Module-5

Design Aspects of Subsystems:

Flight Control system, Landing Gear and subsystem, Propulsion and Fuel System
Integration, Air Pressurization and Air Conditioning System, Electrical & Avionic
Systems, Structural loads, Safety constraints, Material selection criteria.

1.0 Flight Control System

Flight control systems- Fly-By-Wire
Fly-by-wire is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an
aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are converted
to electronic signals transmitted by wires (hence the fly-by-wire term), and flight
control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control surface to
provide the adequate response. The fly-by-wire system also allows automatic signals
sent by the aircraft’s computers to perform functions without the pilot’s input, as in
systems that automatically help stabilize the aircraft.

Mechanical and hydro-mechanical flight control systems

Mechanical and hydro-mechanical flight control systems are relatively heavy and
require careful routing of flight control cables through the aircraft by systems of
pulleys, cranks, tension cables, and hydraulic pipes.

Both systems often require redundant backups to deal with failures, which again
increases weight. Also, both have limited ability to compensate for changing
aerodynamic conditions. The term fly-by-wire implies a purely electrically-signaled
control system. However, it is used in the general sense of computer- configured
controls, where a computer system is interposed between the operator and the final
control actuators or surfaces. This modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in
accordance with control parameters.

Operation: When a pilot moves the control column (also referred to as sidestick or
joystick), a signal is sent to a computer through multiple wires or channels. The
computer receives the signals, which are then sent to the control surface actuator,
resulting in surface motion. Potentiometers in the actuator send a signal back to the
computer reporting the position of the actuator. When the actuator reaches the
desired position, the two signals (incoming and outgoing) cancel each other out and
the actuator stops moving.

Automatic Stability Systems:

Fly-by-wire control systems allow aircraft computers to perform tasks without pilot
input. Automatic stability systems operate in this way. Gyroscopes fitted with sensors
are mounted in an aircraft to sense movement changes in the pitch, roll, and yaw
axes. Any movement results in signals to the computer, which automatically moves
control actuators to stabilize the aircraft to nominal conditions.

Digital Fly-By-Wire:
A digital fly-by-wire flight control system is similar to its analog counterpart. However,
the signal processing is done by digital computers and the pilot literally can "fly-via-
computer". This also increases the flexibility of the flight control system, since the
digital computers can receive input from any aircraft sensor, e.g., altimeters and pitot
tube. This also increases the electronic stability, because the system is less
dependent on the values of critical electrical components in an analog controller. The
computers sense position and force inputs from pilot controls and aircraft sensors.
They solve differential equations to determine the appropriate command signals that
move the flight controls to execute the intentions of the pilot. The Airbus Industries
Airbus A320 became the first airliner to fly with an all-digital fly-by-wire control
system.

Main advantages:
Summing up, the main advantages of fly-by-wire systems are:
 Decrease in weight, which results in fuel savings
 Reduction in maintenance time (instead of adjusting the system, pieces are
simply changed by new ones, so that maintenance is made more agile)
 Better response to air gusts, which results in more comfort for passengers
 Automatic control of maneuvers (the systems avoid the pilot executing
maneuvers with exceed of force in the controls).
2.0 Landing Gear And Subsystem

2.1 Introduction
0f all of the many internal components that must be defined in an aircraft
configuration design layout, the landing gear will usually cause the most trouble.
The tires and shock strut must be just the right size, and if the plane gets heavier
than planned, they must get larger. The wheels must be properly located in the
down position for takeoff and landing, or the airplane might crash. If retractable,
the landing gear must somehow fold into the aircraft without chopping up the
structure, obliterating(destroy utterly; wipe out:) the fuel tanks, or bulging out into the
slipstream. The landing-gear design, as specified by Fig. 11.1
2.2 Landing-Gear Arrangements
The common options for landing-gear arrangement are shown in Fig. 11.2. The
single main gear is used for many sailplanes because of its simplicity. The wheel
can be forward of the center of gravity (c.g.), as shown here, or can be aft of the
c.g. with a skid under the cockpit.
 Bicycle" gear has two main wheels, fore and aft of the c.g., with small "outrigger"
wheels on the wings to prevent the aircraft from tipping sideways. The bicycle
landing gear has the aft wheel so far behind the c.g. that the aircraft must take off
and land in a flat attitude, which limits this type of gear to aircraft with high lift at
low angles of attack (i.e., high-aspect-ratio wings with large camber and/or flaps).
Bicycle gear has been used mainly on aircraft with narrow fuselage and wide
wing span such as the B-47.

The "taildragger" landing gear has two main wheels forward of the c.g. and an
auxiliary wheel at the tail. Taildragger gear is also called "conventional" landing gear
because it was the most widely used arrangement during the first 40 years of
aviation, but today it is uncommon except on sport airplanes. Taildragger gear
provides more propeller clearance, has less drag and weight, and allows the wing to
generate more lift for rough-field operation than does tricycle gear. However,
taildragger landing gears inherently unstable. If the aircraft starts to turn, the location
of the c.g. behind the main gear causes the turn to get tighter until a "ground loop" is
encountered, and the aircraft either drags a wing tip, collapses the landing gear, or
runs off the side of the runway. To prevent this, the pilot of a taildragger aircraft must
align the aircraft almost perfectly with the runway at touchdown and "dance" on the
rudder pedals until the aircraft stops.

The most commonly used arrangement today is the "tricycle" gear, with two main
wheels aft of the c.g. and an auxiliary wheel forward of the c.g. With a tricycle
landing gear, the c.g. is ahead of the main wheels so that the aircraft is stable on the
ground and can be landed at a fairly large "crab" angle (i.e., nose not aligned with
the runway). Also, tricycle landing gear improves forward visibility on the ground and
permits a flat cabin floor for passenger and cargo loading.

Quadricycle gear is much like bicycle gear but with wheels at the sides of
the fuselage. Quadricycle gear also requires a flat takeoff and landing attitude.
It is used on the B-52 and several cargo planes where it has the advantage of
permitting a cargo floor very low to the ground.
Landing gear and its subsystems are crucial components of an aircraft, providing the
necessary support during takeoff, landing, and taxiing. Here's an overview of the
landing gear and its main subsystems:
1. Main Landing Gear (MLG):
 Purpose: Provides the primary support for the aircraft's weight during landing
and taxiing.
 Components:
o Struts: Hydraulic or pneumatic shock-absorbing elements.
o Wheels: Provide a rolling surface for the aircraft to move on the
ground.
o Brakes: Systems to decelerate the aircraft during landing or when
taxiing.
o Tires: They absorb loads and provide friction on the runway.
2. Nose Landing Gear (NLG):
 Purpose: Supports the front of the aircraft and allows for steering on the
ground.
 Components:
o Struts: Like the MLG but smaller and lighter.
o Wheel/Tire: Smaller in diameter than the MLG wheels.
o Steering Mechanism: Allows the pilot or ground crew to control the
direction of the aircraft on the ground.
3. Shock Absorber:
 Purpose: To absorb the impact and forces during landing.
 Components:
o Hydraulic or Pneumatic System: These systems are typically used in
modern landing gear to dampen the shock load.
o Damper: Helps control the extension and retraction speed of the
landing gear.
4. Retracting Mechanism:
 Purpose: To stow the landing gear into the fuselage during flight to reduce
drag.
 Components:
o Actuators: Hydraulic or electric systems used to retract and extend the
gear.
o Linkages: Mechanical components that connect and allow the
movement of the landing gear.
5. Braking System:
 Purpose: To slow down or stop the aircraft after landing or during taxiing.
 Components:
o Disc Brakes: Common in modern aircraft; used to generate friction
and slow down the wheels.
o Anti-skid System: Prevents the wheels from locking up, which can
cause loss of control.
 o Brake Pedals: Controlled by the pilot to apply braking force to the
aircraft.
6. Steering System:
 Purpose: Allows for controlled movement of the aircraft on the ground.
 Components:
o Nose Wheel Steering: Controlled by the pilot through the rudder
pedals or a dedicated steering tiller.
o Differential Braking: Uses the brakes to steer the aircraft, particularly
when the nose gear does not provide enough steering.
7. Warning and Indication System:
 Purpose: Alerts the pilot to the status of the landing gear.
 Components:
o Landing Gear Indicators: Show the status of the gear (up, down, or in
transit).
o Warning Lights: Indicate issues such as the gear not being fully
extended, or any malfunction in the system.
8. Auxiliary Power and Control Systems:
 Purpose: Support the landing gear's function, particularly in emergencies.
 Components:
o Hydraulic Power Unit: Provides power for landing gear retraction and
extension.
o Emergency Extension System: Often powered by gravity or a
separate hydraulic system in case the primary system fails.
9. Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) / Anti-skid System:
 Purpose: Prevents wheel lock-up during braking, which could cause a loss of
control, especially in adverse weather.
 Components:
o Sensors: Monitor wheel speed to detect if a wheel is locking up.
o Control Unit: Adjusts brake pressure to ensure the wheels don't lock
up.
10. Fuselage and Structural Integration:
 Purpose: Supports and houses the landing gear in the aircraft.
 Components:
o Mounting Points: Where the landing gear attaches to the aircraft
structure.
o Doors: Close around the landing gear to streamline the aircraft during
flight.
Landing gear systems must be robust and reliable, as they endure heavy loads and
significant stress during operations. Their design and technology continue to evolve
to ensure greater efficiency, safety, and performance.
3.0 Propulsion and Fuel System Integration

