India

India, officially the Republic of India,[j][20] is a

country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country Republic of India
by area; the most populous country since 2023;[21] and Bhārat Gaṇarājya
since its independence in 1947, the world's most
populous democracy.[22][23][24] Bounded by the Indian
Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest,
and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land
borders with Pakistan to the west;[k] China, Nepal, and
Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to Flag State emblem
the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is near Sri Lanka
Motto: Satyameva Jayate (Sanskrit)
and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands "Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and
Indonesia. Anthem: Jana Gana Mana (Hindi)[a][2][3]
"Thou Art the Ruler of the Minds of All
Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent People"[4][2]
from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.[26][27][28] 0:00 / 0:00
Their long occupation, predominantly in isolation as
hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly National song: Vande Mataram (Sanskrit)[c]
diverse.[29] Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in "I Bow to Thee, Mother"[b][1][2]
the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 0:00 / 0:00
years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley
Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.[30] By
1200 BCE, an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-
European language, had diffused into India from the
northwest.[31][32] Its hymns recorded the early
dawnings of Hinduism in India.[33] India's pre-existing
Dravidian languages were supplanted in the northern
regions.[34] By 400 BCE, caste had emerged within
Hinduism,[35] and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen,
proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity.[36]
Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-
knit Maurya and Gupta Empires.[37] Widespread
creativity suffused this era,[38] but the status of women
declined,[39] and untouchability became an organized Territory controlled by India
belief.[l][40] In South India, the Middle kingdoms Territory claimed but not controlled
exported Dravidian language scripts and religious Capital New Delhi
cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.[41] 28°36′50″N 77°12′30″E
Largest city by city Mumbai
In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, proper population
and Zoroastrianism became established on India's Largest city by Delhi
southern and western coasts.[42] Muslim armies from metropolitan area
Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern population
plains in the second millennium.[43] The resulting Official languages Hindi · English[d][8]
Delhi Sultanate drew northern India into the Recognised State level and
cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.[44] In south regional languages
Eighth Schedule[9]
India, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting
Eighth Schedule
composite Hindu culture.[45] In the Punjab, Sikhism Assamese · Bengali ·
emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.[46] The Boro · Dogri · Gujarati ·
Mughal Empire ushered in two centuries of economic Hindi · Kannada ·
Kashmiri · Konkani ·
expansion and relative peace,[47] leaving a rich Maithili · Malayalam ·
architectural legacy.[m][48][49] Gradually expanding Manipuri · Marathi ·
rule of the British East India Company turned India Nepali · Odia · Punjabi ·
into a colonial economy but consolidated its Sanskrit · Santali ·
Sindhi · Tamil · Telugu ·
sovereignty.[50] British Crown rule began in 1858. The Urdu
rights promised to Indians were granted slowly,[51][52] State level[e]
but technological changes were introduced, and Kokborok · Lepcha ·
modern ideas of education and the public life took Mizo · Sikkimese · all
the 8th scheduled
root.[53] A nationalist movement emerged in India, the
languages – except
first in the non-European British empire and an Sindhi, Kashmiri and
influence on other nationalist movements.[54][55] Noted Dogri[f]
for nonviolent resistance after 1920,[56] it became the Native languages 424 languages[g]
primary factor in ending British rule.[57] In 1947, the
British Indian Empire was partitioned into two Religion (2011)[11] 79.8% Hinduism
independent dominions,[58][59][60][61] a Hindu-majority 14.2% Islam
dominion of India and a Muslim-majority dominion of 2.3% Christianity
Pakistan. A large-scale loss of life and an 1.7% Sikhism
unprecedented migration accompanied the partition.[62] 0.7% Buddhism
0.4% Jainism
India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed 0.23% unaffiliated
through a democratic parliamentary system. It is a 0.65% other
pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society.
Demonym(s) Indian · others
India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to
over 1.4 billion in 2023.[63] During this time, its Government Federal parliamentary
republic
nominal per capita income increased from US$64
annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% • President Droupadi Murmu
to 74%. A comparatively destitute country in 1951,[64] • Prime Minister Narendra Modi
India has become a fast-growing major economy and Legislature Parliament
hub for information technology services; it has an • Upper house Rajya Sabha
expanding middle class.[65] Indian movies and music • Lower house Lok Sabha
increasingly influence global culture.[66] India has Independence from the United Kingdom
reduced its poverty rate, though at the cost of • Dominion 15 August 1947
increasing economic inequality.[67] It is a nuclear- • Republic 26 January 1950
weapon state that ranks high in military expenditure. It
Area
has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, • Total 3,287,263 km2
Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th (1,269,219 sq mi)[2][h]
century.[68] Among the socio-economic challenges (7th)
India faces are gender inequality, child • Water (%) 9.6
[69] and rising levels of air pollution.[70]
malnutrition,
India's land is megadiverse with four biodiversity Population
hotspots.[71] India's wildlife, which has traditionally • 2023 estimate 1,428,627,663[13]
been viewed with tolerance in its culture,[72] is (1st)
supported in protected habitats. • 2011 census 1,210,854,977[14][15]
(2nd)
• Density 429.8/km2
(1,113.2/sq mi) (30th)
Etymology
GDP (PPP) 2025 estimate
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2009), • Total $17.647 trillion[16]
the name "India" is derived from the Classical Latin (3rd)
India, a reference to South Asia and an uncertain • Per capita $12,132[16] (119th)
region to its east. In turn "India" derived successively GDP (nominal) 2025 estimate
from Hellenistic Greek India (Ἰνδία), Ancient Greek • Total $4.187 trillion[16] (4th)
Indos (Ἰνδός), Old Persian Hindush (an eastern • Per capita $2,878[16] (136th)
province of the Achaemenid Empire), and ultimately
Gini (2021) 32.8[17]
its cognate, the Sanskrit Sindhu, or 'river'—specifically medium inequality
the Indus River, and by extension its well-settled
southern basin.[73][74] The Ancient Greeks referred to HDI (2023) 0.685[18]
medium (130th)
the Indians as Indoi, 'the people of the Indus'.[75]
Currency Indian rupee (₹) (INR)
The term Bharat (Bhārat; pronounced [ˈbʱaːɾət] ⓘ ),
Time zone UTC+05:30 (IST)
mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the
Constitution of India,[76][77] is used in its variations by Date format dd-mm-yyyy[i]
many Indian languages. A modern rendering of the
Calling code +91
historical name Bharatavarsha, which applied
originally to North India,[78][79] Bharat gained ISO 3166 code IN
increased currency from the mid-19th century as a Internet TLD .in (others)
native name for India.[76][80]

