WRM 511-WILDLIFE ECOLOGY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

(Wildlife and Conservation Management)

Course Outline
➢ Wildlife Management and Conservation
• Types of Wildlife Management
➢ Wildlife Utilization
• Benefits of Wildlife Management
• Problems of Wildlife Management
• Solutions
➢ Wildlife Conservation
➢ Wildlife Management in Nigeria
➢ Nigeria Vegetation and Wildlife Species
➢ Some Important Wildlife Species
➢ Wildlife Habitat
➢ Conservation of Status of Wildlife Species
➢ Extinction of Wildlife Resources

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 WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION

o Wildlife
The term implies all things that are living outside the direct control of man and therefore includes
all non-cultivated plants (floras) and non-domestic animals (faunas). (Ayodele et al., 1999). It can
also be refer to all the animals and plants living in their natural habitat (Ogogo, 2008). Examples
of wild animals includes lion, elephant, tiger, leopard, primates and rodents. It also includes
various species of insects, reptiles, fish and birds. According to Weddell (2002), wildlife at first
was used to refer to game species; later it came to mean terrestrial vertebrates. In current usage,
the term wildlife often denotes all forms of wild organisms, including animals, plants and
microorganisms. “Wildlife” is now to some extent used interchangeably with biodiversity a term
that became common in the scientific literature from 1986, following a National Forum on
Biodiversity held in Washington, D.C. It originated as shorthand for biological diversity and is
currently the scientist preferred term for wildlife and nature (Sarkar, 1999). Humans have used
wildlife resources as food and raw materials for industrial activities but unfortunately, some
wildlife species are extinct e.g. Dodo while some are at the brink of extinction as a result of over-
exploitation, e.g. the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), Lion (Panthera leo), etc. In other to
prevent other wildlife species to become threatened as a result of over-exploitation, there is need
for wildlife management

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 o Management
Management is also a component of conservation that usually means controlling, directing, or
manipulating wildlife populations and/or their habitats. it implies human decision and
manipulation
o Wildlife Management
Wildlife Management attempt to balance the needs of wildlife with the need of man. The
definitions of wildlife management are about as numerous as authors and professional biologists.
There are some differences, to be sure, but three common ideas are present in every definition of
wildlife management, including:
❖ efforts directed toward wild animal populations,
❖ relationship of habitat to those wild animal populations, and
❖ manipulations of habitats or populations that are done to meet some specified human goals.
• Wildlife management is the active manipulation of wild animals and their habitat for the
benefit of wildlife and mankind or the management of wildlife populations. It is application
of ecological knowledge to populations of (vertebrate and invertebrate) animals and their
environment in a way that strikes a balance between the needs of those populations and the
needs of man.
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 o Types of Wildlife Management

• Manipulative management
This type of wildlife management act on a population either changing its numbers by direct means
through manipulation of animal population by cropping, culling etc. For instance species from
overpopulated areas could be transported elsewhere or by influencing their numbers by indirect
means of altering food supply, habitat improvement, and density of predators or prevalence of
disease. This is appropriate when a population is to be harvested
• Custodial management

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Custodial management is preventive or protective. Preservation by allowing nature to take its
course without human intervention. It is aimed at minimizing external influences on the population
and its habitat. It is appropriate in a national park where one of the stated goals is to protect
ecological processes. It is also appropriate for conservation of a threatened species
o Wildlife Utilization
• Consumptive utilization is the extraction of resources for the production of consumer
goods and services. Apart from providing food other types of consumptive, uses of wildlife
include products such as skins and hides, materials for hand crafts, or ceremonial uses ,
oils and medicines, live animal trades, sport, hunting, stock resources for domestication or
improvement of domesticated breeds, farming activities and mineral resources
exploitation. All activities directed towards production of goods and services which often
lead to the degradation of the environment.
Non-consumptive utilization is any non-hunting or non-extractive use of wildlife. It is
defined as the provision of natural amenities and services for recreational use such as
game viewing, bird watching, nature trail, swimming, boating and other water related
recreational activities in lake and waterfall. It includes spiritual and religious values,
values due to the willingness of local and international user-public (tourist) to pay to see
living and non-living resources in the natural setting.

o General Objectives of Wildlife Management

The aims and objectives sought will vary from place to place and probably from time to time.
However, some of the common objectives of wildlife management are:
1. Preservation of species
2. Maintenance of population of useful species.
3. Stability or reducing population of certain species.
4. Limitation of wildlife utilization to annual production capacity.
o Objectives of Wildlife Conservation in Nigeria
In Nigeria the main National Wildlife Management objectives are:
1. Bush-meat production to increase the animal protein available in rural and urban areas of
Nigeria with particular emphasis on rural areas.

