Communication Technologies for
the Smart Grid
3.1 Introduction
The communication infrastructure of a power system typically consists of SCADA sys-
tems with dedicated communication channels to and from the System Control Centre and
a Wide Area Network (WAN). Some long-established power utilities may have private
tele
phone networks and other legacy communication systems. The SCADA systems connect
all the major power system operational facilities, that is, the central generating stations, the
transmission grid substations and the primary distribution substations to the System Con-
trol Centre. The WAN is used for corporate business and market operations. These form the
core communication networks of the traditional power system. However, in the Smart Grid,
it is expected that these two elements of communication infrastructure will merge into a
Utility WAN.
An essential development of the Smart Grid (Figure 3.1) is to extend communication
throughout the distribution system and to establish two-way communications with customers
through Neighbourhood Area Networks (NANs) covering the areas served by distribution
substations. Customers' premises will have Home Area Networks (HANs). The interface
of the Home and Neighbourhood Area Networks will be through a smart meter or smart
interfacing device.
The various communication sub-networks that will make up the Smart Grid employ different
technologies (Table 3.1) and a key challenge is how they can be integrated effectively.
In the ISO/OSI reference model, discussed in Chapter 2, the upper layers deal with Appli-
cations of the data irrespective of its actual delivery mechanism while the lower layers look
after delivery of information irrespective of its Application. In this chapter, communication
technologies that are associated with the lower three layers of the ISO/OSI reference model
are discussed.
Smart Grid: Technology and Applications
Other servlce
(G) Central Generation
Marketoperators
providers
UHV/HV Grid Substation
System Control Centre Internet
SCApA Transmission
Network
Grid Substation
Control Substation Control Wind Farms
Utility SolarP
WAN Electric
DsCAD GneriionYve
Controllagle
Véncles
Loads
Local Contr HAN
PV
Distribution Fdtder
SCADA
-.NAN
LD-2-
Distributed Generation Battery Energy
(DG) Storage System
Figure 3.1 Possible communication infrastructure for the Smart Grid
3.2 Communication technologies
3.2.1 IEEE 802 series
TEEE 802 is a family of standards that were developed to support Local Area Networks
(LANs). For the Smart Grid illustrated in Figure 3.1, EEE 802 standards are applicable to
LANs in SCADA systems, NANs around the distribution networks and HANs in consumers
premises. Table 3.2 shows the different TEEE 802 standards applicable to commonly used
communication technologies with their frequency band, bandwidth, bit rate and range.
Figure 3.2 shows how the IEEE 802 architecture relates to the lowest two layers of the
IsO/Osireference model [3.41. I shows how two LANs may be connected through a Bridge
(see Table 3.4). Such a connection is common in many organisations which have multiple
LANs. A packet from the Source enters the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer which acts as
Table 3.1 Technologies used in different sub-networks
Sub-network Communication technologies
HAN Ethernet. Wireless Ethernet, Power Line Carrier (PLC), Broadband over Power Line
(BPL), ZigBee
NAN PLC. BPL, Metro Ethernet, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), EDGE, High Speed
Packet Acces (HSPA), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS),
Long Term Evolution (LTE), WiMax, Frame Relay
WAN Multi Protocol Label Switehing (MPLS), WiMax, LTE, Frame Relay
Communication Technologies for the Smart Grid 49
an interface between the network layer and the MAC sublayer. The LLC sublayer is defined by
IEEE 802.2 and provides multiplexing mechanisms, flow control and error control. The packet
then passes into the MAC sublayer. At the MAC sublayer, a header and a trailer (depending
on the LAN which the packet is entering) are added to the packet. Then it goes through the
physical layer and the communication channel and reaches the Bridge. At the MAC layer of
the Bridge, the header and trailer are removed and the original packet is recovered and passes
to the LLC sublayer of the Bridge. Then the packet is processed (by adding an appropriate
header and trailer) for the LAN to which it is forwarded (to the Destination) by the MAC layer.
This use of a Bridge is essential as different LANs use different frame lengths and speeds. For
example, IEEE 802.3 uses a frame of 1500 bytes whereas IEEE 802.4 uses a frame of 8191
bytes [4].
