SQA Exam Prep Guide

Module 5: DEFECT CONTROL & ANALYSIS

Root Cause Analysis

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Defect Control & Analysis for your exam prep — with examples and key points to remember!
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Root Cause Analysis (RCA) in Defect

Control & Analysis

What is Root Cause Analysis?

Root Cause Analysis is a systematic process used to identify the fundamental cause(s)
of defects or problems in software so that effective solutions can be applied to prevent
recurrence.

Instead of just fixing symptoms, RCA digs deeper to find why the defect happened in the
first place.

Why is RCA Important?

Helps to permanently eliminate defects rather than applying temporary fixes.

Improves software quality and reliability by addressing underlying issues.

Reduces costs and time spent on repetitive bug fixes.

Supports continuous process improvement.

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Common RCA Techniques
1. 5 Whys Technique

Keep asking “Why?” until the root cause is found.

Example:

Defect: Software crashes.

Why? Because of memory leak.

Why? Because memory was not freed after use.

Why? Because code didn’t include free() function.

... and so on until root cause.

2. Fishbone Diagram (Ishikawa Diagram)

Visual tool that categorizes possible causes into areas like People, Process, Tools,
Environment, etc.

Helps brainstorm and organize causes.

3. Fault Tree Analysis

A top-down approach analyzing logical relationships between failures and causes.

Example Scenario
Problem: High number of defects reported during testing phase.

RCA performed using 5 Whys:

Why defects? Poor requirement clarity.

Why poor clarity? Incomplete stakeholder involvement.

Why incomplete involvement? Lack of scheduled reviews.

Root cause: Lack of formal requirement review process.

Action: Introduce mandatory requirement reviews with stakeholders.

Steps in RCA Process

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 1. Identify and describe the problem clearly.

2. Collect data about the defect or problem.

3. Analyze data using RCA tools (5 Whys, Fishbone).

4. Identify root cause(s).

5. Develop and implement corrective actions.

6. Monitor results to ensure problem is resolved.

Benefits of RCA in Defect Control

Focuses on long-term solutions, not quick fixes.

Helps improve software development and testing processes.

Encourages team collaboration in problem solving.

Prevents defect recurrence, improving product stability.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

RCA identifies the fundamental cause of defects, not just symptoms.

Common techniques: 5 Whys, Fishbone Diagram, Fault Tree Analysis.

Involves data collection, analysis, and corrective action planning.

Helps prevent recurrence of defects and improves process quality.

Supports continuous improvement and cost reduction.

Summary for Exam

“Root Cause Analysis in defect control is a systematic method to find and eliminate the
underlying causes of defects, ensuring long-term improvement in software quality and
reducing recurring problems.” ✅

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Standards and methodologies for defect prevention

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Prevention in Software Quality Assurance, with examples and key points for your exam prep
— making it easy and effective! 🛡️🐞📚

Standards and Methodologies for Defect

Prevention

What Is Defect Prevention?

Defect Prevention is the proactive approach to avoid defects before they occur in the
software development process.

It focuses on improving processes, practices, and standards to minimize the introduction

of errors.

Why Defect Prevention Matters

Preventing defects saves time, cost, and effort compared to fixing them after they
appear.

Leads to higher software quality, reliability, and customer satisfaction.

Helps maintain project schedules and reduces rework.

Key Standards for Defect Prevention

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 1. ISO/IEC 9126 & ISO/IEC 25010

Define software quality models with characteristics that help guide defect
prevention (like reliability, maintainability).

2. IEEE Standards (e.g., IEEE 730 - Software Quality Assurance Plan)

Provides guidelines for implementing quality assurance and defect prevention

strategies in projects.

3. CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration)

Provides a process improvement framework focused on defect prevention by

improving processes systematically.

Higher maturity levels emphasize defect prevention practices.

Common Methodologies for Defect Prevention

1. Code Reviews and Inspections

Systematic examination of code by peers to find defects early.

Example: Formal inspections catching logic errors before testing.