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2. To promote game viewing, tourism and foreign exchange earnings, including photographic
safaris, sport fishing and sport hunting.
3. Preservation of national heritage
4. To encourage and promote wildlife conservation for education and research.
5. To generate employment opportunities in rural areas.
6. Finally, to promote ecological diversity and stability through preservation of gene pool and
maintenance of continuity in gene pool
o History of Wildlife Management in Nigeria
Establishment of protected areas in Nigeria dated back to 17th century. Forest reserves were the
first protected areas that were created in Nigeria with the effort of Mr. Thompson who was
transferred from India to Nigeria (Enabor, 1981). Forestry began officially in Nigeria in 1896 in
the Colony and protectorate of Lagos (Lowe, 2000). The Forestry Ordinance was promulgated as
the legal instrument for the constitution of forest reserves in 1908. The Forestry Ordinance was
revised in 1916 to extend the jurisdiction of the Forest Department to the Northern protectorate.
Reservation of these protected areas came as a result of government interest on them to sustain the
natural resources in them for benefit of the present and future generations.
According to Afolayan and Ajayi (1983) Nigeria’s game reserves were originally forest reserves.
Ideas of conserving wildlife in game reserves came up in Nigeria in the early 1930s through
colonial officers. From the survey of wildlife resources of West Africa made by Haywood in 1932
a suggestion that game reserves should be established in savanna areas of Nigeria came up
(Afolayan and Ajayi, 1983). Establishment of forest reserves, game reserves, national parks and
other protected areas will hopefully result in protecting their natural resources and using them
sustainably for perpetuity for human benefits. These desires for conservation of wildlife through
game reserves came to reality through demarcation of Yankari game reserve (1280 km2) in
Bauchi State in 1956 and opening of it to the public in 1962 as premier game reserve in Nigeria.
This was followed with the demarcation and establishment of Borgu game reserve (2453 km2)
in 1962 as the second game reserve. Establishment of more game reserves and Wildlife Advisory
Board were recommended for protection of wildlife resources and implementation of management
programmes (Petridges, 1965). The number of game reserves in the nation increased from 12 in
1969 to 36 in 1980

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The Borgu and Zugurma reserves that were adjacent to each other were formally declared as
Kainji Lake National Park in 1975 and the park was promulgated with Decree No. 46 of 1979
as premier national park in Nigeria. Decree No.36 of 1991 established five other national parks
(Cross River National Park, Chad Basin National Park, Gashaka Gumti National Park, Old
Oyo National Park and Yankari National Park) and National Park Governing Board; and this
brought the number of national parks to six in 1991 in Nigeria. Decree No. 46 of 1999 promulgated
Kamuku and Okomu National Parks bringing the number of National Parks to eight in the
country. However, in June, 2006 Yankari National Park was handed over back to the State
Government as Game Reserve in Bauchi State. Nigeria has 7 National Parks and over 40 Game
Reserves. 10 additional national parks were established in 2020 bringing the total number of
national parks in Nigeria to 17. In 2020 federal government designates 10 forest and game reserve
as National Parks; Allawa National Park in Niger, Apoi National Parks and Edumenum
National Parks in Bayelsa, Falgore National Park in Kano, Hadeja Wetland National Park in
Jigawa, Kampe National Park in Kwara State, Kogo National Park in Katsina, Marhai
National Park in Nasarawa, Oba Hills National Park in Osun, and Pandam National Park in
Plateau state

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: National parks, game reserves, and similar protected areas in Nigeria. (Prepared by the Nigerian Conservation Foundation, June
2008)

Benefits of Wildlife Conservation and Management

Food
The first human beings depended completely on wild animals for their protein supply. With
domestication of animal stock and settled agriculture, humans have gradually moved from
complete to partial dependence on wild animals for meat. Nonetheless, in all cultures of the modem
world, wherever people eat meat, there is still a significant demand for wild meat. Wild animals
of various forms and sizes, both vertebrates and invertebrates form part of the diet of people across
the globe. Bushmeat which is the flesh of wild animals