3.2.1.1 Ethernet
Ethernet has become the most widely used network technology for wired LANs due to its
simplicity, ease of maintenance, ability to incorporate new technologies and reliability. It has a
low cost of installation and is easy to upgrade. It is a frame-based communication technology
that is based on IEEE 802.3. Its baseband is defined in a number ofstandards such as 1OBASES,
10BASE2, 10BASE-T, IBASES, 100BASE-T, and so on. The first number, that is, 1, 10 and
100, indicates the data rate in Mbps. The last number or letter indicates the maximum length
of the cable and type of the cable as defined in Table 3.3. An Ethernet LAN consists of all or
some of the devices shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Data transmission devices for Ethernets
Device Description
Repeater A Repeater has two ports. Once it receives a signal, this is amplified to eliminate any
distortion (which has been introduced when it was travelling through the
communication channel) and forwarded to the output port. A Repeater works at
the physical layer of the ISO/OSI reference model. A Repeater is shown in
Figure 3.3. Note that even though the input is digital, it can be weak and distorted
as shown in Figure 3.3.
Hub A Hub is a multiport repeater which links multiple Ethernet devices. A Hub passes
the incoming signal to all the devices connected to it (Figure 3.4).
Bridge A Bridge has two ports and operates in the data link layer. It transmits the incoming
frame only if the channel to its destination is free or the frame is a broadcast
frame. Each port on a bridge supports a full duplex operation.
Switch A Switch is a multiport bridge. Unlike a hub, a Switch will not broadcast frames
across the entire network (unless it is a broadcast frame), it only sends the frame to
the intended ports (Figure 3.5).
Router A Router is used as a gateway between a LAN and a WAN. A Router makes
intelligent decisions on how to route traffic. Routing protocols are composed of
different algorithms that direct the way routers move traffic. A Router operates in
the network layer.
50 Smart Grid: Technologyand Applications
Repeater
Input
JUDOT
Output
Figure 3.3 Transmiss ion path of a repeater
Output Output
Hub
Output OutputY
Figure 3.4 Transmission path of a hub
Ethernet uses a shared medium where more than one device tries to use the common
medium. This causes collisions of frames transmitted by multiple hosts. The issue of collision
is handled by a protocol called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD).
A set of hosts connected to a network in such a way that simultaneous transmission by two
hosts in the set leads to collision, creates a collision domain.
Ethernet LANs also carry broadcast frames defined by the addressing of layer 3 of the
ISO/OSI model. The domain to which these broadcast frames reach is called the broadcast
domain.
Network performance under heavy traffic conditions is affected by the way collision domains
and broadcast domains are located within the network. Therefore isolating them properly is
vital to maintain peak performance of LANs. A typical Ethernet LAN-based network, showing
the collision and broadcast domains, is shown in Figure 3.6. It is important to note that Switches,
Message processor
Message queues
Switch
Output Output
input
Figure 3.5 Transmission path of a switch
Communication Technologies for the Smart Grid 51
Collision domains
- Broadcast domains
SWiich
Router
Swilch
Hub
Switch
Hub Repeater Hub Switch
Switch
Hub
Network A Network B
Network C
Figure 3.6 A typical Ethernet LAN
Bridges and Routers limit collision domains and Routers also limit broadcast domains. In the
network shown in Figure 3.6, a packet leaving from Network A may collide with a packet
leaving from Network B but not one leaving from Network C. This is because Networks A
and B and Network C are connected through a Switch which limits the collision domains as
shown. However, broadcast messages to Networks A, B and C may collide.
3.2.1.2 Wireless LANs
IEEE 802.11 describes the Wireless LAN (WLAN) standard. The interoperability of IEEE
802.11 devices is certified by the Wi-Fi Aliance.' Wireless LANs consist of the following
Components:
1. Station: This describes any device that communicates over a WLAN, for example, a
notebook computer, or mobile phones that support WiFi. In ad-hoc networks these devices
can communicate between themselves by creating a mesh network as shown in Figure 3.8a.
Such a collection of stations forming an ad-hoc network is called an Independent Basic
Service Set (Independent BSS or IBSS).
2. Access points (AP): When an AP is present in a network, it allows one station to commu-
nicate with another through it. It needs twice the bandwidth that is required if the same
communication is done directly between communicating stations. However, there are bene
fits of having an AP in a network. APs make the system scalable and allow wired connection
to other networks. Also APs buffer the traffic when that station is operating in a very low
power state. When an AP is present in the network, as shown in Figure 3.8b, the collection
of stations is called an Infrastructure BSS.