3.1 Propulsion
3.1.1 Introduction
Gliders are fun, but they aren't very useful. Practical airplanes need thrust, and
providing that thrust has a large effect on the aircraft conceptual design layout.
Whatever the type, the engine will be one of the largest single items in weight and
size. Along with its associated hardware, the integration of the engine will drive the
configuration arrangement more than almost anything else.

To develop the propulsion system layout, the dimensions and installation

requirements of the engine must be known. The geometry of its supporting
equipment (inlet ducts, nozzles, propellers) must be obtained or calculated.
Decisions must be made as to the location and arrangement of the engine
and its inlet duct or propeller. The fuel system must be defined, especially
the fuel tanks that carry such a large fraction of the total aircraft weight.

3.1.2 Propulsion Overview and Selection

Most forms of aircraft propulsion work by taking an oncoming massflow of air and
accelerating it to the rear. The actual thrust comes from momentum transfer-air
backwards, airplane forwards. The various forms of propulsion differ in how they
make this happen. Propellers use blades that act like little rotating wings, with
downwash pushing the air to the rear. The power to spin the propeller usually comes
from a fuel-burning engine or an electric motor. Jet engines take in the air, raise its
pressure, then use the geometry of a nozzle to get it to accelerate to the rear. For
jets it is usually the combustion of a fuel that powers the pressure rise, but not
always.
Figure 10.l illustrates the major options for fuel-based aircraft propulsion. These all
operate by compressing outside air, mixing it with fuel, burning the mixture, and
extracting energy from the resulting high-pressure hot gases.

In a piston-prop, these steps are done intermittently in the cylinders via the
reciprocating pistons.

In a turbine engine, these steps are done continuously, but in three distinct parts of
the engine.

3.1.3 Piston-Prop
Piston-prop engines have two advantages. They are cheap, and they have
the lowest fuel consumption at lower speeds. However, piston engines are
heavy and produce a lot of noise and vibration. Also, the propeller by its
very nature produces less and less thrust as velocity increases.

The piston-prop was the first form of aircraft propulsion. While experiments had been
made with electric motors and steam engines, the Wright Brothers and all the other
earlier aviation pioneers relied upon the gasoline internal combustion engine to make
power and a propeller to turn that power into thrust.

Actually, the propeller turns shaft power into thrust power, namely, the product of
thrust force and velocity. Because no propeller is perfect, some of that shaft power is
"lost" along the way, typically 20%. We define propeller efficiency as the thrust
power obtained divided by the engine power used, 80%. Thrust is then found as
power times prop efficiency, divided by velocity. typically

While the Wrights' engine wasn't very good, their propeller was amazing. They had
expected to apply ship propeller theory to the design of an airplane propeller but
discovered that there wasn't such a theory. So, they developed their own, a modified
strip theory not too different from one used today. This allowed them to design a
propeller that was twice as efficient as all others, with an efficiency of about 60%.
Twice the efficiency means twice the thrust per horsepower-a significant advantage!

3.1.4 Turbojet
The turbine engine consists of a compressor, a burner, and a turbine. These
separately perform the three functions of the reciprocating piston in a piston engine.
The compressor takes the air delivered by the inlet system and compresses it to
many times atmospheric pressure. This compressed air passes to the burner, where
fuel is injected and mixed with the air and the resulting mixture ignited.

The hot gases could be immediately expelled out of the rear to provide thrust but are
first passed through a turbine to extract enough mechanical power to drive the
compressor. It is interesting to note that one early jet engine used a separate piston
engine to drive the compressor.

There are two types of compressors. The centrifugal compressor relies upon
centrifugal force to "fling" the air into an increasingly narrow channel, which raises
the pressure. In contrast, an axial compressor relies upon blade aerodynamics to
force the air into an increasingly narrow channel. An axial compressor typically has
about six to ten stages, each of which consists of a rotor (i.e., rotating) disk of blades
and a stator (i.e., stationary) disk of blades. The rotors tend to swirl the air, so the
stators are used to remove the swirl.

The axial compressor, relying upon blade aerodynamics, is intolerant to distortions in

the incoming air such as swirl or pressure variations. These distortions can stall the
blades, causing a loss of compression and a possible engine flame-out. The
centrifugal compressor is much more forgiving of inlet distortion, but causes the
engine to have a substantially higher frontal area, which increases aircraft drag.
Also, a centrifugal compressor cannot provide as great a pressure increase
(pressure ratio) as an axial compressor. Several smaller turbine engines use a
centrifugal compressor behind an axial compressor to attempt to get the best of both
types.

3.1.5 Turboprops and Turbofans

A pure turbojet engine isn't very efficient, especially at lower speeds, because its
exhaust is too small and too fast. Aircraft propulsion is most efficient when the power
of the engine is applied to a large cross-section area of the outside air, accelerating it
by just a small amount. It is for this reason that helicopters have such huge rotors
they literally get more thrust for the power expended.
To improve the efficiency of the pure turbojet engine, an additional turbine can be
added to extract mechanical power from the exhaust gases. This mechanical power
can then be applied to accelerate additional outside air.

For a turboprop engine, the outside air is accelerated by a conventional propeller. A

propeller has greater diameter than other forms of aircraft propulsion so that it is
inherently more efficient at creating thrust at lower speeds. Turboprops are still
widely used for commuter and business aviation and are being seen even in small
general aviation airplanes.

For commercial aircraft, the turboprop fell out of favor with the dawn of the jet age
and the passengers' newfound expectation of transonic speeds. Recent
developments might bring them back. The "prop-fan" or "unducted fan" is essentially
a turboprop with an advanced aerodynamics propeller capable of near-sonic speeds.
These were successfully flight tested in the 1980s but did not find application, mostly
due to noise and the lingering perception that they were "just" propellers.

The latest variant called an "open rotor" has "propellers" that look and act more like
the fan rotors at the front of a turbofan engine. Indications are that an open rotor
engine will offer a 10-30% improvement in SFC compared to a turbofan, but suffer a
10-db increase in noise. Ongoing development work is addressing the issues of
weight, complexity, and noise. If successful, open rotor engines could be seen on the
next generation of new airliners.

For the turbofan engine, the mechanical power taken from the exhaust gases by a
turbine is applied to a ducted fan of one or more stages. This accelerates additional
air, which improves efficiency as described above. For most turbofans, the
accelerated fan air is split, with part of the air being "bypassed" around the engine to
exit unburned, while the rest is ducted into the main part of the engine for further
compression and burning. In effect, this acts like supercharging the "core," the
turbojet engine that resides inside every turbofan engine.