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Wildlife represent the principal source of protein for rural majority in most African countries
In sub-Saharan Africa the proportion of wild animal meat in total protein supplies is exceptionally
high. For example, communities living near a forest in Nigeria obtain 84 percent of their animal
protein from bushmeat. In Ghana, approximately 75 percent of the population consumes wild
animals regularly; in Liberia, 70 percent; and in Botswana, 60 percent (FAO, 1989).
Revenue generation

In most sub-Saharan countries, subsistence agriculture provides employment for the majority of
people. Activities that generate additional income or reduce expenditure are invaluable,
particularly where they enhance the quality of rural life. The forest, forest products and wild
animals provide such possibilities. Hunting activities generate considerable income in many parts
of Africa. Report from the federal office of statistics indicates that the annual total value of
bushmeat in Nigeria was about N60 million and the value of wild animal protein is about 4% of
the GDP (Gross Domestic Products). Nigeria and many other African countries derived substantial
revenue from export of live animals and trophies. Sport hunting and entrance fees to game reserves,
zoological gardens and national parks are other source of revenue to the government

Employment
Wildlife officers, wildlife guides, game guards, artisans and craftsmen are some of the jobs wildlife
creates thus reducing the rate of unemployment in the country
Wildlife by-products
These include hides, skins tusks, feathers, hairs and bones of wild animals are used to make shoes,
bags, caps which are highly priced

Promotion of Tourism
Wildlife is the main source of tourist attraction to Africa. Countries like Kenya, Tanzania Uganda
Zimbabwe and South Africa have large number of wild animals which attract a large number of
tourists to these countries. Tourism contributes the highest foreign exchange earning to countries
like Kenya and Tanzania. If tourism is developed, Nigeria as a country with potential resources (7
national park and over 40 games reserves) can earn hundreds of millions of Naira from game
viewing and tourism like Kenya and Tanzania
Traditional medicine

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The importance of wildlife in traditional medicine cannot be overemphasized. Faeces, hairs, teeth,
blood and bones of wild animals are used to cure different ailments. Snail meat, leaves, fruits,
barks and roots of various species of wild plants are also used by herbalists
Medical research
Wildlife has made charming contribution to medical research the world all over. Life animal (rat,
primates). Primates are widely used by virtue of their close relationship with man. Wide varieties
of plants are used to produces drugs for various diseases
Environmental protection
By conserving wildlife, their environment is equally conserved. The plant, soil and water around
them are conserved. This helps to check environmental degradation like erosion and flooding of
streams and rivers
Wild species not only provide food, they equally help in the maintenance of several ecological
processes. For example, they play active roles in the recycling of nutrients, maintenance of
atmospheric oxygen level and regulation of water supply and the storage of solar energy in the
form of food, wood and fossil fuels. Their earth cleaning roles includes the decomposition of
wastes and detoxification of poisonous substances. Wildlife simply makes the planet earth a
complete system
Pollination-bees, birds, animals
Sanitation-vulture, pied crows
National heritages
Wildlife is our national heritage. We met it here on earth and are duty bound to leave it for the
future generation
Environmental education
Zoological garden, game reserves and national parks provide opportunities for people to learn
about animals that live around them. They learn about animal behavior and their feeding habits.
Schools and colleges take their pupils and students on excursion in these wildlife establishments
o Challenges of Wildlife Management in Nigeria

Game poaching
An individual that kills wild animals in protected areas without permission or kills protected
animal species outside conservation areas is a poacher.