2. Static Analysis Tools

Automated tools that analyze source code for common defects without execution.

Example: Tools like SonarQube or FindBugs flag potential bugs early.

3. Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

Investigating defects to find and remove root causes, preventing recurrence.

4. Test-Driven Development (TDD)

Writing tests before code ensures that defects are prevented by design.

5. Defect Prevention Training

Training staff on best practices and common defect causes to avoid mistakes.

6. Process Improvement Initiatives

Using CMMI or Six Sigma to refine development processes for fewer defects.

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Example Scenario
A team notices many defects due to inconsistent coding styles.

They implement coding standards and peer reviews (a methodology) as per their ISO-
aligned quality plan (standard).

Result: Defects caused by style and simple mistakes reduce significantly.

Benefits of Using Standards and Methodologies

Provides structured and proven approaches to defect prevention.

Encourages consistency and discipline in development.

Helps organizations achieve industry certifications and customer trust.

Reduces defects early, saving rework costs and time.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

Defect prevention avoids defects before they occur, saving cost and effort.

Important standards: ISO/IEC 9126, IEEE 730, and CMMI.

Key methodologies: code reviews, static analysis, RCA, TDD, training, and process
improvement.

Standards provide guidelines; methodologies are practical approaches.

Combining standards and methodologies results in effective defect prevention.

Summary for Exam

“Defect prevention in software quality assurance relies on established standards like ISO
and CMMI, combined with methodologies such as code reviews, static analysis, and root
cause analysis, to proactively avoid defects and improve software quality.” ✅

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Fault Tolerance and Failure Containment

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Software Quality Assurance, with examples and points to remember — perfect for your exam
prep! 🛡️⚙️📚

Fault Tolerance and Failure Containment

What is Fault Tolerance?

Fault Tolerance is the ability of a software system to continue operating correctly even
when some faults (errors or defects) occur.

It means the system can handle faults gracefully without crashing or losing data.

Fault tolerance is critical in safety-critical systems like banking, aviation, medical

devices, etc.

What is Failure Containment?

Failure Containment is the process of isolating and managing failures within a system
so they don’t affect the entire system.

It stops failures from spreading and causing widespread system breakdowns.

Often done through error detection, recovery, and fallback mechanisms.

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How Are They Different?
Aspect Fault Tolerance Failure Containment

Purpose Keep system working despite faults Limit impact of failures

Focus System’s ability to handle faults Isolation and management of failures

Outcome System remains operational Failures are contained and managed locally

Techniques for Fault Tolerance

1. Redundancy

Duplicate critical components (hardware/software) so if one fails, another takes over.

Example: RAID in storage systems or backup servers.

2. Error Detection and Correction

Use checksums, parity bits, or error-correcting codes to detect and fix data errors.

3. Graceful Degradation

System reduces functionality instead of failing completely.

Example: A video streaming app lowers video quality during network issues but
keeps playing.

4. Exception Handling

Code is designed to catch and handle errors without crashing the program.

Techniques for Failure Containment

1. Modular Design

System divided into independent modules; failure in one module doesn’t affect
others.

2. Recovery Blocks

System tries an alternate method if the primary method fails.

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 3. Checkpoint and Rollback

Periodically save system state (checkpoint). If failure occurs, rollback to last known
good state.

4. Isolation Mechanisms

Use sandboxes or containers to isolate components.

Example Scenario
In a banking system:

Fault tolerance ensures transactions proceed even if a server fails (using backup
servers).

Failure containment isolates failures in one transaction so other transactions are not
affected.

Benefits of Fault Tolerance and Failure Containment

Improves system reliability and availability.

Reduces downtime and data loss.

Enhances user confidence in software systems.

Essential for mission-critical applications.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

Fault tolerance enables a system to keep working despite faults.

Failure containment isolates and limits failure impact within a system.

Techniques: redundancy, error detection, graceful degradation, exception handling (fault

tolerance).