The key parameter for turbofan engines is the "bypass ratio," which is the mass-flow
ratio of the bypassed air, to the air that goes into the core of the engine. Bypass
ratios normally range from as high as 12 to as low as 0.25
(the so-called leaky turbojet).

To improve efficiency even further, "ultra-high-bypass-ratio" turbofans are being

studied, with bypass ratios as high as 20. Note that the open rotor engine described
above has the equivalent of a bypass ratio of 30 or more.

Another benefit of the turbofan engine is noise reduction. The duct around the fan
suppresses its noise, and the reduced exit velocity of the fan air vs a pure turbojet
means that the noise-generating shear layers have reduced strength.

The turbofan engine offers better efficiency than a turbojet at subsonic speeds, but at
supersonic and higher speeds the drag of the fan increases so that the net benefit
reduces. Aircraft designed for efficient operation at speeds over Mach 2 are likely to
have pure turbojets.
3.1.6 Afterburner {Reheat}
The ideal turbine engine would inject enough fuel to completely combust all of the
compressed air, producing maximum thrust for a given engine size. Unfortunately,
this "stoichiometric" air/fuel mixture ratio of about 15 to 1 produces temperatures far
greater than the capabilities of known materials and would therefore burn up the
turbine blades.

To lower the temperature seen by the turbine blades, excess air is used. Currently
engines are limited to a turbine temperature of about 2000- 25000F {1100-1400°C},
which requires an air /fuel mixture ratio of about 60 to 1. Thus, only about a quarter
of the captured and compressed air is actually used for combustion. The exhaust is
75% unused hot air.

If fuel is injected into this largely un-combusted hot air, it will mix and burn. This will
raise the thrust as much as a factor of two and is known as "afterburning" ("reheat" in
the United Kingdom). Unfortunately, afterburning is inefficient in terms of fuel usage
because the burning is done at a lower pressure and the oxygen has already been
partially depleted. The fuel flow required to produce a pound of thrust in afterburner
is approximately double that used to produce a pound of thrust during normal engine
operations.

3.1.7 Propulsion System Selection

The selection of the type of propulsion system-piston-prop, turboprop, turbofan,
turbojet, ramjet-will usually be obvious from the design requirements. Aircraft
maximum speed limits the choices, as shown in Fig. 10.2. In most cases there is no
reason to select a propulsion system other than the lowest on the chart for the
design Mach number. Fuel-consumption trends have been shown in Fig. 3.3.

The choice between a piston-prop and a turboprop can depend upon several
additional factors. The turboprop uses more fuel than a piston prop of the same
power, but is substantially lighter and more reliable. Also, turboprops are usually
quieter. For these reasons turbine engines have largely replaced piston engines for
helicopters, business twins, and short-range commuter airplanes regardless of
design speed. However, piston-props are substantially cheaper and will likely remain
the default choice for light aircraft for a long time.

Electric propulsion is finally becoming practical although it is still far from competitive
with fuel-based propulsion due to the weight of the power supply. To date, electric
power has been applied mostly to propellers because they provide more thrust per
unit power, but electric fans are also in use.

3.1.8 Jet-Engine Integration

Integration of a jet engine into an aircraft conceptual design is very complicated.
There are many calculations that must be made prior to the design layout, especially
of the required thrust level (to pick or scale the engine) and the size of the inlet duct.
The design layout must depict the engine properly with reasonable allowances for
clearance for cooling air flowing around the engine and for access to and removal of
the engine. Engine controls and fuel lines must be considered, and engine-driven
accessories must be depicted if there is any question about their fitting into the
design.

There must be strong aircraft structure at the locations of the engine motor mounts.
These can be found on the engine company's installation drawing. For commercial
engines these are typically on the top, one toward the front, and one toward the
back. For military engines there are typically one on the top toward the front and one
on each side somewhere in the middle of the engine, or vice versa.

Figure 10.3 depicts a jet-engine installation including inlet ducts, a remotely mounted
nozzle (to better balance this particular design), control lines, fuel lines and fuel
system components, and various engine-driven accessories such as hydraulic
pumps and electrical generators. Note the clearance around the engine for cooling
airflow and the use of ring frame wing carrythrough structure.
3.1.8.1 Engine Dimensions
If the aircraft is designed using an existing, off-the-shelf engine, the dimensions are
obtained from the manufacturer. If a "rubber" engine is being used, the dimensions
for the engine must be obtained by scaling from some nominal engine size by
whatever scale factor is required to provide the desired thrust. The nominal engine
can be obtained by several methods.

In the major aircraft companies, designers can obtain estimated data for hypothetical
rubber engines from the engine companies. These data are presented for a nominal
engine size, and precise scaling laws are provided. Appendix E provides data for
several hypothetical advanced engines.

Better yet, engine companies sometimes provide a "parametric cycle deck," a

computer program that will provide performance and dimensional data for an
arbitrary advanced-technology engine based upon inputs such as bypass ratio,
overall pressure ratio, and turbine-inlet temperature.

Another method for defining a nominal engine assumes that the new engine will be a
scaled version of an existing one, perhaps with some performance improvement due
to the use of newer technologies.

To approximate the improvements due to advanced technologies, one could

assume, say, a 10 or 20% reduction in fuel consumption and a similar reduction in
weight. This would reflect the better materials, higher operating temperatures, and
more efficient compressors and turbines that could be built today.

Figure 10.4 illustrates the dimensions that must be scaled from the nominal engine.
The scale factor SF is the ratio between the required thrust and the actual thrust of
the nominal engine. Equations (10.1-10.3) show how length, diameter, and weight
vary with the scale factor for the typical jet engine.
L = L actual (SF)0·4 (10.1)
D = D actual (SF)0.5 (10.2)
W = W actual (SF)1.1 (10.3)
Although statistically derived, these equations make intuitive(inherent) sense. Thrust
is roughly proportional to the mass flow of air used by the engine, which is related to
the cross-sectional area of the engine. Because area is proportional to the square of
the diameter, it follows that the diameter should be proportional to the square root of
the thrust scale-factor.

Note the engine-accessories package beneath the engine. The accessories include
fuel pumps, oil pumps, power-takeoff gearboxes, and engine control boxes. The
location and size of the accessory package vary widely for different types of engines.
In the absence of a drawing, the accessory package can be assumed to extend
below the engine to a radius of about 20-40% greater than the engine radius. On
some engines these accessories have been located in the compressor spinner or
other places.

3.1.8.2 Inlet Geometry

Turbojet and turbofan engines can only operate efficiently if the air entering them is
slowed to a speed of about Mach 0.4-0.5. This keeps the tip speed of the
compressor blades below sonic. Thus, the main job of an inlet duct is to take the
oncoming massflow of air, slow it down, and smoothly pass it to the jet engine.

However, the total pressure in the oncoming air must be maintained as it passes into
and through the inlet duct. As the air slows down and thus loses dynamic pressure,
its static pressure must go up accordingly so that the nozzle can use it to accelerate
the exhaust back to the aircraft's speed.

Thrust comes from an exhaust velocity greater than the aircraft speed. If total
pressure is lost by the inlet duct then engine power must be wasted to make up for it,
just to get the air back to its original speed. Roughly speaking, a 10% reduction in
inlet pressure recovery (total pressure delivered to the engine divided by freestream
total pressure) will reduce thrust by about 13%.

Thus, it is extremely important that the airflow into and inside the inlet duct be slowed
down in a manner that, as velocity is reduced, increases the static pressure. Slowing
down the air inside a duct by expanding the cross- sectional area of the duct is a
"good way" because it raises static pressure to hold total pressure constant. Slowing
down the air by skin friction along the sides is a "bad way" -the static pressure isn't
raised.

So, the installed performance of a jet engine greatly depends upon the design of the
air induction (inlet) system. The type and geometry of the inlet and inlet duct will
determine the pressure loss and distortion of the air supplied to the engine, which
will affect the installed thrust and fuel consumption. Also, the inlet's external
geometry including the cowl and boundary-layer diverter will influence the aircraft
drag.