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One of the problem of wildlife management in Nigeria is the high rate of illegal hunting. Wildlife
in game reserves and national parks have been reduced almost to extinction through unregulated
hunting and trapping
Most of the poachers are aware that their activities are illegal. They are only taking the risks
because of the income accruing to them from the sale of bushmeat and light terms of imprisonment
and/or fines.
Bush burning
Wildfire can be cause by nature like lava or lightening but most are cause by humans
Some human fire result from campfire left unattended, the burning of debris, negligently discarded
cigarette and intentional act of arson.
The rural communities burn bush annually to prepare farmland under shifting cultivation, to flush
out animals during hunting, remove old unpalatable grass and promote new flush for grazing cattle
and to destroy parasites which carry and transmit diseases.
Controlled burning has beneficial effects on the environment and is used in wildlife management.
Wildfires during dry season are common in Nigeria especially in the savanna areas. When fire is
misused, it affects wildlife by changing the shape and amount of cover, decrease plant palatability
and availability, causes death or injury to lower animals and even higher animals that are unable
to escape to safety, destroy the young and eggs or exposes them to predators
Illegal grazing by herdsmen
Nomadic herdsman had over the years constituted menace the herds graze in protected areas
especially in the dry season when green vegetation is scarce causing havoc. The abundance of any
wild animal species depends mainly upon the condition of the habitat and the available food
supply. Illegal grazing reduce the amount of herbage available to game animals. They normally
kill wild animal which they consider threat to their livestock. The livestock sometimes transfer
diseases to the wild animals .The rinderpest in Africa is an early example of a number of diseases
that have appeared in wildlife and human populations. The rinderpest is a clear case of the transfer
of a virus from cattle to susceptible wildlife hosts that had not met the disease before.
Similarly, canine distemper has spread into wild dog (Lycaon pictus) populations of Serengeti
causing the local extinction of that species into lions causing a 40% mortality, and also into hyenas.
Most likely the rapidly expanding human population surrounding the Serengeti ecosystem with its
associated domestic dogs that carry the disease are the source of these new outbreaks. Another

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example is brucellosis. This was introduced to North America with the import of cattle, and the
disease then jumped to elk and bison in Yellowstone National Park, USA and Wood Buffalo
National Park in Canada.
Shortage of skill manpower
There are inadequate trained and skilled wildlife personnel in many states of the federation to
execute wildlife programmes
Ignorance
Both the policy makers and the rural people do not fully appreciate the importance of conserving
wildlife. Rural people erroneously believe that the animals are always in the bush and should be
killed anytime and anyhow for food
Illegal farming
People who live around protected areas trespass in the reserves by farming there. Thus the habitat
is destroyed and the animals rendered homeless
Encroachment into reserve
As a result of land hunger in most of the most rain forest areas and the rangelands. Illegal
settlements inside game reserves, and the parks had robbed the nation of her wildlife resources
Illegal logging
In both the rain forest and the savannah zones of Nigeria, the pressure due to logging operations,
charcoal and fuel wood production had led to the destruction of our natural vegetation

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Inadequate funding
Inadequate funding of wildlife conservation projects by federal and state governments coupled
with poor co-coordination is another big constraints.

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Inadequate legislature
Most of the wildlife laws in Nigeria are obsolete. There is lack of effective legislation to regulate
exploitation and sales of wildlife and wildlife products in Nigeria. The law is inadequate to deter
poachers from killing wild animals
High level of poverty
The level of poverty of the masses of the people which had over the years slumped into low
income, had aggravated the rate of their dependence on forest and forest products including the
wildlife resources
o Solutions

Education: perhaps the first step towards effective wildlife management and conservation is a
carefully organized public education programme that is targeted on both decisions makers and the
public
Effective legislation: legislation that will involve state and Federal staff in cooperation with
the local masses in and around reserves/parks should be carefully formulated.
Funding: adequate funding should be available to train personnels, purchase wildlife equipment,
such as patrol vehicles, communication gadgets etc. monitoring of our conservation areas should
be adequately and timely funded while parks should be elevated from their current rate of neglect
to enviable tourist, delight like their counterparts in East Africa.
Research: there is still need for more research efforts towards the provision of necessary data for
the formulation of up-to-date management plan for our parks, reserves and sanctuaries.
Enforcement of existing wildlife laws
Local participation: participatory conservation of wildlife by communities living around
protected areas
• Involvement of all stakeholders (directly, indirectly, negatively or positively affected) in a
community in a wildlife conservation activity (resource users, developers, extension
workers, industries, indigenous organizations and NGOs)
Examples of community involvement programmes includes
• Support Zone Development Programme (SZDP), Nigeria.
• Game Harvesting project in Kedia, Botswana.

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 • Luangwa Integrated Rural Development Project (LIRDP) in Zambia.
• Administrative Management by Design (ADMADE) in Zambia.
• Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)
in Zimbabwe
Use of drones
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION
Concept of wildlife conservation has been around since ancient times. Restrictions on taking game
are mentioned in the Bible. Given the right circumstances, living organisms that we call renewable
resources can replenish themselves indefinitely

• Conservation ➔ Wise use

• Preservation ➔ Non use
Conservation is the wise use of natural resources in order to ensure continuous economic and
social benefits for future generation. Wildlife conservation is the practice in which people attempt
to protect plant and animal species along with their habitat while Preservation is a component or
part of conservation in which natural systems are left alone without human disturbance or
manipulation. The goal of preservation is often maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem as
exemplified by nature preserves or wilderness areas.