Hindustan ([ɦɪndʊˈstaːn] ⓘ ) is a Middle Persian name for India that became popular by the 13th
century, [81] and was used widely since the era of the Mughal Empire. The meaning of Hindustan has
varied, referring to a region encompassing the northern Indian subcontinent (present-day northern India
and Pakistan) or to India in its near entirety.[76][80][82]

History

Ancient India
By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or Homo sapiens, had arrived on the Indian subcontinent
from Africa.[26][27][28] The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000
years ago.[26] After 6500 BCE, evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of
permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in
Balochistan, Pakistan.[84] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[85][84] the first
urban culture in South Asia,[86] which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western
India.[87] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro,
Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied
forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in
crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[86]

During the period 2000–500 BCE, many regions of the

subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the
Iron Age ones.[88] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated
with Hinduism,[89] were composed during this period,[90] and Manuscript illustration, c. 1650, of the
Sanskrit epic Ramayana, composed in
historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the
story-telling fashion c. 400 BCE –
Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[88] Most c. 300 CE[83]
historians also consider this period to have encompassed
several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent
from the north-west.[89] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free
peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this
period.[91] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a
chiefdom stage of political organisation.[88] In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by
the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[92] as well as by nearby traces of
agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[92]

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the
small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-
western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies
and monarchies that were known as the
mahajanapadas. [93][94] The emerging urbanisation gave rise
to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became
independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during
the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.[95] Buddhism, based on the
teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all Cave 26 of the rock-cut Ajanta Caves
social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life
of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded
history in India.[96][97][98] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an
ideal,[99] and both established long-lasting monastic traditions. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the
kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Maurya Empire.[100] The
empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core
regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[101][102] The Mauryan kings
are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's
renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[103][104]

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern
peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with
the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.[105][106] In North India, Hinduism asserted
patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[107][100] By the 4th
and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the
greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.[108][109] Under the Guptas,
a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.[110]
This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an
urban elite.[109] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine,
and mathematics made significant advances.[109]

Medieval India
The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, is defined by
regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.[111] When Harsha of Kannauj,
who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE,
attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler
of the Deccan.[112] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards,
he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[112] When the Chalukyas
attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas
from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the
Cholas from still farther south.[112] No ruler of this period was able to
create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core
region.[111] During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been
cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were
accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling
classes.[113] The caste system consequently began to show regional Brihadeshwara temple,
differences.[113] Thanjavur, completed in
1010 CE
In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in
the Tamil language.[114] They were imitated all over India and led to
both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern
languages of the subcontinent.[114] Indian royalty, big and small, and the
temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital
cities, which became economic hubs as well.[115] Temple towns of
various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another
urbanisation.[115] By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in
Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were
exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand,
Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and
Indonesia.[116] Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were
involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as
well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating
Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.[116] The Qutub Minar, 73 m
(240 ft) tall, completed by the
After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using
Sultan of Delhi, Iltutmish
swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and
religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading
eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[117] The sultanate was to control
much of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian
elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and
customs.[118][119] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India
from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of
fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent,
thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[120][121] The sultanate's raiding and
weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara
Empire.[122] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the
sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[123] and was to influence South Indian
society for long afterwards.[122]

Early modern India

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim
rulers,[124] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new
generation of Central Asian warriors.[125] The resulting Mughal Empire
did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced
and pacified them through new administrative practices[126][127] and
diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[128] leading to more systematic,
centralised, and uniform rule.[129] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic A distant view of the Taj
identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung Mahal from the Agra Fort
realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an
emperor who had near-divine status.[128] The Mughal state's economic
policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture[130] and mandating
that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[131] caused
peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.[129] The relative peace
maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor
in India's economic expansion,[129] resulting in greater patronage of A two mohur Company gold
painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[132] Newly coherent coin, issued in 1835, the
obverse inscribed "William
social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the
IIII, King"
Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during
Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both
recognition and military experience.[133] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new
Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[133] As the empire
disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.[134]

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly
blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had
established coastal outposts.[135][136] The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and
more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and
caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the
company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European
companies.[137][135][138][139] Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased
strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[140] India was then
no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with
raw materials. Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[135] By this time,
with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an
arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic
arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.[141]
Modern India
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between
1848 and 1885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor
General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to
a modern state. These included the consolidation and demarcation of
sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of
citizens. Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the
telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in
Europe.[142][143][144][145] However, disaffection with the company also 1909 map of the British
grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by Indian Empire
diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style
social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich
landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern
and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.[146][147]
Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution
of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the
British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited
British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes
and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[148][149] In Jawaharlal Nehru sharing a
the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, light moment with Mahatma
leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in Gandhi, Mumbai, 6 July 1946
1885.[150][151][152][153]