Techniques: modular design, recovery blocks, checkpoint/rollback, isolation (failure

containment).

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 Important for safety-critical and high-availability systems.

Summary for Exam

“Fault tolerance allows software to continue operation despite faults by using
redundancy and error handling, while failure containment isolates failures to prevent
system-wide impacts, ensuring high reliability and availability.” ✅

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Safety Assurance and Damage Control

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Safety Assurance and Damage Control

What is Safety Assurance?

Safety Assurance is the process of ensuring that software systems operate without
causing unacceptable risk of harm to people, property, or the environment.

It focuses on preventing hazardous failures especially in critical systems like medical

devices, aviation, nuclear plants, automotive, etc.

Safety assurance is about designing, verifying, and validating software to meet safety
requirements.

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What is Damage Control?
Damage Control refers to the measures and strategies used to limit the impact of
failures or accidents once they occur.

It involves mitigating harm, recovering systems quickly, and preventing escalation of

damage.

Damage control can include emergency shutdowns, alarms, backup systems, and fail-
safe mechanisms.

How Safety Assurance Works

Hazard Analysis: Identify possible hazards caused by software failures.

Risk Assessment: Evaluate the likelihood and severity of these hazards.

Safety Requirements: Define strict requirements to eliminate or reduce risks.

Safety Design: Incorporate safety mechanisms (redundancy, watchdog timers, fail-safe

defaults).

Verification & Validation: Rigorous testing, simulation, and reviews to ensure safety
requirements are met.

Compliance: Follow safety standards like ISO 26262 (automotive), DO-178C (aviation),
IEC 61508 (industrial).

Damage Control Techniques

Fail-safe design: System defaults to a safe state on failure (e.g., elevator stops at nearest
floor during power failure).

Fault Isolation: Quickly detect and isolate faults to prevent spread.

Backup Systems: Use redundant systems to take over when primary fails.

Alarms and Alerts: Notify operators immediately of hazardous conditions.

Recovery Procedures: Predefined steps to recover safely from failure.

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Example Scenario
In a medical ventilator system:

Safety Assurance: Software must never deliver incorrect oxygen levels that could
harm the patient (hazard analysis & safety requirements).

Damage Control: If a sensor fails, the system triggers alarms and switches to a
backup sensor to maintain safe operation.

Benefits of Safety Assurance and Damage Control

Prevents accidents and harm to humans and environment.

Ensures compliance with legal and regulatory requirements.

Builds user trust in critical software systems.

Reduces downtime and costly damages after failures.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

Safety assurance ensures software doesn’t cause unacceptable risk or hazards.

Damage control limits impact and manages failures after they occur.

Key activities: hazard analysis, risk assessment, safety requirements, fail-safe design,
backup systems.

Compliance with industry safety standards is essential.

Examples: medical devices, aviation systems, automotive control systems.

Summary for Exam

“Safety assurance focuses on designing and verifying software to prevent hazards, while
damage control manages and mitigates the impact of failures to protect users and
systems from harm.” ✅

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Hazard analysis using fault-trees and event-trees

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Trees and Event Trees, with examples and key points — perfect for your exam prep! 🛠️🌲🔥

Hazard Analysis Using Fault Trees and

Event Trees

What is Hazard Analysis?

Hazard Analysis is the systematic identification and assessment of potential hazards
that can cause failures or accidents in a system.

It helps in understanding risks and planning how to prevent or control them.

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)

What is FTA?
Fault Tree Analysis is a top-down, deductive method that starts from an undesired
event (called the "top event") and explores all possible causes that can lead to that event.

It uses logic gates (AND, OR, NOT) to map cause-effect relationships visually in a tree
diagram.

How FTA Works

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 Start with the top event (e.g., system failure).

Identify all possible immediate causes.

Break down causes into further sub-causes until root causes are identified.

The structure looks like a tree, with causes branching below the top event.

Example
Top Event: Software crash during operation.

Causes: Memory leak (OR gate), invalid input (OR gate), hardware failure (OR gate).

