as an insulator to reduce heat loss and helps
them to camouflage in the snow and attack the prey. Thick white fur is an advantage to the polar bear.
*H.W. Identify the variation, selection pressure, selective advantage and gradual change of hover fly
and polar bear from the above given examples.
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
 Antibiotics – Antibiotics are chemicals that kill or reduce the growth of microorganisms (bacteria,
fungi).
 Antibiotics are produced by bacteria and fungi.
 Antibiotics cannot kill virus.
 Super bug – Bacteria that is resistant to many antibiotics is called a super bug. Ex: MRSA.
How antibiotic resistance increases bacterial population
1. Wide use of antibiotics resulted in the random mutation of bacterial DNA.
2. This mutation made the resistant to antibiotics.
3. Resistant bacteria had selective advantage and they survived to breed.
4. The mutated allele is passed on to the next generation.
5. Over a period of time, the number of resistant bacteria increases in the population.
6. The non resistant bacteria are killed by antibiotic.
Pesticide resistance in insects
 DDT is a powerful insecticide. The wide use of DDT has resulted in DDT resistance among pests.
How pesticide resistance increases pest population
1. Wide use of pesticide resulted in the random mutation in pest DNA.
2. This mutation made them resistant to pesticide.
3. The resistant pests had a selective advantage and they survived to breed.
4. The mutated allele is passed on to the next generation.
5. Over a period of time, the number of resistant pest increases in the population.
Practice questions
1. Use your knowledge of natural selection to explain why ash borers have evolved to look like wasps.

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 Ans: There was variation among ash borers. Some of them look like wasp.this mutation gave them the
selective advantage of not being eaten by predators. They survived to reproduce and passed on the
gene to next generation. This process continues over many generation and resulted in the evolution of
ash borers to look like wasps.
2. Use your knowledge of natural selection to explain the increase in the number of pest organisms that
are resistant to the pesticide.
Ans: 1. Wide use of pesticide resulted in the random mutation in pest DNA.
2. This mutation made them resistant to pesticide.
3. The resistant pests had a selective advantage and they survived to breed.
4. The mutated allele is passed on to the next generation.
5. Over a period of time, the number of resistant pest increases in the population.

HUMAN INFLUENCES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

 Human activities can affect the environment in many ways. Some of them are positive and some are
negative.
Food supply
 Modern technology has dramatically increased food supply.
 Food supply can be increased by increasing the crop yield.
 Yield – The amount of crop produced for sale is called the yield of a crop.
Factors controlled by farmers to increase crop yield
1. Soil ions (ex: nitrates) – Adding fertilizers to the soil or growing crops in a hydroponic culture can
provide extra mineral ions, which is used to make proteins and other growth compounds.
2. Soil structure- Ploughing fields to break up the compacted soil gives good aeration and drainage.
3. Soil pH – Soil pH can affect crop growth and reduces uptake of mineral ions. If the soil is too acidic,
lime (calcium salts) can be added.
4. Carbon dioxide, light and heat – These are the factors that affect rate of photosynthesis. In an open
field, it is difficult for the farmers to control them. But in a glasshouse (greenhouse) or polytunnel all
these factors can be altered to increase the crop yield.
How a glasshouse control climatic conditions to increase rate of photosynthesis
1. Artificial lighting in the glasshouse allows photosynthesis to continue after day light hours (especially
in winter). Natural light enters through the transparent walls of glasshouse.
2. Artificial heating in the glasshouse helps to raise the temperature if the outside temperature is low.
3. Using fossil fuels in heaters helps to increase the carbon dioxide inside the glasshouse.
4. Regular watering.
5. The greenhouse effect inside the glasshouse helps to heat up the glasshouse.
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Explain how a glasshouse/polytunnel can increase crop yield
 Glasshouse and polytunnels can be used to increase the crop yield by controlling the level of carbon
dioxide and temperature inside the glass house.
 This increases the rate of photosynthesis and so the crop yield.
Explain how increasing temperature increases crop yield
 Increasing the temperature of glasshouse gives the optimum temperature for the enzymes of
photosynthesis.
 So there will be more collision between the substrate and enzyme molecules, resulting in formation of
more glucose.