There are four basic types of inlets, as shown in Fig. 10.5. The NACA flush inlet was
used by several early jet aircraft but is rarely seen today for aircraft propulsion
systems because of its poor pressure recovery. At the subsonic speeds for which the
NACA inlet is suitable, a pitot-type inlet will have virtually 100% pressure recovery is
about 90% for a well-designed NACA inlet. However, the NACA inlet tends to reduce
aircraft wetted area and weight if the engine is in the fuselage.

3.1.8.3 Capture-Area Calculation

In a jet propulsion system, the engine is the boss. It takes the amount of air it wants,
not what the inlet wants to give it. If the inlet is providing more air than the engine
wants, the inlet is forced to spill the excess out the front. If the inlet is not providing
what the engine needs, it attempts to suck in the extra air required, and failing that,
the engine thrust drops way down, maybe to zero.

The capture area of an inlet is the cross-section area of the inlet front face,
measured in the flow direction to the front-most part of the lip. Capture area is pure
geometry, defined on the configuration layout. It is not the same as the freestream
cross-section area of the air that is captured by the engine because in subsonic flight
the flow spreads out as it approaches the inlet (Fig. 10.16).
Capture area is important. If it isn't correct, the engine might be starved for air
especially at low speeds, or it might have excessive aerodynamic drag. Not only
must capture area be sized to provide sufficient air to the engine at all aircraft
speeds, but for many aircraft the capture area must also provide "secondary air" for
cooling and environmental control and also provide for the boundary-layer air that is
bled off the inlet ramps and thrown overboard.

Capture-area sizing has a large effect on drag, especially at supersonic speeds. If it

is sized too large, the calculated drag values will be lower than they should be
because any air that goes "down the hole" doesn't get pushed aside by the airplane.
A modest mistake in oversizing the capture area can produce an estimated
supersonic wave drag that is 20% lower than the corrected value.

So, the initial design layout must include a good estimate of the capture area. The
actual calculations are described below and aren't too laborious, but a quick
statistical method gives a pretty good result. Figure 10.17 estimates the required
inlet capture area for subsonic and supersonic inlets, including appropriate amounts
of bleed and secondary airflows. This estimation is based upon the design Mach
number and the engine mass flow, normally obtained in the manufacturer's engine
data.
To determine the required capture area, the engine's mass flow is multiplied by the
value read from Fig. 10.17. If mass flow is not known, it can be estimated as 26
times the square of the engine front-face diameter in feet {127 times meters
squared}. If engine front face diameter is not known, it can be estimated as 80% of
maximum diameter.

As can be seen on the graph, the largest capture area is usually required at the
highest Mach number. Sometimes, though, takeoff requirements are even worse. If
so, consider using auxiliary suck-in (or blow-in) doors during takeoff.

A better method for calculating capture area for a subsonic inlet starts with the
geometry of Fig. 10.16. Note the capture area shown by dotted lines and the flow
streamlines expanding as they approach the inlet.

3.1.8.4 Boundary-Layer Diverter

Any object moving through the air will build up a boundary layer on its surface. In the
last section, boundary-layer bleed was included in the capture area calculation.
Bleed is used to remove the low-energy boundary-layer air from the compression
ramps to prevent shock-induced separation.

The aircraft's forebody builds up its own boundary layer. If this low-energy, turbulent
air is allowed to enter the engine, it will reduce engine performance and at
supersonic speeds and might even prevent proper inlet operation. Unless the
aircraft's inlets are very near the nose (within two to four inlet diameters), some form
of boundary-layer removal should be used just in front of the inlet.

The four major varieties of boundary-layer diverter are shown in Fig. 10.21.
The step diverter is suitable only for subsonic aircraft and relies upon the boundary
layer itself for operation. The boundary layer consists of low-energy air, compared to
the air outside of the boundary layer. The step diverter works by forcing the
boundary-layer air to either climb the step, pushing aside high-energy air outside the
boundary layer, or to follow the step, pushing aside other boundary-layer air that is of
lower energy. If the step diverter is properly shaped, the latter option prevails. The
step diverter should have an airfoil-like shape that is faired smoothly to the nacelle.
The diverter should extend about one inlet diameter forward of the inlet and should
have a depth equal to roughly 2-4% of the forebody length ahead of the inlet.

The boundary-layer bypass duct (simply a separate inlet duct) admits the
boundary-layer air and ducts it to an aft-facing hole. The internal duct shape should
expand roughly 30% from intake to exit to compensate for the internal friction losses.

The suction form of boundary-layer diverter is similar. The boundary layer air is
removed by suction through holes or slots just forward of the inlet and ducted to an
aft-facing hole. This type of diverter does not benefit from the ram impact of the
boundary-layer air and therefore does not work as well.

The channel diverter (Fig. 10.22) is the most common boundary-layer diverter for
supersonic aircraft. It provides the best performance and the least weight in most
cases. The inlet front face is located some distance away from the fuselage, with a
"splitter plate" to ensure that the boundary layer air does not get into the inlet. The
boundary-layer air is caught between the splitter plate and the fuselage and pushed
out of the resulting channel by the diverter ramps. The diverter ramps should have
an angle of no more than about 30 deg.
3.1.8.6 Nozzle Integration
The fundamental problem in jet-engine nozzle design is the mismatch in desired exit
areas at different speeds, altitudes, and thrust settings. The engine can be viewed as
a producer of high-pressure subsonic gases. The nozzle accelerates those gases to
the desired exit speed, which is controlled by the exit area.

The nozzle must converge to accelerate the exhaust gases to a high

subsonic exit speed. If the desired exit speed is supersonic, a converging
diverging nozzle is required.

The exit area to obtain a desired exhaust velocity depends upon the engine mass
flow (i.e., percent power). This is especially a problem with after burning engines in
which the desired exit area for supersonic afterburning operation can be three times
the desired area for subsonic, part-thrust operation.

Typical nozzles are shown in Fig. 10.23. In the past, the nozzle of a jet engine was
considered an integral part of the engine, to be installed on the aircraft without
question or change. This is still the case for subsonic commercial aircraft but is
changing for supersonic military aircraft due to the emergence of two-dimensional
and other advanced nozzles.
The fixed convergent nozzle: is almost universally used for subsonic commercial
turbojet and turbofan engines. The nozzle exit area is selected for cruise efficiency,
resulting in a slight loss of performance at lower speeds. However, the simplicity and
weight reduction of the fixed nozzle more than makes up for the performance loss in
most subsonic applications.

Variable-area convergent nozzle: For an aircraft that occasionally flies at high-

subsonic to low-supersonic speeds, a variable-area convergent nozzle allows a
better match between low speed, part-thrust operation and the maximum speed and
thrust conditions. The nozzle shown has a fixed outer surface, which causes a
"base" area when the nozzle inside is in the closed position.

Translating Plug Nozzle: Another means to vary the exit area of a convergent
nozzle is the translating plug. This was used on the engine for the Me-262, the first
jet to be employed in combat in substantial numbers. The plug slides aft to decrease
exit area.

The ejector nozzle takes engine bypass air that has been used to cool the
afterburner and ejects it into the exhaust air, thus cooling the nozzle as well.

The variable-geometry convergent-divergent ejector nozzle is commonly used in

supersonic jet aircraft. It allows varying the nozzle exit area for maximum engine
performance throughout the flight envelope. The most advanced versions can also
independently vary the throat area.
3.4 Propeller-Engine Integration
3.4.1 Propeller Sizing
The actual details of the propeller design such as the blade shape and twist are not
required to layout a propeller-engine aircraft. These come later. However, the
diameter of the propeller, the dimensions of the engine, and the cooling air intake
and exit must be determined for the initial configuration design.

Generally speaking, the larger the propeller diameter, the more efficient the propeller
will be. The old rule of thumb was "keep it as long as possible." Countering this, an
overly long propeller will be heavy, will increase the loads on the motor mounts, and
might require longer landing gear. The main limitation on propeller diameter is the
propeller tip speed, which should be kept well below sonic speed.