The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century
was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away
markets.[154] There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines,[155] and, despite the risks of
infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for
Indians.[156] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled
Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.[157] The railway network provided
critical famine relief,[158] notably reduced the cost of moving goods,[158] and helped nascent Indian-
owned industry.[157]

After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served,[159] a new period began. It was
marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and
by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would
become the leader and enduring symbol.[160] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by
the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.[161] The next decade
was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-co-
operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in
1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.[162]

Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in
place a secular and democratic republic.[163] Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the
collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how,[164] has created a large urban middle class,
transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies,[165] and increased its geopolitical
clout. Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban;[166] by religious
and caste-related violence;[167] by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[168] and by separatism in
Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.[169] It has unresolved territorial disputes with China[170] and
with Pakistan.[170] India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations;
however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population
remains a goal yet to be achieved.[171]

Geography
India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the
Indian tectonic plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[173] India's
defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the
Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began
a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and
later, south and south-east.[173] Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic
The Tungabhadra, with rocky
crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.[173]
outcrops, flows into the
These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's mantle, both
peninsular Krishna River[172]
created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust
eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.[173]
Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created
a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne
sediment[174] and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[175] The
original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the
ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a
southwesterly direction. To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern Fishing boats lashed together
spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.[176][177][178] in a tidal creek in Anjarle
village, Maharashtra
The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and
geologically most stable part of India. It extends as far north as the
Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in
Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[179] To the south, the
remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges
known as the Western and Eastern Ghats;[180] the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations,
some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between
6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude[n] and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.[181]

India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres
(3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and
Lakshadweep island chains.[182] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland
coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46%
mudflats or marshy shores.[182] Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India
include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[183] Important
tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient, caused by
long-term silt deposition, leads to severe floods and course changes.[184][185] Major peninsular rivers,
whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the
Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[186] and the Narmada and the Tapti,
which drain into the Arabian Sea.[187] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of western
India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is shared with Bangladesh.[188] India
has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[189]

Indian climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the
economically and culturally pivotal summer and winter monsoons.[190] The Himalayas prevent cold
Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than
most locations at similar latitudes.[191][192] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-
laden south-west summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's
rainfall.[190] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical
humid, and montane.[193] Temperatures in India have risen by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1901 and
2018.[194] Climate change in India is often thought to be the cause. The retreat of Himalayan glaciers has
adversely affected the flow rate of the major Himalayan rivers, including the Ganges and the
Brahmaputra.[195] According to some current projections, the number and severity of droughts in India
will have markedly increased by the end of the present century.[196]

Biodiversity
India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries that
display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively
indigenous, or endemic, to them.[198] India is the habitat for 8.6% of all
mammals, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of
amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering
plant species.[199][200] Fully a third of Indian plant species are
endemic.[201] India also contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity India has the majority of the
hotspots,[71] or regions that display significant habitat loss in the world's wild tigers,
presence of high endemism.[p][202] approximately 3,170 in
2022.[197]
India's most dense forests, such as the tropical moist forest of the
Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India, occupy
approximately 3% of its land area.[203][204] Moderately dense forest,
whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of
India's land area.[203][204] It predominates in the temperate coniferous
forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous sal forest of eastern India,
and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.[205] India
has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau,
A chital (Axis axis) stag in the
immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part
Nagarhole National Park in a
of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by region covered by a
irrigation, its features no longer visible.[206] Among the Indian moderately dense[o] forest.
subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta
indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal
medicine,[207] and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul,[208] which is displayed on the ancient seals of
Mohenjo-daro,[209] and under which the Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought
enlightenment.[210]
Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the
southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100
million years ago.[211] India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a
mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes
later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[212] Still later,
mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographic passes
flanking the Himalayas.[213] This had the effect of lowering endemism
among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% Three of the last Asiatic
cheetahs in India were shot
among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.[200] Among endemics are
dead in 1948 in Surguja
the vulnerable[214] hooded leaf monkey[215] and the threatened
district, Madhya Pradesh,
Beddome's toad[216][217] of the Western Ghats. Central India by Maharajah
Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo.
India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% The young male cheetahs, all
of endangered forms.[218] These include the endangered Bengal tiger and from the same litter, were
the Ganges river dolphin. Critically endangered species include the sitting together when they
gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white- were shot at night.
rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the
carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.[219] Before they were extensively
used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at
intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the Asiatic
cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah
is extinct.[220] The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has
critically endangered Indian wildlife. In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first
established in 1935, was expanded substantially. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[221]
and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and
amendments added in 1988.[222] India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and
eighteen biosphere reserves,[223] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; its
eighty-nine wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[224]

Politics and government

Politics
India is a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system.[226] It has
six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress
(INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and over 50 regional
parties.[227] Congress is considered the ideological centre in Indian
political culture,[228] whereas the BJP is right-wing.[229][230][231] From
1950 to the late 1980s, Congress held a majority in the India's
parliament. Afterwards, it increasingly shared power with the BJP,[232] As part of Janadesh 2007,
as well as with powerful regional parties, which forced multi-party 25,000 pro–land reform
landless people in Madhya
coalition governments at the centre.[233]
Pradesh listen to Rajagopal
P. V.[225]
In the Republic of India's general elections in 1951, 1957, and 1962,
Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, won easy victories. On Nehru's
death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he
was succeeded in 1966, by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who led the
Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public
discontent with the state of emergency Indira Gandhi had declared in
1975, Congress was voted out of power in 1977; Janata Party, which had US president Barack Obama
opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government lasted two years; addresses the members of
Morarji Desai and Charan Singh served as prime ministers. After the Parliament of India in
Congress was returned to power in 1980, Indira Gandhi was assassinated New Delhi in November
and succeeded by Rajiv Gandhi, who won easily in the elections later 2010.