 Plants will get more energy by respiration and will grow bigger and faster, and crop yield will be
higher.
 Heating above the optimum temperature is a waste of money as there is no further increase in yield.
 Greenhouse/glasshouse – A greenhouse is a structure with walls and roof made of transparent
materials, such as glass, in which plants are grown under controlled climatic conditions.
 Polytunnel/polythene tunnel – An elongated polythene covered frame under which seedlings or other
plants are grown outdoors. Polytunnels protect crops from the effects of the weather including wind,
rain and extreme temperature.
They are large enough for people and machines to work inside and can provide warmer conditions
than if the crops were grown outside.
 Greenhouse effect – It is the trapping of sun’s heat in the atmosphere by the gases in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour.
 Hydroponics - Hydroponics is the cultivation of plant with their roots in solution of mineral ions rather
than in soil.
Fertilizers
 Fertilizers can be used to add important mineral ions, such as nitrates, phosphate and potassium to soil.
 Fertilizer – Fertilizer is a concentrated source of plant nutrients or mineral ions which are used to
improve plant growth and yield.
 There are two types of fertilizers – organic (natural) fertilizers and inorganic (artificial) fertilizers.
Organic fertilizers/ Natural fertilizers
 Natural fertilizers are made up of organic matter in the form of the dead and decomposing remains of
organisms and their waste products. (Ex: manure, crop residues, composted vegetables and sewage).
 The nutrients present in natural fertilizers are not very concentrated so relatively large amounts are
needed.
Inorganic fertilizers/ Artificial fertilizers
 Artificial fertilizers are made up of inorganic matter in the form of powder or pellets that contain pure
chemical compounds. (ex: ammonium nitrate)
Explain how adding fertilizers increases crop yield
 Fertilizer is a concentrated source of plant nutrients or mineral ions such as nitrate or ammonium.
 Nitrate is absorbed by the plants to make protein and compounds such as DNA and vitamins. This
increases plant growth and so the crop yield.
 Using excess fertilizer is a waste of money. Leaching of mineral ions can lead to eutrophication.
Advantage of natural fertilizer over artificial fertilizer
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1. Natural fertilizer can increase the water holding ability of soil.
2. Natural fertilizers can reduce soil erosion by improving soil structure.
3. Nutrients from natural fertilizers are released over long period of time.
4. Leaching is less likely with natural fertilizers than artificial fertilizers.
Advantages of artificial/chemical fertilizers
1. As the exact chemical composition is known, it is easier to decide how much to apply and the effects
they will have on crop yields.
2. The nutrients present are concentrated, so smaller amounts are needed. This means import costs are
lower.
3. Inorganic fertilizers are easy to handle, easy to apply evenly and are clean.
Environmental issues caused by fertilizers
 Fertilizers are very effective, do farmers often apply them in greater quantities than actually needed.
 As the crops are unable to use all fertilizers provided, they remain in the soil water.
 These mineral ions are transported to nearby water bodies by rain or water from irrigation system. This
process is known as leaching.
 Leaching leads to eutrophication.
Leaching
 Leaching – The process by which mineral ions, such as nitrates, are washed out of the soil by rain is
called leaching.
 Leaching is less likely with natural fertilizers because the minerals are contained within the organic
matter in natural fertilizer. The organic matter has to be decomposed by microorganisms before the
mineral ions can be absorbed by crop plants. So leaching is less likely with natural fertilizer.
Eutrophication/ biological consequence of nitrate containing fertilizer or sewage pollution in rivers
 Eutrophication – The process where an aquatic habitat receives large amounts of minerals, either
naturally or as a result of pollution by sewage or fertilizers.
 Sewage – the waste water and excrements carried away in drain or sewers are called as sewage.
Process of eutrophication
1. The mineral ions such as nitrate or phosphate in the artificial fertilizers or sewage is leached to nearby
water bodies.
2. This leached minerals resulted in rapid growth of algae, called as algal bloom.
3. Algal bloom form a thick scum on the surface of water, blocking the sunlight.
4. When algae dies, they are decomposed by aerobic bacteria.
5. This aerobic respiration reduces the oxygen concentration in water as bacteria uses up oxygen.
6. In addition to this, blocking of sunlight further reduces the oxygen concentration produced by
photosynthesis.