The tip of a propeller follows a helical path through the air. Tip speed is the vector
sum of the rotational speed [Eq. (10.21)] and the aircraft's forward speed as defined
in Eq. (10.22):

[Watch the units! Rotation rate is normally given as revolutions per minute
(rpm) and must be converted to revolutions per second by dividing by 60.]

To avoid shocks on the tips during high-speed flight, the calculated tip speed should
be less than the critical Mach number of the propeller airfoil. This is approximated in
the following rule of thumb:
 At sea level the helical tip speed of a metal propeller should not exceed 950
fps {290 m/s}.
 A wooden propeller, which must be thicker, should be kept below 850 fps {260
m/s}.
 If noise is of concern, the upper limit for metal or wood should be about 700
fps {213 m/s} during takeoff.
The appropriate speed limitation is factored into Eq. (10.22) and then Eq. (10.21) to
determine allowable diameter.

Because of weight and configuration arrangement considerations, propeller diameter

might be even less than the value calculated based on tip speed. This can be
approximated with a statistical approach [Eq. (10.23)], which estimates propeller
diameter as a function of horsepower or kilowatts. The propeller diameters obtained
from these equations should be compared to the maximum diameters obtained from
tipspeed considerations and the smaller of the two values used for initial layout.
Where

As forward velocity increases, the angle of attack seen by the blades of a fixed-pitch
propeller will decrease. This limits the thrust obtained at higher speeds. If the fixed
pitch is increased, the blades will tend to stall at low speeds, which reduces
low-speed thrust. A fixed-pitch propeller is called a "cruise prop" or "climb prop"
depending upon the flight regime the designer has decided to emphasize.

A variable-pitch propeller can be used to improve thrust across a broad speed range.
A controllable-pitch propeller has its pitch directly controlled by the pilot through a
lever alongside the throttle. A constant-speed propeller is automatically controlled in
pitch to maintain the engine at its optimal rpm.

3.4.2 Propeller Location

The common propeller locations are shown in Fig. 10.25. The two main options are
propeller in front, a "tractor" installation, or propeller in the rear, a "pusher." The
choice of tractor versus pusher has a huge effect on the subsequent aircraft design,
so it must be considered carefully.
The tractor propeller location puts the heavy engine up front. This usually shortens
the forebody allowing a smaller tail area and improved stability. The tractor location
also provides a ready source of cooling air and places the propeller in undisturbed
air. It is superior for pilot protection during a crash since the heavy motor clears a
path through the trees.

The pusher location does have some advantages and has been used on a number
of more-recent designs. Most important, it can reduce aircraft skin-friction drag
because the pusher location allows the aircraft to fly in undisturbed air. With a tractor
propeller the aircraft flies in the turbulence from the propeller wake.

The pusher propeller reduces cabin noise because the engine exhaust is pointed
away from the cabin, and the windscreen is not buffeted by prop wash. The pusher
arrangement usually improves the pilot's outside vision, and reduces the very real
danger from fire, smoke, and C02.

However, the pusher configuration suffers several disadvantages. The propeller has
reduced efficiency because it is forced to work with disturbed airflow off the fuselage,
wing, and tails. It usually moves the center of gravity to the rear so the tails need to
be larger.

The aft-mounted propeller is also more likely to be damaged by rocks thrown up by

the wheels. A pusher location for a turboprop propeller can create problems due to
the engine exhaust impinging upon the propeller.

Most multi-engine aircraft have the engines out on the wings. This reduces wing
structural weight through a span-loading effect, and reduces fuselage drag by
removing the fuselage from the propeller wake. There are engine out controllability
problems that are usually solved by an increase in the size of the rudder and vertical
tail. t.

Upper-fuselage pods and tail-mounted pods are used mostly for seaplane and
amphibian designs. These need a huge clearance between the water and the
propeller (minimum of 18 in. {46 cm}, preferably one propeller diameter, but more is
even better. The high thrust line can cause undesirable control characteristics in
which application of power for an emergency go-around produces a nose-down
pitching moment. In fact, it may be difficult to raise the nose for takeoff if careful
calculations aren't performed during the design process.

3.1.5 Piston-Engine Installation

Piston engines have special installation requirements that can greatly affect the
configuration layout. These are illustrated in Fig. 10.27.
Cooling is a major concern. Up to 10% of the engine's power can be wasted by the
drag associated with taking in cooling air, passing it over the engine, and exiting it.
To minimize this cooling drag, the cooling-air mass flow should be kept as small as
possible and used as efficiently as possible. Typical air-cooled engines need about
1 lb of cooling-air mass flow per second per 100 hp of the engine
{≈ 0.6 kgps per 100 kW power}. Optimization studies indicate that the best intake
slows the air to 30-70% of the aircraft flight speed (climb speed in the worst case).
This results in the following equation for piston engine cooling area sizing:

Cooling intake area:

Power is in horsepower or kilowatts. Vclimb is the climb speed in feet per

second or meters per second. This is usually the critical condition for cooling.

Despite an old rule of thumb that says that the exit area should be 30% larger than
the intake area, recent analysis has shown that an exit area slightly smaller than the
intake is actually better. For preliminary layout this suggests designing to a ratio A exit/
Ainlet of 0.8 and providing adjustable cowl flaps that open to a ratio of 2 or more.
Adjustable cowl flaps let us change the exit area in flight, which changes the cooling
airflow. It is not necessary to vary the cooling intake area because the cooling airflow
always adjusts to the exit area. If you don't want the complexity of a variable exit, try
an exit that is 30% larger than the intake, then carefully reduce it during the flight-test
program while watching the cylinder head temperatures.

For tractor engines, the cooling-air intake is usually located directly in front of the
engine cylinders. The air is diverted over the top of the engine by "baffles," which are
flat sheets of metal that direct the airflow within the engine compartment. The air
then flows down through and around the cylinders into the area beneath the engine
and then exits through an aft-facing hole below the fuselage. This is referred to as
"downdraft" cooling.

Downdraft cooling exits the air beneath the fuselage, which is a high pressure area
and therefore a poor place to exit air. "Updraft" cooling flows the cooling air upward
through the cylinders and exits it into low-pressure air above the fuselage, creating
more efficient cooling flow due to a suction effect.

However, updraft cooling dumps hot air in front of the windscreen; this can heat up
the cabin. An engine oil leak can coat the windscreen with black oil. Aircraft engines
have the exhaust pipes below the cylinders, so updraft cooling causes the cooling air
to be heated by the exhaust pipes before reaching the cylinders.

For pusher engines, cooling is much more difficult. On the ground a front-mounted
propeller blows air into the cooling intakes. This is not the case for a pusher engine.
Also, the cooling-air intakes for a pusher engine are at the rear of the fuselage where
the boundary layer is thick and slow-moving. For these reasons most piston-pushers
use updraft cooling with a large scoop mounted below the fuselage. Internal fans are
sometimes needed to improve cooling on pusher configurations.

3.2 Fuel System Integration

The aircraft fuel system includes:
 The fuel tanks,
 Fuel lines,
 Fuel pumps,
 Vents, and
 Fuel-management controls.

While these are all important during detail design, usually the tanks themselves are
the only components that affect the overall aircraft layout. For some aircraft like the
B-70 (Fig. 10.28), the fuel tanks define most of the internal volume of the aircraft. For
normal airplanes, the tanks usually consist of a "wet" wing box and perhaps a few
tanks in the fuselage. Their integration into the aircraft design is a major undertaking.
There are three types of fuel tanks: discrete, bladder, and integral. Discrete tanks are
fuel containers that are separately fabricated and mounted in the aircraft by bolts or
straps. Discrete tanks are normally used only for small general aviation and
homebuilt aircraft. They are often shaped like the front of an airfoil and placed at the
inboard wing leading edge, or are square-ish and placed in the fuselage directly
behind the engine and above the pilot's feet.