3. Distribution system (D. ADistribution System interconnects multiple Infrastructure BSSs
through their APs as shown in Figure 3.9. It facilitates communication between APs,
forwarding traffic from one BSS to another and the movement of mobile stations among
BSSs. Such a set of Infrastructure BSSs is called an Extended Service Set (ESS).
The 802.11 family of Wireless LANs use the CSMA/CA protocol to access the transmis-
sion medium. They can have multiple physical layer options identified by 802.l la/b/g/n/ as
describedin Table 3.2. A typical 802.11 application in the Smart Grid is shown in Figure 3.10.
Station
Access Point (AP)
(a) Independent BSS (b) Infrastructure BSS
Figure 3.8 BSS architectures of Wireless LANs
Wired LAN
Station
. Access Point (AP)
Extended Service Set (ESS)
Figure 3.9 Distribution system
3.2.1.3 Bluetooth
Bluetooth, defined by IEEE standard 802.15.1, is a wireless LAN technology designed to
connect mobile or fixed devices using low-power, short-distance radio transmission. It was
originally conceived as a wireless alternative to EIA 232 data cables. Bluetooth has its clas-
sic version currently defined by Bluetooth 3.0+HS and the recently introduced low-energy
Customer Customer
Dpay APPIance
Smart HAN
Meter
Other
ACcess (GeCr
point
Wireless devices
Customer Customerr
APpllances Display
HAN Smart
Meter
Other GMcr AccesS
Meters
Generation point
Wireless devices
Infrastructure BSS
Customer Customer
DISplay Appliances
Smart HAN
Meter
Access C Generation ner
Meters
point
Wireless devices
Figure 3.10 IEEE 802.11 WLAN application in the Smart Grid
Table 3.5 Technical specifications of Bluetooth
Specification Bluetooth 3.0+HS Bluetooth 4.0
Distance/Range Up to 100 m 150 m
Over the air data rate 1-3 Mbps 1 Mbps
Active slaves Implementation dependent
Voice capable Yes No
Power consumption 100 mW 10 mW
Peak current consumption < 30 mA <20 mA
Topology Piconet, Scatternet star, point-to-point
version, Bluetooth 4.0. This new version is designed for applications which require low power
consumption and transfer small pieces of data with low latency. Table 3.5 gives a limited
technical description of these two Bluetooth standards.
Bluetooth defines two network architectures called Piconet and Scatternet. Piconet is a
Bluetooth network consisting of a master device and up to seven slave devices as shown in
Figure 3.11. More devices can exist in synchronisation with the master but are not be able to
participate in communication concurrently. A slave in such state is said to be in a parked state.
A device in a parked state can move to an active state if the number of slaves in the Piconet
falls below seven. Piconets can be interconnected through a Bridge which could be a slave for
one Piconet and master for another Piconet or slave for two Piconets that are interconnected as
shown in Figures 3.11a and 3.11b. Such an interconnected set of Piconets is called a Scatternet.
Two types of Bluetooth links can be ereated for data transfer. They are Synchronous
Connection Orientated (SCO) link and Asynchronous Connectionless Link (ACIL). SCO is
used when timely delivery is more important than error-free delivery. On the other hand, ACL
is used when error-free delivery is more important than timely delivery.
3.2.1.4 ZigBee and 6LoWPAN
ZigBee and 6LoWPAN are two communication technologies built on IEEE 802.15.4. This
is a low data rate wireless networking standard. Currently his standard is the most popular
protocol for a Wireless Public Area Networks (WPAN) due to its low power consumption,
Piconet Master node
Master node
Slav node Piconet
Master node
Master/slave node
(Master Bridge)
Slave node
I(Slave Bridge)
Slave node
Piconet
Piconet
--
(a) (b)
Figure 3.11 Piconet and Scatternet
Application layer
ZigBee device objects
Network layer
MAC IEEE
Physical 802.15.4
Figure 3.12 Protocol architecture of Zigbee 12]
(a) Star (b) Mesh (c) Cluster tree
Figure 3.13 ZigBee network architectures
high flexibility in networking and low cost. It creates an ad-hoc self-organising network by
interconnecting fixed, portable and moving devices.
The protocol architecture of a ZigBee device is shown in Figure 3.12. As shown in Figure
3.12, the lower two layers are defined by IEEE 802.15.4 standards. Application support and
Network layer protocols for a ZigBee network are defined by the ZigBee Alliance.