7. Water becomes anoxic.
8. Fish and other animals die.
9. Everything dies, only anaerobic bacteria can survive.
10. This rapid eutrophication produces smelly gases like hydrogen sulfide and methane.
Pest control
 Pest are the organisms that reduce the yield of crop plants or stock animals.
 A pest can reduce the crop yield in two ways-
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 1. by reducing growth
2. by affecting the quality of a crop making it unsuitable for sale.
 Pests can be controlled by using pesticides, biological control or by crop rotation.
Pesticides
 Pesticides – the chemical used to kill pests are called pesticides.
 Pesticides are named according to the type of organism they kill.
 For example, fungicide – kills fungi
herbicides – kills weeds
insecticides – kills insects
 Weeds – the unwanted plants are called weeds.
Advantage of using pesticides
1. Easily available and relatively cheap.
2. Have an immediate effect.
3. Kills the entire population of pests.

Disadvantage of using pesticides

1. Pests may develop resistance.
2. May kill harmless, helpful species such as bees.
3. They are persistent in the environment. (slow to decompose).
4. They can build up in the tissues of organisms. (bioaccumulation)
5. They become more concentrated along food chains. (biomagnification)
6. Needs to be applied repeatedly.
Biological control
 Biological control – The use of another organism to control the number of a pest species.
 Biological control is effective if a control species is introduced deliberately.
 For example, introducing the ladybirds to control the population of aphids in orange groves.
 Biological control reduces the population of pest but does not completely remove the pest, only keep it
at lower levels.
Advantage of using biological control
1. No pollution
2. No development of disease resistance
3. Kills only target species.
4. Effect is long lasting.
5. No need to apply repeatedly.
6. Doesn’t affect food chain.
 Bioaccumulation – The buildup of pollutants such as insecticides in the fatty tissues of an organism.
 Biomagnification – The increase in concentration of bioaccumulated substances along a food chain.
Fish farming
 Fish farming is the cultivation of fish for commercial purposes in man-made tanks or other enclosures.
 Fish is a good source of high quality protein. Fish farming (aqua culture) helps to meet the need for
fish as a food supply.
 The traditional method of fish farming is the cage system which use cages to contain fish.
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 The modern method of fish farming is the pond system (irrigation ditch) which have a pond/ditch to
contain the fish.
 In fish farming, fish are artificially fed and harvested.
 The most common types of farmed fish are cat fish, tilapia, salmon, crap, etc.
Methods used in fish farms to increase yield
Method How method increases fish production
Monitoring water quality parameters Fish live in water, so are susceptible to water
quality change. Monitoring of parameters like
temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen ensures
the water quality
Using nets to separate species or to cover To avoid interspecific competition among the
tanks fishes. Also protects fish from being eaten by
predators like birds
Feeding small quantities of food frequently Ensures that there is no uneaten food.
Leftover food may decay and lead to
eutrophication. No excess food means no
eutrophication or contamination of water with
bacteria
Adding antibiotics to the water Prevents diseases by treating water or fish
before disease occurs
Selective breeding Improves the quality and quantity of different
types of fishes
Pumping air through filtration units Increases the amount of dissolved oxygen and
prevents stagnation. Filtration ensures that the
waste products of fish are removed
Air pollution
 Pollution – The contamination of the environment by harmful substances that are produced by the
activities of humans.
 Pollutants – The substance that cause pollution is called pollutant.
 Human activities pollute the air with many gases.
1. Carbon monoxide
 When fossil fuels are burned with limited supply of oxygen they produce the gas carbon
monoxide.
 It is a poisonous gas.
 Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin in RBC and forms carboxyhaemoglobin and
prevents them from carrying oxygen.
 The person may lose consciousness and eventually die as a result of lack of oxygen.
2. Sulfur dioxide
 It is formed when fossil fuels are burned.
 When this gas mixes with water vapour in air or with rain clouds, it forms dilute sulfuric acid.
 This then falls as acid rain.
 Acid rain can cause a lake to become more acidic.