Bladder tanks are made by stuffing a shaped rubber bag into a cavity in the
structure. The rubber bag is thick, causing the loss of about 10% of the available fuel
volume. Despite this loss, bladder tanks are widely used for military aircraft because
they can be made self-sealing. If a bullet passes through a self-sealing tank, the
rubber will fill in the hole preventing a large fuel loss and fire hazard. This offers a
major improvement in aircraft survivability as approximately a third of combat losses
are attributed to hits in the fuel tanks.

Integral tanks are cavities within the airframe structure that are sealed to form a fuel
tank. Ideally, an integral tank would be created simply by sealing existing structure
such as wing boxes and cavities created between two fuselage bulkheads.

4.0 Air Pressurization and Air Conditioning System

The Air Pressurization and Air Conditioning System (often referred to as the
Environmental Control System, or ECS) plays a crucial role in ensuring the comfort,
safety, and well-being of the aircraft's passengers and crew. It is responsible for
regulating the temperature, pressure, and quality of air within the aircraft's cabin,
ensuring that these conditions are safe and comfortable throughout the flight. Given
the extreme altitude differences between the inside of the cabin and the outside
environment, these systems are essential for both human comfort and the proper
functioning of sensitive onboard equipment.
1. Air Pressurization System:
The primary function of the air pressurization system is to maintain a cabin pressure
that is comfortable and safe for passengers and crew, regardless of the altitude at
which the aircraft is flying.
1.1 Pressurization Control:
 The cabin pressure is maintained at a level comparable to that at sea level
while the aircraft is cruising at altitudes of 30,000 feet or higher.
 Pressure Differential: The design must ensure that the pressure difference
between the inside of the cabin and the outside environment does not exceed
certain limits, typically around 8-9 psi.
 Cabin Pressure Control: The system uses outflow valves and safety relief
valves to control the cabin pressure. These valves automatically adjust the
amount of air being released from the cabin to maintain the correct pressure.
 Automatic and Manual Control: The pressure control system is typically
automatic, with sensors monitoring the cabin altitude and pressure, making
adjustments as needed. In some cases, the pilot can manually control the
pressurization system if necessary.
1.2 Air Supply:
 Bleed Air: Most aircraft use bleed air from the engines to provide
pressurized air for the cabin. This air is tapped from the engine’s compression
stage, where it is at a higher pressure and temperature.
 Air Flow Management: The pressurized air is then cooled, filtered, and
conditioned before being supplied to the cabin.
 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU): The APU can supply air pressure in the event
of engine failure or during pre-flight preparation before the engines are
started.
1.3 Cabin Altitude Control:
 Gradual Cabin Descent: To avoid rapid cabin altitude changes that could
harm passengers or the crew, the air pressurization system ensures that
cabin altitude increases or decreases gradually, typically in a controlled
manner of around 500-1,000 feet per minute.
 Altitude and Rate Monitoring: Sensors monitor the cabin altitude and
pressure to ensure the aircraft remains within the proper range.
1.4 Emergency Systems:
 Pressure Relief Valves: These valves allow the air to vent from the cabin if
the pressure difference becomes too great. The relief system is designed to
prevent structural damage to the aircraft in case of a system failure.
 Oxygen Masks: In the event of a cabin depressurization, oxygen masks
automatically deploy, providing passengers with supplemental oxygen to
ensure safety until the aircraft descends to a lower altitude.
2. Air Conditioning System:
The air conditioning system is designed to maintain a comfortable and safe
temperature and humidity level in the cabin, regardless of the external temperature,
which can range from -50°C to -70°C at cruising altitude.
2.1 Cooling and Heating:
 Cooling: The primary method of cooling is through air-cycle machines or
refrigerant-based systems.
o Air-Cycle Machine (ACM): This system uses bleed air from the
engines, which is then compressed and expanded to cool it down. The
cooled air is mixed with warm air to achieve the desired cabin
temperature.
o Refrigerant-based Systems: Some aircraft also use refrigerant-based
systems (similar to those in automotive air conditioning systems),
which cool the air by transferring heat from the cabin air to a coolant.
o Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers are used to transfer excess heat
from the bleed air to the air conditioning system, ensuring that the air
supplied to the cabin is at the right temperature.
2.2 Cabin Air Distribution:
 The conditioned air is supplied to the cabin through a network of ducts and
outlets. Air distribution systems ensure that air is evenly distributed to
different sections of the cabin, including the cockpit, cabin, and lavatories.
 Vents and Diffusers: Adjustable vents and diffusers help regulate the airflow
and temperature throughout the cabin to ensure that passengers are
comfortable in all seating areas.
2.3 Humidity Control:
 Humidity Control Systems: Humidity control is essential to prevent
passengers from feeling uncomfortable due to excessively dry air at high
altitudes. The air conditioning system is designed to control the moisture
content in the air, ensuring that it remains within acceptable limits.
 Dehumidification: The air conditioning system can remove moisture from the
air, which is especially important during long flights. Dehumidification prevents
condensation and the formation of ice on aircraft components.
2.4 Temperature Regulation:
 Thermal Sensors: The system includes temperature sensors to continuously
monitor cabin temperature. Based on readings, the system adjusts the airflow
and cooling/heating mechanisms to maintain the desired temperature range.
 Manual and Automatic Temperature Control: Both automatic and manual
temperature control systems are available, allowing passengers and the flight
crew to adjust the temperature based on needs.
 Zone Control: Larger aircraft may have multiple zones with independent
temperature control systems, allowing different areas of the cabin (e.g.,
business class vs. economy) to have separate temperature settings.
5.0 Electrical & Avionic Systems
The Electrical and Avionic Systems of an aircraft are integral to its operation,
safety, and functionality. These subsystems manage and distribute electrical power
throughout the aircraft and provide essential avionics for navigation, communication,
flight control, and monitoring. Their design is critical for ensuring the aircraft operates
efficiently, safely, and reliably. Below are the key design aspects and considerations
for these subsystems.
1. Electrical Systems Design:
The electrical system in an aircraft is responsible for generating, distributing, and
managing electrical power to support all the aircraft's electrical needs, including
avionics, lights, flight control systems, and various onboard equipment.
1.1 Power Generation:
Primary Power Source (Engines): The primary source of electrical power is
generated by engine-driven generators. These generators are driven by the
aircraft's engines and supply alternating current (AC) and/or direct current (DC)
power.
 AC Generators: Most large commercial aircraft use AC generators for
the majority of electrical power distribution due to the high efficiency
and reliability of AC power for systems like avionics and flight control.
 DC Power: DC power is also required for certain systems, such as
batteries and some avionics equipment. In many aircraft, AC-to-DC
converters or rectifiers are used to supply DC power.
1.2 Power Distribution:
Electrical Buses: The electrical power is distributed via electrical buses, which act
as central distribution points for the power to be sent to different systems and
components.
 Main Buses: Large buses for main power distribution, often associated
with critical systems like flight controls, engines, and avionics.
 Secondary Buses: These distribute power to non-critical systems like
cabin lighting, entertainment systems, and non-essential avionics.
 Backup Buses: Redundant power busses, often controlled by bus tie
breakers, are included to ensure that a failure in one power source
does not compromise other essential systems.
1.3 Electrical Storage (Batteries):
 Main Battery: Aircraft typically use a main battery that is charged by the
generators. This battery serves as a backup power source in case of
generator failure or when starting the APU (Auxiliary Power Unit).
 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU): The APU generates electrical power when the
engines are not running, such as during pre-flight or in the event of engine
failure.
 Battery Management System: The design of modern aircraft includes a
battery management system (BMS), which ensures that the battery is
charged, discharged, and protected from overcharging or deep discharge,
enhancing safety and longevity.
1.4 Redundancy and Safety:
 Redundant Power Sources: Aircraft electrical systems are designed with
redundancy to ensure continued operation in case of a failure.
For example, aircraft often have multiple generators driven by different
engines, and if one engine fails, the other can continue providing power.
 Circuit Protection: The system includes circuit breakers, fuses, and other
protection devices to protect critical electrical components from overloading or
short circuits.
 Emergency Power Systems: In the event of a total electrical failure, aircraft
are equipped with emergency power systems, such as emergency
batteries or backup generators, to provide power for essential systems like
lighting and avionics until the aircraft can safely land.