that year. In the 1989 elections a National Front coalition, led by the
Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won, lasting just under two
years, and V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar serving as prime ministers.[234] In the 1991 Indian general
election, Congress, as the largest single party, formed a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha
Rao.[235]

After the 1996 Indian general election, the BJP formed a government briefly; it was followed by United
Front coalitions, which depended on external political support. Two prime ministers served during this
period: H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral. In 1998, the BJP formed a coalition—the National Democratic
Alliance (NDA). Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition
government to complete a five-year term.[236] In the 2004 Indian general elections, no party won an
absolute majority. Still, the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful
coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA). It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who
opposed the BJP. The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it
no longer required external support from India's communist parties.[237] Manmohan Singh became the
first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year
term.[238] In the 2014 general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win an
absolute majority.[239] In the 2019 general election, the BJP regained an absolute majority. In the 2024
general election, a BJP-led NDA coalition formed the government. Narendra Modi, a former chief
minister of Gujarat, is serving as the prime minister of India in his third term since May 26, 2014.[240]

Government
India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India. Federalism in
India defines the power distribution between the union and the states. India's form of government,
traditionally described as "quasi-federal" with a strong centre and weak states,[242] has grown
increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.[243][244]

The Government of India comprises three branches: the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary.[245] The
President of India is the ceremonial head of state,[246] who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an
electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures.[247][248] The Prime Minister of
India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[249] Appointed by the president,[250]
the prime minister is supported by the party or political alliance with a majority of seats in the lower
house of parliament.[249] The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-
president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed
by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of
parliament.[246] In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is
subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council
are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament. Civil
servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the
executive are implemented by them.[251]

The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. Operating

under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, it comprises an Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official
upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower residence of the President of
house called the Lok Sabha (House of the People). [252] The Rajya India, was designed by British
Sabha is a permanent body of 245 members who serve staggered architects Edwin Lutyens and
six-year terms with elections every 2 years. [253] Most are elected Herbert Baker for the Viceroy of
India, and constructed between
indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers
1911 and 1931 during the British
proportional to their state's share of the national population.[250]
Raj.[241]
The Lok Sabha's 543 members are elected directly by popular vote
among citizens aged at least 18;[254] they represent single-member
constituencies for five-year terms.[255] Several seats from each state are reserved for candidates from
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population within that state.[254]

India has a three-tier unitary independent judiciary[256] comprising the supreme court, headed by the
Chief Justice of India, 25 high courts, and a large number of trial courts.[256] The supreme court has
original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the
centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.[257] It has the power to both strike down union
or state laws which contravene the constitution[258] and invalidate any government action it deems
unconstitutional.[259]

Administrative divisions
India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union
territories.[12] All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and
Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi,
have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster
system. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the
central government through appointed administrators. In 1956, under
the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic
basis.[260] There are over a quarter of a million local government
bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.[261]

States
A clickable map of the 28 states
1. Andhra Pradesh
and 8 union territories of India
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
 8. Haryana 19. Odisha
9. Himachal Pradesh 20. Punjab
10. Jharkhand 21. Rajasthan
11. Karnataka 22. Sikkim
12. Kerala 23. Tamil Nadu
13. Madhya Pradesh 24. Telangana
14. Maharashtra 25. Tripura
15. Manipur 26. Uttar Pradesh
16. Meghalaya 27. Uttarakhand
17. Mizoram 28. West Bengal
18. Nagaland

Union territories
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands E. Ladakh
B. Chandigarh F. Lakshadweep
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and G. National Capital Territory of Delhi
Diu H. Puducherry
D. Jammu and Kashmir

Foreign, economic, and strategic relations

India became a republic in 1950, remaining a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations.[263][264] India strongly supported
decolonisation in Africa and Asia in the 1950s; it played a leading role in
the Non-Aligned Movement.[265] After cordial relations initially, India
went to war with China in 1962. It was widely thought to have been
humiliated.[266] Another military conflict followed in 1967 in which
India successfully repelled a Chinese attack.[267] India has had uneasy During the 1950s and 60s,
relations with its western neighbour, Pakistan. The two countries went to India played a pivotal role in
the Non-Aligned
war in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought
Movement.[262] From left to
over the disputed territory of Kashmir. In contrast, the 1971 war
right: Gamal Abdel Nasser of
followed India's support for the independence of Bangladesh.[268] After United Arab Republic (now
the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and Egypt), Josip Broz Tito of
economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union Yugoslavia and Jawaharlal
was its largest arms supplier.[269] India has played a key role in the Nehru in Belgrade,
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade September 1961.
Organisation. The nation has supplied 100,000 military and police
personnel in 35 UN peacekeeping operations.