Memory leak could have sub-causes like poor coding or resource mismanagement.

Benefits of FTA
Helps identify root causes of hazards.

Allows prioritization of risk areas.

Supports fault prevention and mitigation planning.

Event Tree Analysis (ETA)

What is ETA?
Event Tree Analysis is a bottom-up, forward-looking method that starts with an
initiating event and explores all possible outcomes based on system responses or safety
measures.

It models the sequence of events following an initial failure, showing how different
safety barriers succeed or fail.

How ETA Works

Begin with an initiating event (e.g., sensor failure).

For each safety barrier, branch into success or failure outcomes.

Trace different paths showing possible consequences or containment.

Example

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 Initiating Event: Power supply failure.

Branch 1: Backup power works (success) → system continues safely.

Branch 2: Backup power fails → alarm triggers → emergency shutdown.

Branch 3: Alarm fails → major system failure.

Benefits of ETA
Helps analyze possible consequences of failures.

Supports evaluation of safety system effectiveness.

Aids in designing better contingency and response plans.

Difference Between FTA and ETA

Feature Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) Event Tree Analysis (ETA)

Approach Top-down, deductive Bottom-up, forward-looking

Starts with Undesired top event Initiating event

Focus Causes of failure Consequences of failure

Visual Logic gates tree Branching event sequence

Summary Example
FTA: Why did the system crash? (Find all causes.)

ETA: What happens after a system crash? (Explore outcomes.)

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

Hazard analysis identifies and assesses potential hazards.

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 FTA is top-down, analyzing causes of a failure using logic gates.

ETA is bottom-up, analyzing possible outcomes after an initiating event.

FTA helps prevent hazards by finding root causes.

ETA helps prepare for failures by exploring consequences and safety barriers.

Both techniques complement each other in safety and risk management.

Summary for Exam

“Fault Tree Analysis identifies the root causes of hazards using a top-down logical
approach, while Event Tree Analysis explores possible outcomes following an initiating
event to assess safety barriers and consequences.” ✅

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QA Monitoring and Measurement

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QA Monitoring and Measurement

What is QA Monitoring?
QA Monitoring is the continuous process of tracking software quality activities and
processes during development and maintenance.

It ensures that quality standards and plans are being followed properly.

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 Helps in early detection of deviations or defects so corrective actions can be taken.

What is QA Measurement?
QA Measurement means quantifying software quality aspects using metrics and data.

It provides objective evidence of quality, progress, and performance.

Enables better decision-making and process improvement.

Why Monitoring and Measurement Matter?

Prevents surprises by identifying issues early.

Helps managers track progress and control quality activities.

Provides a basis for continuous improvement.

Supports customer confidence by showing quality is under control.

Common QA Monitoring Activities

Tracking defect discovery and resolution rates.

Monitoring test coverage and execution status.

Observing adherence to coding and design standards.

Checking compliance with project schedules and budgets.

Common QA Measurements (Metrics)

1. Defect Density

Number of defects per size of software (e.g., defects per 1,000 lines of code).

Example: 5 defects per 1000 LOC.

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 2. Test Coverage

Percentage of requirements or code covered by tests.

Example: 85% of code covered by unit tests.

3. Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE)

Percentage of defects found and removed before release.

Formula: (Defects found before release / Total defects) × 100%.

4. Mean Time to Detect (MTTD) and Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)

Average time to find and fix defects.

5. Customer-Reported Defects

Number of defects reported by users after release.

Example Scenario
A project tracks defect density each week. If the defect density suddenly rises, QA team
investigates causes and improves testing or coding practices.

Test coverage reports help ensure critical parts of the software are tested thoroughly.

Tools for QA Monitoring and Measurement

Test management tools (e.g., Jira, TestRail) track defects and test progress.

Code analysis tools provide metrics like code complexity and duplication.

Continuous integration tools generate automated test reports.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

QA Monitoring tracks quality activities in real-time.

QA Measurement uses metrics to quantify quality and performance.