 Many organisms cannot survive in acidic conditions. Plants and animals in water dies.

33
  Acid rain kill trees. The acid damages leaves and releases toxic substances from the soil, making it
hard for the trees to take up nutrients.
Global warming and greenhouse effect
 Human activity produces lots of greenhouse gases such as
1. Carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is increased by burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, industries,
etc.
 Extensive deforestation means that less carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis, which
in turn increases the carbon dioxide level.
2. Methane
 Methane gas is produced when microorganisms ferment larger organic molecules to release energy.
 Human activities like dumping of waste in landfill sites, cattle rearing, etc can increase its level in
atmosphere.
3. Nitrous oxide
 Extensive use of fertilizers releases nitrous oxide from soil.
 It is also released from vehicle engines and industry.
4. CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
 CFCs are man-made chemicals that were used in aerosol sprays and fridges.
 Their release to atmosphere can damage the ozone layer.
 Increased level of greenhouse in the atmosphere enhances the greenhouse effect. This results in global
warming.
 Global warming lead to many environmental changes such as
1. Rising of sea level
2. Melting of polar ice caps
3. Changes in weather and rainfall pattern
4. Loss of habitat
5. Affect the food web and crop growth
*draw fig15.13
Deforestation
 Cutting down of large areas of forest leaves the soil exposed.
 This results in leaching of minerals from the soil.
 The water cycle is disturbed by lack of transpiration.
 The balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is affected. Since there is less trees to
take up carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases and
the level of oxygen decreases.
Advantages of deforestation
 Provides source of income
 Provides wood for furniture, building, paper, etc.
 Source of fuel
 Provides more land for farming or building home
 Accessibility by roads can be increased
Disadvantages of deforestation
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 Loss of habitat
 Loss of medicinal plants
 Affects food chain
 Can lead to soil erosion
 Affects water cycle
 Contributes to global warming
Water pollution
 The three main substances that pollutes water are nitrates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents.
 This can lead to eutrophication.
 In addition, sewage water may also contain pathogenic bacteria which are dangerous to human health.
 Sewage treatment removes solid and suspended organic matter and pathogenic microorganisms, so
cleaner waste can be discharged to waterways.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
 Reproduction – The process by which an organism produces its offspring is called reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction – When a single parent is involved in reproduction and gamete formation does
not happen, it is called asexual reproduction.
 Sexual reproduction – When two parents are involved in reproduction and gamete formation takes
place, it is called sexual reproduction.
 Gametes – The reproductive cells produced in the reproductive organs by meiosis.
 Haploid cell - A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes is called haploid cell.
 Diploid cell - A cell that contains two copies of each chromosomes is called diploid cell.
 Fertilization – The fusion of male gamete and female gamete to form a zygote is called fertilization.
 Zygote – The cell formed by the fusion of male and female gametes is called zygote. A zygote is
diploid. (in human, 46 chromosomes)
 Embryo – The early developmental stage of organisms following fertilization is called embryo. Zygote
undergoes mitosis to form an embryo.
 Conception – the implantation of embryo in uterus is called conception.
Difference between sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction
Reproduction involving fusion male gamete Reproduction that does not involve the fusion
and female gamete to form a zygote. of gametes.
Two parents are involved A single parent is involved
Gametes are involved Gametes are not involved
Fertilisation takes place Fertilisation does not take place
Ex: human, frog, birds Ex: amoeba, hydra
Male reproductive system
 Male gamete is called the sperm.
 Sperm is produced by meiosis in the two testes.
 Sperm is haploid and has 23 chromosomes (in human).
Structure and function of different parts of male reproductive system
1. Scrotum –
 A sac that holds the testis outside the body keeping them cooler than body temperature.
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  Sperm production is very sensitive to heat. This is why the testes are outside the body, where they
are cooler than they would be inside.
2. Epididymis – The sperms produced in testes are stored and is matured in a tube called epididymis.
3. Sperm duct (vas deferens) –
 Sperm duct is the muscular tube that carries sperm from testes and joins with urethra just below the
bladder.
 The urethra can carry both urine and sperm at different times.