China's nuclear test of 1964 and threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war caused India
to produce nuclear weapons.[271] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out
additional underground testing in 1998. India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban
Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[272]
India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its
"Minimum Credible Deterrence" doctrine.[273][274]
Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic,
strategic, and military cooperation with the United States and the
European Union.[275] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed
between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear
weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency
The Indian Air Force
and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's
contingent marching at the
nuclear technology and commerce; India subsequently signed co- 221st Bastille Day military
operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[276] parade in Paris, on 14 July
France,[277] the United Kingdom,[278] and Canada.[279] 2009. The parade at which
India was the foreign guest
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed was led by India's oldest
forces; with 1.45 million active troops, they compose the world's second- regiment, the Maratha Light
largest military. It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Infantry, founded in 1768.[270]
Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.[280] The official Indian
defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.[281]
Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than
previous fiscal year.[282][283] India is the world's second-largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it
accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports.[284] Much of the military expenditure was focused
on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.[285]

Economy
According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2024 was nominally worth
$3.94 trillion; it was the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates and is, at around $15.0 trillion,
the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).[16] With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8%
over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012,[289] India is one of the world's fastest-
growing economies.[290] However, due to its low GDP per capita—which ranks 136th in the world in
nominal per capita income and 125th in per capita income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP)—
the vast majority of Indians fall into the low-income group.[291][292] Until 1991, all Indian governments
followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention
and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world. An acute balance of payments
crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy;[293] since then, it has moved increasingly
towards a free-market system[294][295] by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment
inflows.[296] India has been a member of World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995.[297]

The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second largest, as of 2017.[280] The service
sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%. India's
foreign exchange remittances of US$100 billion in 2022,[298] highest in the world, were contributed to its
economy by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.[299] In 2006, the share of external trade in
India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.[294] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.7%;[300]
In 2021, India was the world's ninth-largest importer and the sixteenth-largest exporter.[301] Between
2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14%
to 42%.[302] India was the world's second-largest textile exporter after China in the 2013 calendar
year.[303]
Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years
before 2007,[294] India has more than doubled its hourly wage
rates during the first decade of the 21st century.[304] Some 431
million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle
classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.[305]
In 2023, India's consumer market was the world's fifth
largest.[306] India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily
from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to
In 2019, 43% of India's total
US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$2,731 in 2024. It is workforce was employed in
expected to grow to US$3,264 by 2026.[16] agriculture.[286]

Industries
The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest
growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–
2010,[307] and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.[308] In 2022,
India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China
and the United States, surpassing Japan.[309] At the end of 2011,
India is the world's largest producer
the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, of milk, with the largest population of
generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of cattle. In 2018, nearly 80% of India's
Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise milk was sourced from small farms
exports.[310] with herd size between one and two,
the milk harvested by hand
The pharmaceutical industry in India includes 3,000 milking.[288]
pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units; India
is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest
producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50–60% of global
vaccines demand, these all contribute up to US$24.44 billions in
exports and India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to
US$42 billion.[311][312] India is among the top 12 biotech
destinations in the world.[313][314] The Indian biotech industry 55% of India's female workforce was
grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from employed in agriculture in 2019.[287]
₹204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to ₹235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion
at June 2013 exchange rates).[315]

Energy
India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of
which 42 gigawatts is renewable.[316] The country's usage of coal is
a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its
renewable energy is competing strongly.[317] India emits about 7% A tea garden in Sikkim. India, the
of global greenhouse gas emissions. This equates to about 2.5 tons world's second-largest producer of
of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world tea, is a nation of one billion tea
average.[318][319] Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking drinkers, who consume 70% of
India's tea output.
with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for energy in
India.[320]
Socio-economic challenges
Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to
face socio-economic challenges. In 2006, India contained the
largest number of people living below the World Bank's
international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.[322] The proportion
decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[323] Under the World
Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.[q][325] 30.7%
of India's children under the age of five are underweight.[326]
According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015,
Health workers about to begin
15% of the population is undernourished.[327][328] The Midday
another day of immunisation
Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.[329] against infectious diseases in
2006. Eight years later, and three
A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8 million years after India's last case of
people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, polio, the World Health
such as bonded labour, child labour, human trafficking, and forced Organization declared India to be
begging.[330] According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1 million polio-free.[321]
child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6 million from
12.6 million in 2001.[331]

Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state
domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[332] Corruption in India is
perceived to have decreased. According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of 180
countries in 2018, an improvement from 85th in 2014.[333][334]

Demographics, languages, and religion

With an estimated 1,428,627,663 residents in 2023, India is the
world's most populous country.[13] 1,210,193,422 residents were
reported in the 2011 provisional census report.[335] Its population
grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011,[336] compared to 21.54%
growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).[336] The human sex
ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000
males.[335] The median age was 28.7 in 2020.[280] The first post-
colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million A Sikh pilgrim at the Harmandir
people.[337] Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as Sahib, or Golden Temple, in
increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "Green Amritsar, Punjab

Revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.[338]

The life expectancy in India is at 70 years—71.5 years for women, 68.7 years for men.[280] There are
around 93 physicians per 100,000 people.[339] Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important
dynamic in India's recent history. The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between
1991 and 2001.[340] Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.[341][342] The level of urbanisation
increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census. The slowing down of
the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since
1991.[343] According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India; among
them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by
population.[344] The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46%
among females and 82.14% among males.[345] The rural-urban
literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to
16.1 percentage points in 2011. The improvement in the rural
literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.[343] Kerala is the most
literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with
63.82%.[345]
The interior of San Thome
Among speakers of the Indian languages, 74% speak Indo-Aryan Basilica, Chennai, Tamil Nadu.
languages, the easternmost branch of the Indo-European languages; Christianity is believed to have
24% speak Dravidian languages, indigenous to South Asia and been introduced to India by the
spoken widely before the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and 2% late 2nd century by Syriac-
speak Austroasiatic languages or the Sino-Tibetan languages. India speaking Christians.

has no national language.[346] Hindi, with the largest number of

speakers, is the official language of the government.[347][348]
English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a "subsidiary official
language";[6] it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and
union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22
"scheduled languages".