Preservation is a component or part of conservation in which natural systems are left alone
without human disturbance or manipulation by outlawing hunting of endangered species.
Preservationists (people who believe in preservation) feel natural resources should be protected,
unspoiled, and untouched by humans. The goal of preservation is often maintaining the integrity
of the ecosystem as exemplified by nature preserves or wilderness areas.

Both preservation and conservation are necessary to sustain resources for future generations. Since
time immemorial the advancement of mankind both materially and culturally has been at the
expense of natural resources. These resources have been so exploited that many of them are now
extinct. The consequence is that not only will the present generation have shortage of them; the
future generation will completely be deprived of them if drastic measures are not taken to protect
them

▪ Forms of Conservation

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Ex-situ conservation means off-site conservation. It is the process of protecting species of floras
and faunas outside its natural habitat. It involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered
species in artificial ecosystem such as Game ranching, Domestication, Zoological gardens and
Botanical gardens.

Ex-situ conservation has the following advantages:

-the animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity

-the species bred in captivity can be reintroduced in the wild

-genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species

In-situ Conservation is on-site conservation. It is the process of protecting plant or animal species
in its natural habitat or environment, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself or by
defending the species from predators. In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and
protected. In-situ conservation methods are practiced in conservation areas such as

National parks, these are reserves maintained by the government. Its boundaries are well
demarcated and human activities such as grazing and cultivation are prohibited. E.g GGNP, CRNP

Wildlife sanctuaries these are regions where only wild animals are found. Human activities such
as timber harvesting, cultivation of woods and other forest products are allowed here as long as
they do not interfere with the conservation project. Also, tourist visit these places for recreation

Game reserves

Forest reserves

The following are the important advantages of In-situ conservation

-it is cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity

-a large number of living organisms can be conserved simultaneously

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-since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily adjust to
different environmental conditions

o Traditional Methods of Conservation

In African setting, every locality or community has sets of traditional conservation laws and
regulations commonly known as taboos. For example in some areas, forest groves were set aside
by various communities for religious and other traditional rites. Many activities such as hunting,
fishing, fuel wood gathering, etc. were forbidden in such groves. Hagan (1997) listed seven
traditional laws for the sustainable use of bio-systems as follows:

• Laws of exclusion prohibited entry in forests, lakes or rivers except at period of severe scarcity
and critical needs.

• Laws of selective extraction protected certain species or prohibited the destruction and use of
immature animals; pregnant animals were generally not killed for consumption.

• Laws for diversification of use are found in clan or community dietary taboos, so that whole
communities might not over-exploit one or two crops or animals.

• Laws regulating exploitation, enforced by rites for closing and opening rivers, lakes and forest
under constant use, enabled species varieties, ecosystems to regenerate and reproduce.

• Laws communizing "firing of land" in preparation for farming ensured that possible fire
hazards can be contained.

• Laws protecting special species of plants and animals from misuse (certain trees could not be
cut for fire wood) ensure high stock levels.

• Laws enforcing rites for felling of big trees and animals ensured the protection of big trees
and animals and made the ecosystems around them safe; for several kinds of plants and animals
that lived close to or around them to survive and thrive

Many of these measures have now broken down due to modern civilization and technological
breakthrough, the strong bonds and linkages that exist between human life and the other living
creatures are breaking apart. The cultural bonds and linkages are demystified and demythologized.
The direct bond between the societies and the sacred forests and groves are broken because the

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cultural forest and groves are no longer seen as necessary for survival. The sacred groves and
mystical authorities of the traditional enforcement agents are treated with contempt (Hagan, 1997)