 Cutting the sperm duct prevents sperm from reaching urethra and fertilisation will not occur.
4. Prostate gland and seminal vesicles –
 The gland where the sperm duct joins the urethra is called the prostate gland.
 Behind the prostate gland is the seminal vesicles.
 Both prostate gland and seminal vesicle secrete fluids.
 The sperm mixes with these fluids to form semen.
 Semen provides nutrients to sperm and sperm swims in semen. Semen is alkaline fluid that helps to
neutralize the acids in female reproductive system.
5. Penis – The muscular organ through which the semen with sperm and urine carried by urethra passes
out at different times.
*draw fig 9.7
Female reproductive system
 Female gamete is called the ovum. (plural is ova)
 Ovum is produced by meiosis in the two ovaries.
 Ovum is haploid and has 23 chromosomes (in human).
Structure and function of different parts of female reproductive system
1. Ovary –
 There are two ovaries.
 Ovaries produce and store ova in them.
2. Ligaments – Ligaments are the tough muscular tissues that hold the ovary in position.
3. Funnel of oviduct – the funnel shaped structure at the end of oviduct that directs ovum from ovary to
oviduct.
4. Oviduct /fallopian tube –
 The muscular tube that carries ovum to the uterus.
 There are tiny cilia on the wall of the oviduct.
 These cilia helps in the movement of ovum.
 Oviduct is the site of fertilization.
5. Uterus – It is the muscular organ where the development of fetus takes place.(it is made up of three
layers- outer perimetrium, middle myometrium, inner endometrium)
6. Cervix – The ring of muscle that separates the vagina and uterus that protects that protects from the
entry of microorganisms.
7. Vagina –
 It is the part which connects cervix to the external female body parts.
 It is the route for the entry of sperm as well as a fetus during delivery.
8. Urethra- Muscular tube that carries urine from the bladder.
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 *draw fig 9.6
Structure of a sperm
 Sperm is produced in testis by meiosis.
 Sperm has three parts-
1. Head piece –
 Contains nucleus and acrosome.
 Nucleus carries the genetic material. Has 23 chromosomes (22+ X or Y).
 Acrosomes has the enzymes to penetrate the membrane around the egg cell/ovum.
2. Mid piece –
 Mid piece has mitochondria.
 The function of mitochondria is to release energy as ATP by respiration for the movement of
sperm.
3. Tail/ flagellum – Flagellum helps the sperm to move (swim).
*draw fig 9.3
Structure of an ovum
 Ovum is produced in ovary by meiosis.
 Ovum is a single, non-motile spherical cell.
 Ovum has a nucleus with 23 chromosome (22+X) surrounded by cytoplasm and membrane. (vitelline
membrane, zona pellucida, corona radiata.)
 Each ovum is made from cells in the outer layer of ovary.
 Then moves towards the centre of the ovary where it is surrounded by a ball of cells.
 The space between the ovum and ball of cells is filled with fluid. The whole structure is called as
follicle.
 Follicle – The ball of cells inside which an ovum matures.
*draw fig 9.12
Fertilisation
 The fusion of male gamete and female gamete to form a zygote is called fertilization.
 Oviduct is the site of fertlisation.
 Once the sperm reaches ovum, the enzyme secreted by acrosome digest the membrane of ovum.
 Only the head of the sperm enters the ovum.
 The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of ovum.
 An extra membrane forms to prevent the entry of any more sperm.
 The fertilized ovum/egg cell is called zygote.
 Zygote is diploid and now has 46 chromosomes.
 Zygote divide by mitosis to form embryo.
 Embryo is implanted in the lining of uterus.
 Embryo continues to divide there to form fetus.,
 An embryo is called a fetus when it becomes recognizably human).
*draw fig 9.4
Gametes zygote embryo fetus baby
Structures supporting the embryo

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 The main structures that support the embryo during its development are placenta, amnion and
umbilical cord.
1. Placenta-
 Embryo develops placenta to obtain nutrients such as glucose, oxygen and amino acids. Also some
special proteins called antibodies to protect from disease or pathogens. (immunity)
 Glucose and oxygen in placenta is needed to provide energy by respiration for process like active
transport.
 As embryo grows, placenta also grows.