The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism
(79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%),
Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others[r] (0.9%).[11] India has the third-largest
Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country.[349][350]

Culture

Visual art
India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia,
especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and
Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[351] Thousands of seals from the Indus
Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few
with human figures. The "Pashupati" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best
known.[352][353] After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.[353][354] Almost all
surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or
coins. There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost. In north India Mauryan art is the
first imperial movement.[355][356][357] In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian
religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.[358] Over the
following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in
articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms
expressing prana ("breath" or life-force).[359][360] This is often complicated by the need to give figures
multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the
Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.[361][362]
Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi,
Sarnath and Amaravati,[363] or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora. Hindu and Jain
sites appear rather later.[364][365] In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the
prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors
probably usually served all communities.[366] Gupta art, at its peak c. 300 CE – c. 500 CE, is often
regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance
of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.[367][368] Across the north, this became rather stiff and
formulaic after c. 800 CE, though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.[369] But in the
South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period
of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of
India.[370][371]

Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta
Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly
accomplishment in Gupta times.[372][373] Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern
India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain. No doubt the
style of these was used in larger paintings.[374] The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before
the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on
portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.[375][376] The style spread to Hindu courts,
especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most
innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.[377][378] As a market developed among
European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western
influence.[379][380] In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper,
were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges
founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.[381][382]
 Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist Gupta terracotta relief,
reliefs from Mathura, 2nd Krishna Killing the
century CE Horse Demon Keshi,
5th century

Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Chola bronze of Shiva as Jahangir Receives

Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550 Nataraja ("Lord of Prince Khurram at
Dance"), Tamil Nadu, Ajmer on His Return
10th or 11th century from the Mewar
Campaign,
Balchand, c. 1635

Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids,

Kangra painting, 1775–1785
Society
The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification
and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian
subcontinent. Social classes are defined by thousands of
endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis, or
"castes".[383] India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the
adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-
discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.
Muslims offer namaz at a mosque
Multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.
India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban
areas.[384] An overwhelming majority of Indians have their
marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.[385] Marriage is thought to be for life,[385] and
the divorce rate is extremely low,[386] with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.[387]
Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is
their legal marriageable age.[388] Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created
skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to
63 million in the 50 years ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period.[389]
According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive
adequate care.[390] Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains
commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.[391] The payment of
dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.[392] Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly
from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.[393]

Education
In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81%
for men and 65% for women. This compares to 1981 when the
respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%. In 1951 the rates were 18%,
27% and 9%. In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%. In 1891 they were 5%,
9% and 1%,[394][395] According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were
under three primary schools for every ten villages. Statistically, more
caste and religious diversity reduced private spending. Primary schools
taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.[396] Children awaiting school
lunch in Rayka (also Raika),
a village in rural Gujarat. The
The education system of India is the world's second-largest.[397] India
salutation Jai Bhim written on
has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges[398] and 1.5 million
the blackboard honours the
schools.[399] In India's higher education system, a significant number of jurist, social reformer, and
seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.
disadvantaged. In recent decades India's improved education system is
often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic
development.[400][401]
Clothing
From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn
traditional dress in India was draped.[402] For women it took the form of
a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long.[402] The sari was
traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.[402] In its
modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and
tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening. It is also commonly
worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-
Women in sari at an adult
body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—covering the
literacy class in Tamil Nadu
midriff and obscuring the upper body's contours.[402] For men, a similar
but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body
garment.[403]

The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was
established at first by the Delhi sultanate (c. 1300 CE) and then
continued by the Mughal Empire (c. 1525 CE).[404] Among the garments
introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars
and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and
kameez.[404] In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to
see much longer continuous use.[404]

Salwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom.
They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated Women (from left to right) in
around the waist.[405] The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be churidars and kameez (with
cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars. back to the camera), jeans
When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are and sweater, and pink
hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas. The kameez is a long shalwar kameez
shirt or tunic, [406] its side seams left open below the waistline. [407] The
kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn
plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just above or just below
the wearer's knees.[408]

In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India. Increasingly, in urban northern India, the
sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.[409] The
traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.[409]
In office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.[409] For
weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short
Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.[409] The
dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven
khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,[410] is seldom seen in the cities.[409]

Cuisine
The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked plainly and complemented with flavourful
savoury dishes.[411] The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread;[412] the
idli, a steamed breakfast cake; or dosa, a griddled pancake.[413] The savoury dishes might include lentils,
pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also with a combination of spices that
may include coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and
others.[411] They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes. In
some instances, the ingredients may be mixed during the cooking
process.[414]

A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for
the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful South Indian vegetarian thali,
accompaniments. The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten or platter
simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner. This is accomplished by
mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping
or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables.[411]

India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the

geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.[416] The appearance
of ahimsa, or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many
religious orders early in Indian history, especially Upanishadic
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have contributed to the
predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu
population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the Hindi-speaking belt
of north-central India, as well as among Jains.[416] Although meat is
eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the
overall diet is low.[417] Unlike China, which has increased its per capita
meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic
growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy,
rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein
consumption.[418]