2. Avionics Systems Design:

Avionics encompasses the electronic systems used for communication, navigation,
surveillance, and flight control. The design of avionics systems requires ensuring
integration, redundancy, and real-time data processing to ensure the safety and
efficiency of flight operations.
2.1 Communication Systems:
 VHF/UHF Radios: The Very High Frequency (VHF) and Ultra High
Frequency (UHF) radios are used for air-to-ground communication (pilots
to air traffic control) and air-to-air communication (between aircraft).
 Satcom and HF Radios: For long-range communication, satellite
communication (Satcom) systems and High Frequency (HF) radios may be
used, especially for trans-oceanic flights.
 Intercom Systems: The intercom system allows communication between the
flight crew and ground staff, cabin crew, and passengers.
2.2 Navigation Systems:
 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS): GNSS systems, such as GPS,
provide precise positioning and timing data to allow the aircraft to navigate
accurately over long distances.
 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS): INS uses accelerometers and
gyroscopes to track the aircraft’s position relative to its starting point, enabling
navigation even when satellite signals are unavailable.
 Radar Systems: Weather radar and ground proximity radar are crucial for
detecting weather conditions, terrain, and potential obstacles.
 Radio Navigation (VOR/DME, ILS, NDB): Traditional radio navigation
systems, such as VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range), ILS (Instrument
Landing System), and NDB (Non-Directional Beacon), continue to be used
for low-visibility approaches and en-route navigation.
6.0 Safety constraints

When designing the subsystems of an aircraft, safety constraints are a critical factor
to ensure the reliability, survivability, and protection of the passengers, crew, and
aircraft itself. These constraints focus on minimizing the risk of failure, addressing
potential hazards, and ensuring compliance with regulatory standards. Below are the
key safety constraints for various aircraft subsystems:

1. Structural Subsystem Safety Constraints

 Redundancy: Aircraft structures must be designed with redundancy to

prevent catastrophic failure. For instance, if one part of the structure fails
(e.g., wing, fuselage), the remaining parts should be able to maintain integrity
and prevent the loss of the aircraft.
 Damage Tolerance: Aircraft structures should be able to withstand significant
damage and continue functioning. This includes designing with the
assumption that small cracks or defects may exist and ensuring the structure
remains safe for as long as possible before failure.
 Load Factors and Stress Limits: The design must ensure that all parts can
handle the maximum expected loads (e.g., turbulence, turns, or hard
landings). Safety margins must be included to account for unforeseen
conditions.

2. Powerplant Subsystem Safety Constraints

 Engine Redundancy: Commercial aircraft generally use multiple engines

(typically two or more) to ensure that if one engine fails, the aircraft can still
safely reach an alternate destination.
 Fire Suppression Systems: Engine compartments are equipped with fire
detection and suppression systems to prevent or minimize the risk of engine
fires.
 Engine Monitoring: Continuous monitoring systems should be in place to
detect anomalies or faults, such as abnormal vibrations, temperature, or
pressure, that may indicate impending engine failure.

3. Electrical Subsystem Safety Constraints

 Redundancy: Critical electrical systems must be backed up by redundant

circuits and power sources to ensure the aircraft can operate if one source
fails. For example, multiple generators or batteries may be used to supply
power to essential systems.
 Circuit Protection: Electrical circuits must be designed with fuses, breakers,
and other safety mechanisms to prevent fires and electrical failures.
 Isolation: Power supply lines must be properly isolated to ensure that failure
of one circuit does not compromise others. This is particularly important in
mission-critical systems like navigation and control.
4. Flight Control Subsystem Safety Constraints

 Redundancy and Fail-Safe Design: Flight control systems should be

designed with both mechanical and electronic redundancy. In the event of a
failure in one control system (e.g., hydraulic, electrical), the backup system
should immediately take over.
 Manual Override: Even with automated flight control systems, manual
override options must be available for the flight crew in case of system
malfunction.
 Autonomous Control and Monitoring: Systems must be capable of
detecting and correcting failures automatically, such as automatic trim
adjustments, autopilot redundancy, and health monitoring systems that
ensure continuous safe operation.

5. Fuel System Safety Constraints

 Fuel Leak Detection and Containment: Aircraft fuel systems must include
systems to detect fuel leaks quickly and safely contain the leaked fuel. Fuel
lines must be routed through protected areas, with barriers in place to prevent
ignition.
 Fuel Tank Safety: To minimize the risk of fuel tank explosions or fires, fuel
tanks are equipped with inerting systems that reduce the likelihood of
combustion by flooding the tank with non-flammable gases (e.g., nitrogen).
 Redundant Fuel Pumps: In case of failure of one pump, other pumps should
be able to supply fuel to the engines to prevent engine failure.

6. Environmental Control System (ECS) Safety Constraints

 Pressure and Temperature Control: The ECS must ensure that the cabin
and cockpit remain at safe pressure and temperature levels throughout the
flight, especially at high altitudes where external conditions are extreme.
 Air Quality: The system must provide clean, breathable air to prevent oxygen
depletion or contamination due to toxic fumes or carbon dioxide buildup.
 Backup Systems: Redundancy in pressure and temperature control, along
with backup oxygen systems, is essential to ensure safety in case of failure.

7. Hydraulic Subsystem Safety Constraints

 Redundant Hydraulic Systems: Hydraulic systems, responsible for

operating various flight controls and landing gear, must be fully redundant. A
backup hydraulic system should be available to ensure that if one system
fails, the others can take over.
 Pressure Relief Mechanisms: Excessive pressure buildup could lead to
system failure, so pressure relief valves and other safety devices should be in
place to prevent dangerous situations.
 Leak Detection: Hydraulic systems must include detection systems to identify
and address leaks before they lead to critical failures.
8. Landing Gear Subsystem Safety Constraints

 Redundant Actuators and Power Sources: The landing gear subsystem

should be designed with redundant actuators, control systems, and power
sources to ensure that the landing gear can be deployed and retracted
reliably.
 Shock Absorption: The landing gear must be designed to safely absorb the
forces of landing, even in the case of abnormal conditions (e.g., hard landing).
 Brake Failures: Anti-skid systems and backup braking mechanisms should
be in place to minimize the risk of an uncontrolled landing or crash during the
approach phase.

9. Cabin Safety Constraints

 Escape Routes: The cabin must be designed with sufficient exits and
evacuation routes that can be used quickly and effectively in the event of an
emergency. This includes emergency exits, escape slides, and clear signage.
 Fire Suppression: The cabin must have fire detection and suppression
systems to minimize the risk of fire in-flight. Fire-resistant materials are often
used in the cabin.
 Passenger Restraints: The seatbelts, oxygen masks, and other safety
systems must be designed to keep passengers safe during turbulence,
takeoff, landing, and emergencies.

10. Emergency Systems Safety Constraints

 Oxygen Systems: If cabin pressure is lost, the emergency oxygen system

must deploy automatically to supply passengers and crew with breathable air
until safe conditions are restored.
 Survival Equipment: Aircraft should be equipped with essential survival kits,
such as life vests, life rafts, first aid kits, and emergency beacon systems, in
case of forced landings in remote areas.
 Emergency Lighting: Redundant lighting systems should be in place to
ensure passengers and crew can safely evacuate the aircraft if necessary.

11. Safety Monitoring and Diagnostics Constraints

 Health Monitoring Systems: Aircraft should have systems in place to

continuously monitor the health and performance of key subsystems and alert
the crew to potential failures.
 Data Recording and Black Boxes: Flight data recorders (FDR) and cockpit
voice recorders (CVR) must be installed to record key information during
flights for accident investigations and to improve future safety measures.

12. Regulatory Compliance

 FAA and EASA Standards: The design of all subsystems must comply with
the relevant aviation authority regulations, such as the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) or the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA),
to ensure the aircraft meets the highest safety standards.
  Maintenance and Inspection: There should be clear maintenance protocols
and regular inspections to ensure the integrity of all subsystems, in
compliance with airworthiness directives.