Common metrics: defect density, test coverage, DRE, MTTD, MTTR.

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 Monitoring helps early defect detection; measurement supports decision-making.

Tools like Jira and TestRail assist in tracking and reporting.

Summary for Exam

“QA Monitoring ensures ongoing tracking of quality processes, while QA Measurement
quantifies quality using metrics such as defect density and test coverage, enabling timely
corrective actions and continuous improvement.” ✅

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Risk Identification for Quantifiable Quality Improvement

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Improvement, with examples and key points — to help you nail your exam! 🎯📈✅

Risk Identification for Quantifiable

Quality Improvement

What is Risk Identification?

Risk Identification is the process of detecting and listing all potential risks that could
negatively impact software quality, project schedule, cost, or performance.

It is the first step in risk management and helps in proactively addressing issues before
they occur.

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Why is Risk Identification Important for Quality?
Risks can cause defects, delays, or failures in software projects.

Identifying risks early allows teams to plan preventive or corrective actions.

This leads to quantifiable improvements in software quality by reducing defects and

rework.

How to Identify Risks?

1. Brainstorming Sessions

Team members discuss possible risks based on experience and project specifics.

2. Checklists and Past Projects

Use known risk lists or lessons learned from similar projects.

3. Interviews and Surveys

Gather insights from stakeholders, customers, and experts.

4. SWOT Analysis

Identify Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats related to quality.

5. Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS)

Hierarchical representation of potential risk categories (technical, organizational,

external).

Types of Risks Affecting Software Quality

Technical Risks: New technologies, complex code, integration issues.

Process Risks: Poor requirements, inadequate testing, unclear procedures.

Resource Risks: Lack of skilled staff, insufficient tools.

External Risks: Changing client requirements, supplier delays.

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Using Risk Identification for Quantifiable Quality
Improvement
After risks are identified, assess their probability and impact to prioritize them.

Plan mitigation strategies like extra testing, training, or design changes.

Track risk-related metrics such as defect rates, schedule slippage, and cost overruns.

Continuous risk monitoring ensures quality goals are met and improved measurably.

Example Scenario
During a project, the team identifies a risk of insufficient testing due to tight deadlines
(process risk).

Mitigation: Allocate extra testers and automate some tests.

Result: Reduced post-release defects by 30%, improving overall quality quantitatively.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

Risk identification is the first step in managing risks that affect software quality.

Techniques: brainstorming, checklists, interviews, SWOT, Risk Breakdown Structure.

Risks can be technical, process, resource, or external.

Early identification helps plan mitigation, leading to quantifiable quality gains.

Tracking risk metrics supports continuous quality improvement.

Summary for Exam

“Risk identification detects potential threats to software quality early, enabling focused
mitigation plans that result in measurable improvements in defect reduction, schedule
adherence, and cost control.” ✅

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plans? 😄📋

Case Study: FSM-Based Testing of Web-Based Applications.

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Applications as a case study, with examples and points to remember — perfect for your
exam! 🕸️🧪✅

Case Study: FSM-Based Testing of Web-

Based Applications

What is FSM-Based Testing?

FSM (Finite State Machine) is a mathematical model used to represent the behavior of a
system as a set of states, transitions, inputs, and outputs.

FSM-Based Testing uses this model to design test cases by simulating how a web
application moves between different states based on user inputs or events.

Why Use FSM-Based Testing for Web Applications?

Web applications often have complex workflows and multiple states (like login,
browsing, cart, checkout).

FSM helps to systematically cover all possible states and transitions to find defects.

It is useful for functional testing, navigation testing, and UI behavior testing.

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How FSM-Based Testing Works
1. Model the Web App as an FSM

Define states (e.g., Home Page, Login Page, Product Page, Cart, Checkout).

Define inputs/events (e.g., click login, add item, proceed to checkout).

Define transitions between states based on inputs.

2. Generate Test Cases

Create tests that cover all states and transitions (state coverage).