The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the
A tandoor chef in the
last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire. Dishes such as the
Turkman Gate, Old Delhi,
pilaf,[419] developed in the Abbasid caliphate,[420] and cooking
makes Khameeri roti (a
techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern Muslim-influenced style of
India from regions to its northwest.[421] To the simple yogurt marinade leavened bread).[415]
of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in
India.[421] Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the
sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to
produce what has today become biryani,[421] a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.[422] In the
food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by
the dominance of Punjabi cuisine. The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked in the tandoor oven,
which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially
among Muslims, but which is originally from Central Asia—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large
part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947
partition.[416]
Sports and recreation
Several traditional sports—such as kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani,
gilli-danda, hopscotch and martial arts such as Kalarippayattu and
marma adi—remain popular. Chess is commonly held to have
originated in India as chaturaṅga;[424] in recent years, there has
been a rise in the number of Indian grandmasters,[425] and world
champions.[426] Parcheesi is derived from Pachisi, another
traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played
on a giant marble court by Mughal emperor Akbar the Great.[427] Girls play hopscotch in Jaora,
Madhya Pradesh. Hopscotch has
Cricket is the most popular sport in India.[428] India has won two been commonly played by girls in
Cricket World Cups, the 1983 edition and the 2011 edition. India rural India.[423]

has won eight field hockey gold medals in the summer

Olympics.[429]

See also
Administrative divisions of India
Outline of India

Notes
a. Originally written in Sanskritised Bengali and adopted as the national anthem in its Hindi
translation
b. "[...] Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the
words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram,
which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured
equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it."[5]
c. Written in a mixture of Sanskrit and Sanskritised Bengali
d. According to Part XVII of the Constitution of India, Hindi in the Devanagari script is the
official language of the Union, along with English as an additional official language.[1][6][7]
States and union territories can have a different official language of their own other than
Hindi or English.
e. Not all the state-level official languages are in the eighth schedule and not all the scheduled
languages are state-level official languages. For example, the Sindhi language is an 8th
scheduled but not a state-level official language.
f. Kashmiri and Dogri language are the official languages of Jammu and Kashmir which is
currently a union territory and no longer the former state.

g. According to Ethnologue, there are 424 living indigenous languages in India, in contrast
to 11 extinct indigenous languages. In addition, there are 30 living non-indigenous
languages.[10]
Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms
"language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped.
h. "The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The
Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi) and the total land
area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United Nations lists the total area as
3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land area as 2,973,190 km2
(1,147,960 sq mi)."[12]
i. See Date and time notation in India.
j. ISO: Bhārat Gaṇarājya
k. The Government of India also regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it considers all
of Kashmir to be part of India.[25] However, this is disputed, and the region bordering
Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan.
l. "A Chinese pilgrim also recorded evidence of the caste system as he could observe it.
According to this evidence the treatment meted out to untouchables such as the Chandalas
was very similar to that which they experienced in later periods. This would contradict
assertions that this rigid form of the caste system emerged in India only as a reaction to the
Islamic conquest."[40]
m. "Shah Jahan eventually sent her body 800 km (500 mi) to Agra for burial in the Rauza-i
Munauwara ("Illuminated Tomb") – a personal tribute and a stone manifestation of his
imperial power. This tomb has been celebrated globally as the Taj Mahal. ... (p 14) After this
tomb’s construction, Shah Jahan ordered the skilled builders and workmen to migrate to
Delhi in 1639, where he commissioned his imperial city, Shahjahanabad. This new fortress
overlooked the Jumna River, designed for defense and to enclose the imperial palace
complex. Perfumed water canals extended throughout, cascading over illuminated falls. The
separate structures for dwelling, administration and pleasure were mostly constructed with
interior and exterior walls of white marble (or stucco burnished to appear marble), often with
highly ornate, semiprecious stone inlays"[48]
n. The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and
Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely
state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Gilgit-Baltistan administered by Pakistan, to be
its territory. It therefore assigns the latitude 37° 6′ to its northernmost point.
o. A forest cover is moderately dense if between 40% and 70% of its area is covered by its tree
canopy.
p. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographical region which has more than 1,500 vascular plant
species, but less than 30% of its primary habitat.[202]
q. In 2015, the World Bank raised its international poverty line to $1.90 per day.[324]
r. Besides specific religions, the last two categories in the 2011 Census were "Other religions
and persuasions" (0.65%) and "Religion not stated" (0.23%).