 Placenta connects the embryo to the wall of uterus.
Structure of placenta/ Adaptation of placenta for diffusion
 Placenta has finger like projections called villi which penetrates the soft muscular wall of uterus.
This also increases the surface area for the diffusion of substance between maternal blood and
fetal blood.
 Placenta is joined to the embryo by umbilical cord which has many capillaries with fetal blood.
 The walls of uterus has large spaces filled with mother blood. Mother blood and fetal blood are
separated by the thin wall of placenta, hence a short diffusion distance.
 Maternal blood is rich in glucose and oxygen than fetal blood. Fetal blood is rich in urea and
carbon dioxide. This maintains a concentration gradient for faster diffusion.
 Placenta also secretes progesterone to prevent embryo from aborting.
*draw fig 9.8
Explain how placenta provide nutrients to the embryo
 Placenta is connected to the embryo by umbilical cord.
 Placenta has a high concentration of glucose, oxygen and amino acid than the fetal blood.
 This helps in the diffusion of nutrients from placenta to the embryo through umbilical vein.
2. Amnion –
 Amnion encloses the developing embryo.
 It secrets a fluid called amniotic fluid.
 Amniotic fluid 1. protects embryo against sudden movement and bumps. (it act as shock absorber)
2. Keeps fetus warm by providing constant temperature.
3. Prevents the entry of germs.
4. Acts as a cushion which helps in the movement of fetus easily inside the uterus.
3. Umbilical cord-
 Umbilical cord connects placenta to baby.
 It helps in the exchange of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and oxygen with waste like urea
and carbon dioxide.
 Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood from fetus.
 Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from mother to fetus.
Stages of birth
1. Dilation of the cervix -
 Cervix widens to allow baby to pass through
 Muscles of uterus contract and tears the amnion.
2. Delivery of the baby –
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  Strong contractions of muscles of uterus
 Pushes baby’s head through cervix, then through vagina and to the outside world.
3. Delivery of after birth –
 After the baby is born, uterus continues to contract.
 Pushes placenta out together with membranes that surrounded the baby (after birth).
Hormones controlling reproduction
 Testosterone is the hormone responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in
male.
 Oestrogen is the hormone responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in
female.
*draw table 9.1
Menstrual cycle
1. Stage 1-
 Stage 1 is from day 1 to day 4.
 In this stage, menstruation starts.
 FSH stimulates the growth of follicle and stimulates oestrogen production.
 Menstruation – The breakdown of uterus lining once in a month is called menstruation.
2. Stage 2 –
 Stage 2 is from day 4 to day 14
 In this stage, oestrogen production increases.
 New lining starts to build up in uterus, done by oestrogen.
3. Stage 3 –
 Stage 3 is on day 14.
 In this stage, matured egg is released from ovary.(ovulation).
 Ovulation is done by LH in its peak of production.
 Released egg remains in oviduct till day 20.
 Egg can be fertilized between day 14 and day 17.
 If not fertilized, egg starts to die off between day 18 and day 20.
 Ovulation – The release of matured ovum/egg from ovary is called ovulation.
4. Stage 4 –
 Stage 4 is from day 14 to day 28
 In this stage, the lining of uterus is maintained by progesterone.
 Progesterone inhibits the release of LH stopping the ovulation.
 After ovulation, the remains of follicle forms a structure in the ovary called corpus luteum
 Progesterone is made by corpus luteum if the egg is not fertilized.
 But during pregnancy, the placenta secretes progesterone.
 If no fertilization occurs, level of progesterone falls. The uterus lining breakdown (menstruation) and
cycle starts again.
*draw fig 9.10, 9.11
Hormones Produced in Functions
FSH Pituitary gland 1. causes an egg to mature
2. stimulates follicle growth

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 3. stimulates oestrogen production
LH Pituitary gland 1. stimulates ovulation
2. develops corpus luteum
Oestrogen Ovaries 1. builds up lining of uterus
2. stimulates release of LH
Progesterone Ovaries 1. maintains the lining of uterus
2. inhibits the release of LH (ovulation)

P – oestrogen
Q – FSH
R – LH
S – progesterone

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