Test sequences of actions to check correct navigation and functionality.

3. Execute Tests and Analyze Results

Run test cases manually or with automation tools.

Detect issues like broken links, incorrect page loads, or state mismatches.

Example
A shopping website has these states:

S0: Home Page

S1: Login Page

S2: Product Page

S3: Cart

S4: Checkout

Transitions:

From S0 to S1 on “Login” click.

From S1 to S2 on successful login.

From S2 to S3 on “Add to Cart”.

From S3 to S4 on “Checkout”.

Test cases include:

Verify user can navigate Home → Login → Product → Cart → Checkout.

Check system behavior if login fails.

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 Test adding/removing items from the cart.

Benefits of FSM-Based Testing

Ensures complete functional coverage of the web app workflow.

Detects errors in state transitions and unexpected behaviors.

Improves test design efficiency and thoroughness.

Challenges
Modeling very large applications can be complex.

FSM needs to be updated if the app’s workflow changes frequently.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

FSM models software behavior as states and transitions.

FSM-Based Testing creates test cases based on these states and transitions.

It is ideal for testing navigation and functional flows in web apps.

Test cases ensure coverage of all states and paths.

Benefits include better coverage and detection of state-related defects.

Challenges: complexity for large, frequently changing apps.

Summary for Exam

“FSM-Based Testing models a web application as states and transitions to design test
cases that ensure thorough coverage of functional workflows, improving defect detection
in navigation and user interactions.” ✅

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summarize module 5

Sure! Here’s a clear and detailed summary of Module 5: Defect Control & Analysis — perfect
for quickly revising and scoring high marks! 🎯📝

Module 5 Summary: Defect Control &

Analysis

Key Topics Covered:

1. Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

Systematic process to identify the fundamental cause(s) of defects or problems.

Helps to prevent recurrence by addressing the root cause, not just symptoms.

Tools: 5 Whys, Fishbone Diagram (Ishikawa), Cause-and-Effect Analysis.

2. Standards and Methodologies for Defect Prevention

Guidelines and best practices to reduce defects during software development.

Examples: Code reviews, coding standards, static analysis, design inspections.

Methodologies include formal inspections, test-driven development (TDD), and

continuous integration.

3. Fault Tolerance and Failure Containment

Techniques to ensure software continues operating even when faults occur.

Fault tolerance: Designing systems to detect and handle errors gracefully.

Failure containment: Preventing faults from causing widespread system failures.

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4. Safety Assurance and Damage Control
Processes to ensure that critical systems remain safe despite faults.

Damage control involves mitigating impact after failures, like fail-safes and backups.

5. Hazard Analysis Using Fault Trees and Event Trees

Fault Tree Analysis (FTA): Top-down approach to find root causes of system failures
using logic gates.

Event Tree Analysis (ETA): Bottom-up approach to explore possible consequences after
an initiating event.

Both methods help in identifying risks and improving system safety.

Importance of Defect Control & Analysis

Helps in early detection, prevention, and management of software defects.

Improves overall software quality and reliability.

Reduces maintenance costs by avoiding repeated errors.

Enhances user satisfaction and safety, especially in critical applications.

Points to Remember (Exam Bullet List)

Root cause analysis finds fundamental defect causes to prevent recurrence.

Defect prevention standards and methodologies reduce errors early.

Fault tolerance ensures system operation despite faults; failure containment limits
failure impact.

Safety assurance includes fail-safe mechanisms and damage control.

Hazard analysis uses Fault Trees (cause-focused) and Event Trees (effect-focused) for risk
management.

Effective defect control improves quality, reliability, and reduces costs.

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Summary for Exam
“Defect Control & Analysis involves identifying root causes of defects, applying
prevention techniques, ensuring fault tolerance, and using hazard analysis tools like
Fault Trees and Event Trees to manage risks, all aiming to improve software quality and
safety.” ✅

If you want, I can help you create diagrams for fault trees and event trees or provide some
sample root cause analysis examples! Just ask! 😊📊

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