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g=PA76), Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 "Official name:
Republic of India.";
John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government ([Link]
s?id=M0YfDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA421), London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-
1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)";
Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to
Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries ([Link]
wAAQBAJ&pg=PA302), Taylor & Francis, p. 302, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 "Official
name: Republic of India; Bharat.";
Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=zzjbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA108), Routledge, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-317-
40511-5 "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya";
Penguin Compact Atlas of the World ([Link]
C&pg=PA140), Penguin, 2012, p. 140, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 "Official name:
Republic of India";
Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary ([Link]
PIJerIC&pg=PA515) (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-
87779-546-9 "Officially, Republic of India";
Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth ([Link]
books?id=O5moCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54-IA10) (3rd ed.), DK Publishing, 2016, p. 54,
ISBN 978-1-4654-5528-4 "Official name: Republic of India";
Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013 ([Link]
[Link]/books?id=CQWhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA726), CQ Press, 2013, p. 726,
ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2
21. James, K. S.; Sekher, T. V. (2024), "India's Population Change: Critical Issues and
Prospects." ([Link] in James, K. S.; Sekher, T. V.
(eds.), India Population Report (1st ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–18,
ISBN 9781009318860
22. Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327, "Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard
to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India's achievements
since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the
world's new nations.". sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2012 (help)
23. Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the
World Series (2nd ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, "One of these is the idea of India as 'the world's
largest democracy', but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative
institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India's
founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent
Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This
democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for
the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally
democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent
durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty."
24. Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: "Since 1947, India's internal disputes over its national identity,
while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely
managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy."
25. "Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)" ([Link]
b/20150317182910/[Link] (PDF),
archived from the original ([Link]
(PDF) on 17 March 2015, retrieved 1 September 2008
26. Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10 ([Link]
10), "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern
humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations
average to between 73 and 55 ka."
27. Dyson 2018, p. 1 ([Link] "Modern
human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between
60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the
Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is
virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even
though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years
before the present."
28. Fisher 2018, p. 23 ([Link]
"Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond
Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as
late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations.
Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation,
spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the
warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean.
Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago."
29. Dyson 2018, p. 28 ([Link]
30. (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 4–5 ([Link]
(b) Fisher 2018, p. 33 ([Link]
31. Lowe 2015, pp. 1–2, "It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions
originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with
the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were
composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the
Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the
Punjab into north India."
32. (a) Witzel 2003, pp. 68–70, "It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were
orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more
eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The
oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of
northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); [...] The Vedic texts were orally composed and
transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to
student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission
superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of
ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent
(as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. [...] The RV text was
composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000
BCE.";
(b) Doniger 2014, pp. xviii, 10, "A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda;
ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda [...] Hindu texts began with
the Rig Veda ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the
first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of
ancient India.";
(c) Ludden 2014, p. 19 ([Link]
"In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab')
draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of
its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and
evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the
Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves
sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their
ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in
hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong
to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable,
but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama,
Yajur, and Artharva).";
(d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15 ([Link]
4), "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been
due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a
few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the
subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor
of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the
north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one
then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European
language family. [...] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the
gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics.
However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on
the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process
whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who
eventually seem to have referred to themselves as 'Arya'—was certainly two-way. That is, it
involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably
including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would
be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the
Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are
poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge
impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early
presence.";
(e) Robb 2011, pp. 46– ([Link]
"The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not
be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant
either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It
 comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or
Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas."
33. (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda ([Link]
s?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ), Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, "The
RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and
the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very
different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there.
Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are
already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those
they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism,
though in diminished capacity (p. 4).";
(b) Flood, Gavin (2020), "Introduction" ([Link]
J&pg=PA4), in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu
Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, "I take the term
'Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number
of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to
endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an
offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism
(although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are
regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).";
(c) Michaels, Axel (2017), Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.), The Oxford History of
Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra ([Link]
QAJCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 86–97, ISBN 978-0-19-
100709-5, "Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras
(initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are
combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary
from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core
elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly
tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)"
(d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism ([Link]
=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA35), Cambridge University Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-
0, "It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and
which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and
individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as
Hinduism."
34. Dyson 2018, pp. 16 ([Link] 25 (h
ttps://[Link]/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25)
35. Dyson 2018, p. 16 ([Link]
36. Fisher 2018, p. 59 ([Link]
37. (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17 ([Link]
6);
(b) Fisher 2018, p. 67 ([Link]
(c) Robb 2011, pp. 56–57 ([Link]
6);
(d) Ludden 2014, pp. 29–30 ([Link]
29).
38. (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29 ([Link]
28);
(b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), "Arithmetic" ([Link]
AAQBAJ&pg=PA46), in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval
Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-
135-45932-1
39. (a) Dyson 2018, p. 20 ([Link]
(b) Stein 2010, p. 90 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFStein2010 (help);
(c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), "Women in South Asia" ([Link]
id=CNi9Jc22OHsC&pg=PA27), in Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.), Women
in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-
21267-7
40. Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93.
41. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 17 ([Link]
42. (a) Ludden 2014, p. 54 ([Link]
(b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 78–79 ([Link]
=PA78);
(c) Fisher 2018, p. 76 ([Link]
43. (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 68–70 ([Link]
68);
(b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 19 ([Link]
19), 24
44. (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48 ([Link]
(b) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 52 ([Link]
3)
45. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 74 ([Link]
46. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 267 ([Link]
7)
47. Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 152 ([Link]
2)
48. Fisher 2018, p. 106 ([Link]
49. Asher, Catherine B. (1992), Architecture of Mughal India, New Cambridge History of India
series, Cambridge University Press, p. 250, ISBN 0521267285, "Just as the symbolic
content of Mughal architecture peaks under Shah Jahan, so, too, the style favored by this
ruler introduces a new classicism in form and medium. Favored is white marble or burnished
stucco surfaces that emulate marble. While marble had been used sparingly by Akbar and
Jahangir, it dominates Shah Jahan's palace pavilions, mosques, and the most important
tomb he constructed, the Taj Mahal. The marble on secular structures, most notably palace
pavilions, often is elaborately inlaid with multi-colored precious stones and at times ornately
carved. By contrast, the marble surface of religious buildings, especially mosques, remains
considerably more austere, suggesting a division between secular and sacred arts not seen
previously. Even enormous public structures, such as his Jami mosque of Shahjahanabad,
while faced primarily with red sandstone, were profusely inlaid with white marble."
50. (a) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 289 ([Link]
289)
(b) Fisher 2018, p. 120 ([Link]
51. Taylor, Miles (2016), "The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to
Prince George" ([Link] in
Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and
Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7
52. Peers 2013, p. 76 ([Link]
53. Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), "Nationalism
Takes Root: The Moderates" ([Link]
5), Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press,
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Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and
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External links
Government

Official website of the Government of India ([Link]

Government of India Web Directory ([Link]
General information

India ([Link] The World Factbook. Central

Intelligence Agency.
India ([Link] web
resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
India ([Link] from BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of India
Geographic data related to India ([Link] at
OpenStreetMap
Key Development Forecasts for India ([Link]
ountry=IN) from International Futures

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