A ZigBee device can be a Ful Function Device (FFD) or a Reduced Function Device
(RFD). A network will have at least one FFD, operating as the WPAN coordinator. The FFD
can operate in three modes: a coordinator, a router or an end device. An RFD can operate only
as an end device. An FFD can talk to other FFDs and RFDs, whereas an RFD can only talk to
an FFD. An RFD could be a light switch or a sensor which communicates with a controller.
ZigBee networks can have star, mesh or cluster tree architecture, as shown in Figure 3.13.
3.2.4 Power line communication
3.2.4.1 IEEE P1901
Under the sponsorship of the IEEE Communication Society, the IEEE P1901 working group
was formed in 2005 with the remit to develop a standard for high speed (> 100 Mbps at the
physical layer) communication devices via electric power lines, the so-called Broadband over
devices. This project is devoted to producing a standard for BPL networks.
Power Line (BPL)
The in-home and access under 1EEE P1901 will
protocol support MAC layer and Physical
layers that use orthogonal frequency multiplexing (OFDM).
The standard which was in draft form at the end of 2010 will use transmission frequencies
below 100 MHz and support BPL devices used for the first-mile/last-mile connections as well
as BPL devices used in buildings for LANs and other data distribution. It ensures that the
EMC limits set by national regulators are met so that it is compatible with other wireless and
telecommunications systems.
3.2.4.2 HomePlug
HomePlug is a non-standardized broadband technology specified by the HomePlug Powerline
Alliance, whose members are major companies in communication equipment manufacturing
and in the power industry.
HomePlug Powerline Alliance defines the following standards:
1. HomePlug 1.0: connects devices in homes (1-10 Mbps).
2. HomePlug AV and AV2: transmits HDTV and VoIP in the home 200 Mbps (AV) and
600 Mbps (AV2).
3. HomePlug CC: Command and Control to complement other functions.
4. HomePlug BPL: still a working group addressing last-mile broadband (IEEE P1901).
The transmission technology, OFDM used by HomePlug, is specially tailored for use in the
power line environments. It uses 84 equally spaced subcarriers in the frequency band between
4.5 and 21 MHz. Impulsive noise events ommon in the power line environment are overcome
by means of forward error correction and data interleaving.
4.5 Cyber security standards
There are several standards which apply to the security of substation equipment and many are
under development. For overall security assessment, the standard ISO 27001 is widely used
and specifies the assessment of risks for a system of any sort and the strategy for developing the
security system to mitigate those risks. Furthermore, ISO 28000 specifies security management
specifically for a supply chain system.
4.5.1 IEEE 1686: 1EEE Standardfor substation intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs) cyber security capabilities
This standard originated from an 1ED security effort of the NERC CIP (North America Electric
Reliability Corporation-Critical Infrastructure Protection). The standard is applicable to any
IED where the user requires "security, accountability, and auditability in the confguration
and maintenance of the IED".
The standard proposes different mechanisms to protect IEDs. The IED shall:
b e protected by unique user ID and pass word combinations. The password should be a
minimum of 8 characters with at least one upper and lower cases, one number and one
alpha-numeric character.
not have any means to defeat or circumvent the user created ID/password. The mechanisms
such as "embedded master password, chip-embedded diagnostic routines that automatically
run in the event of hardware or sofiware failures, hardware bypass of passwords such as
jumpers and switch settings" shall not be present.
support different level of utilisation of IED functions and features based on individual
user-created ID/password combinations.
"have a time-out feature that automatically logs out a user.
80
Smart Grid: Technology and Applications
record in a sequential circular buffer (first in. first out) an audit trail listing evenis in the
order in which they occur.
monitor security-related activity and make the information available through a real-ime
communication protocol for transnmission to SCADA.
45.2 IEC 62351: Power systems management and associated information
exchange- data and communications security
TEC 6235l is a series of documents which specifies the types of security measures for com-
munication networks and systems including profiles such as TCP/IP, Manufacturing Message
Specification (MMS) and IEC 61850. Some security measures included in the standard are:
authentication to minimise the threat of attacks, some types of bypassing control, carelessness
and disgruntded employee actions;
authentication of entities through digital signatures;
confidentiality of authentication keys and messages via encryption;
tamper detection;
prevention of playback and spoofing:
monitoring of the communications infrastructure itself.