7.0 Material Selection Criteria

The selection of materials for aircraft subsystems is one of the most crucial decisions
in the aircraft design process. The materials used in aircraft construction must meet
a wide variety of requirements, including strength, weight, durability, corrosion
resistance, and cost-effectiveness. The choice of materials directly impacts the
aircraft’s performance, safety, and longevity. Below are the key criteria used to select
materials for various aircraft subsystems.

1. Strength-to-Weight Ratio
The strength-to-weight ratio is one of the most critical criteria in aircraft design.
Aircraft must be strong enough to withstand aerodynamic forces, engine vibrations,
impacts, and landing loads, but they must also be as lightweight as possible to
maximize efficiency and fuel economy.
 High Strength-to-Weight Materials: Aircraft materials must possess high
tensile and compressive strength while minimizing weight. Aluminum alloys,
titanium, and composite materials (such as carbon fiber-reinforced
polymers) are often used because they offer excellent strength-to-weight
ratios.
 Trade-off between Strength and Weight: Designers must carefully balance
strength and weight.
For example, while titanium is very strong, it is heavier than aluminum, so its
use is generally limited to specific high-stress areas like engine components
and landing gear.

2. Fatigue Resistance and Durability

Aircraft structures are subjected to repetitive loading and unloading, such as during
takeoffs, landings, and in-flight maneuvers. Materials must be selected for their
ability to resist fatigue and withstand thousands or millions of load cycles without
failure.
 Fatigue Resistance: The materials should resist the formation and growth of
cracks, especially in high-stress areas. Aluminum alloys (such as 2024 and
7075) and titanium alloys are commonly used because of their high fatigue
resistance.
 Durability: Materials must be able to resist wear and tear over the aircraft’s
operational life. This includes abrasion resistance, impact resistance, and
the ability to maintain their mechanical properties over extended periods of
use.
3. Corrosion Resistance
Aircraft operate in a variety of environmental conditions, including high-altitude, high-
moisture, and salty environments (such as over oceans). Corrosion resistance is a
critical factor in the selection of materials for structural components, fuel systems,
and landing gear.
 Corrosion-Resistant Alloys: Aluminum alloys are often coated with
corrosion-resistant coatings like anodization or alodine to improve their
corrosion resistance. Titanium is naturally resistant to corrosion and is
frequently used in areas exposed to high temperatures or harsh environments
(such as engine components and exhaust systems).
 Composites for Corrosion Resistance: Carbon fiber-reinforced
composites are used increasingly in modern aircraft due to their excellent
resistance to corrosion, especially in the fuselage and wing structures.

4. Thermal Resistance and Thermal Expansion

Aircraft materials are exposed to extreme temperature variations, especially during
flight, where temperatures can drop significantly at high altitudes. Materials need to
be able to withstand these temperature changes without failing.
 Thermal Stability: Materials must maintain their strength and structural
integrity at both high and low temperatures. Titanium and nickel-based
superalloys are often used for components exposed to high temperatures,
such as turbine engines and exhaust systems.
 Thermal Expansion: The materials must have compatible coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) properties to avoid stress between different
materials as temperatures fluctuate. Composites often have tailored CTE
properties to minimize differential expansion.

5. Impact Resistance and Crashworthiness

Aircraft materials need to be capable of withstanding impacts, whether from bird
strikes, turbulence, or accidents. Additionally, materials in the fuselage, cabin, and
cockpit must be designed to protect passengers during a crash.
 Impact-Resistant Materials: High-strength aluminum alloys, titanium, and
composite materials are used in areas exposed to impact, such as leading
edges of wings and engine nacelles. These materials must be designed to
absorb energy in a crash while maintaining integrity.
 Crashworthiness: Aircraft materials need to ensure controlled deformation
in the event of an accident. This includes designing materials for the fuselage
and seats that help absorb energy and protect occupants. Honeycomb core
materials are often used in sandwich structures to provide both strength and
energy absorption.
6. Manufacturability and Formability
Materials must be easily manufactured into complex shapes and structures while
maintaining their desired properties. Aircraft design often involves precise and
intricate components that require high manufacturing standards.
 Ease of Fabrication: Materials such as aluminum alloys and titanium are
relatively easy to form using processes like forging, casting, and machining.
Materials like composites, while offering many advantages, may require
more advanced and cost-intensive manufacturing processes like autoclave
curing and filament winding.
 Cost Considerations: The manufacturing process of materials should be
economically viable, especially for mass production. Aluminum alloys are
generally more cost-effective than materials like titanium or composites,
which are more expensive and require specialized processes.

7. Electrical and Magnetic Properties

Aircraft subsystems such as avionics, communication systems, and electrical wiring
need materials with specific electrical and magnetic properties. The materials must
be non-interfering with sensitive electrical equipment.
 Non-Magnetic Materials: Materials like titanium and certain aluminum
alloys are preferred in areas near sensitive navigation and communication
equipment due to their non-magnetic properties.
 Electrical Conductivity: Materials for wiring and other electrical components
need to have high electrical conductivity, such as copper or aluminum, to
ensure efficient energy transmission.

8. Environmental and Regulatory Considerations

Environmental factors and regulations have a major influence on material selection,
especially regarding sustainability, recyclability, and compliance with aviation
regulations.
 Environmental Impact: Aircraft materials must meet environmental
standards, such as low toxicity and recyclability. Composites and
lightweight materials like carbon fiber are gaining popularity for their
sustainability benefits, as they are lightweight and can be recycled.
 Regulatory Compliance: Materials used in aircraft construction must comply
with regulations set by aviation authorities like the FAA (Federal Aviation
Administration), EASA (European Union Aviation Safety Agency), and
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization). These regulations cover
aspects like material flammability, toxicity, and electromagnetic compatibility.

9. Acoustic and Vibration Damping

Aircraft structures and components are subjected to noise and vibrations during
operation, and materials need to minimize these effects to improve passenger
comfort and avoid structural damage.
  Vibration Damping: Materials with good vibration-damping properties, such
as composite materials and rubber-like polymers, are used in areas like
the fuselage and wing joints to reduce resonant frequencies and vibration
transmission to the cabin.
 Noise Reduction: Acoustic materials are integrated into aircraft
components to reduce cabin noise levels. Special insulation and
soundproofing materials are used in the cabin to provide a more
comfortable environment for passengers.

10. Types of Materials Commonly Used in Aircraft Subsystems:

10.1 Aluminum Alloys:
 Applications: Aircraft structure (wings, fuselage), landing gear, fuel tanks.
 Properties: Lightweight, high strength, relatively low cost, good fatigue
resistance, and ease of fabrication.
 Examples: 2024, 7075, and 6061 aluminum alloys.
10.2 Titanium Alloys:
 Applications: Engine components, landing gear, high-temperature sections.
 Properties: Exceptional strength-to-weight ratio, high corrosion resistance,
and excellent performance at elevated temperatures.
 Examples: Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-5Al-2.5Sn.
10.3 Composites (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers - CFRP):
 Applications: Fuselage, wings, empennage, and interior structures.
 Properties: Extremely high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and
design flexibility. Complex fabrication processes but excellent fatigue
resistance.
 Examples: Carbon fiber composites with epoxy matrices.
10.4 Steel Alloys:
 Applications: High-stress components, such as landing gear, engine mounts,
and structural joints.
 Properties: High strength, wear resistance, and relatively low cost, but
heavier than aluminum and titanium.
 Examples: 4130, 4340, and 300M steels.
10.5 Magnesium Alloys:
 Applications: Aircraft seats, control surfaces, and other lightweight
components.
 Properties: Lightest of all structural metals, good machinability, but prone to
corrosion and requires special handling.
 Examples: AZ31B, AZ61A magnesium alloys.
10.6 Nickel-based Superalloys:
 Applications: Engine components (e.g., turbine blades), exhaust systems.
 Properties: Excellent high-temperature strength and resistance to thermal
fatigue and oxidation.
 Examples: Inconel 718, Rene 41.