WILDLIFE HABITAT MANAGEMENT

Most critical aspect of Wildlife Conservation is Habitat Management. Habitat loss presents one of
the greatest threats to wildlife species

o Wildlife Habitat
Every wildlife species requires a general environment in which to live. To properly manage land
for the benefit of wildlife, wildlife managers must be aware of those things in the environment that
wildlife needs to survive and reproduce. The environment or natural home where a wild animal
lives and that provides the necessities of life is called its habitat. It is an area that offers feeding,
roosting, breeding, nesting and refuge areas for variety of birds and mammal species
Habitat can be classified into
• Aquatic (water)
• Terrestrial (land)
The types of wildlife you find will differ by habitat type and habitat quality. Wildlife species vary
in their habitat requirements so that any given area may provide excellent habitat for one specie
but may be completely unsuited for others. Species in an area varies from one season to the next.
Generally, the larger and more diverse an area is, the more species of wildlife it can support
▪ Habitat Components
Habitat can be broken into four components: food, water, shelter or cover, and space. When all
parts blend together, wildlife not only survives, they thrive. Remove any one of the four and
wildlife must travel to find the missing component. As human populations increase, so does our
impact upon the natural environment. When habitats are isolated or destroyed, wildlife are
crowded into smaller areas, or they are forced to find a new area. These conditions put wildlife at
risk, including vulnerability to predators, parasites, accidents, and starvation. Some types of
wildlife (climax species) are not very mobile and local populations may be easily extinguished
when habitat is destroyed or significantly altered.
- Food
What animal depend on for its nourishment is its food. How the animal obtain it and the method
of handling it constitute its feeding habit. Food needs occur year around and yet habitat may

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produce food only on a seasonal basis. Food sources available one year may not be available the
next. Obviously, wildlife must have food to survive. Animals having adequate food and proper
nutrition throughout their lives grow larger and remain healthier than animals that experience poor
nutrition during part or all of their lives. Generally, wildlife in good condition has higher
reproduction rates and is more resistant to diseases, and can escape predators better than animals
in poor condition. Nutrition affects birth and death rates and is important in the overall survival of
any wild animal population.
The availability of food varies over time (season) and space (geographic location). Food can be
abundant in one area during one season and in critically short supply in another area during other
seasons.
Diet selection in wildlife is driven by the quantity and quality of available food in concert with the
nutritional needs of the animal. Wildlife species are carnivores, herbivores or omnivores
Carnivores Food availability to a predator means prey availability. Predators generally do not
experience problems with diet quality because most animal matter is nutritionally complete and
easy to digest. Even though carnivores expend a large amount of energy in searching for, chasing,
capturing, and killing their food, this extra expenditure of energy is offset by the higher nutrient
concentration found in animal matter
Herbivores or plant eaters depend on the food that require no active pursuit but are lower in
energy and more variable in protein composition thus they spend more time actually eating.
Herbivores may become nutritionally stressed by a lack or shortage of food (quantity) or by a lack
of highly nutritious food (quality). Herbivores do not feed randomly in the environment, but show
definite feeding patterns. These patterns are called food preferences (ranking a food according to
how much is found in the diet in relationship to how much is found in the environment) and are
assumed to be related to palatability or taste.
The usual classifications are:
Preferred or first choice- if they are more abundant in an animal diet compared to its abundance
in the field. They are taken more frequently than it occurs
Staple or second choice-they are eaten on regular basis and meet the nutritional needs of the
animal
Emergency- food eaten to fulfil short-term nutritional needs

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Stuffers- food eaten because there is nothing else to eat. It has no nutritional value’ it is eaten to
relieve hunger
This is related to our perception that food appears to be available, yet food-related problems begin
appearing in wildlife populations. Wild animals die from starvation because they do not get enough
food to survive (a lack of food quantity). Carnivores typically die because they cannot catch
enough to eat. Animals die from malnutrition because they cannot find food that meets their
nutritional needs (a lack of food quality). Plant eaters sometimes suffer because of malnutrition.
Their overall health deteriorates or they may perish because what they eat is either not nutritious
enough to maintain their bodies or not able to meet the demands put on them by reproduction or
mating. Eliminating plants with high nutritional value can have just as devastating impact on an
animal population as shooting them with a gun. Conversely, a wildlife manager who manages land
so that certain types of plants and plant communities flourish, or who plants high quality vegetation
for animals can improve the health, quality, and abundance of local wildlife populations.
Supplemental feeding of wildlife is not often economically feasible, so management efforts should
concentrate on preventing nutritional problems before they occur. The best way to prevent
nutritional problems is to provide high-quality natural foods. This is accomplished by managing
the habitat
Prey- predator relationship
Generally, predators live on the surplus produced by prey species. These influence seldom causes
reduction in succeeding breeding population. No predator except man is capable of exterminating
a prey species. Herbivorous animal population tend to increase in number toward self-destruction
(when it exceed the carrying capacity). This enhance prey availability to predators. Thus the
population of the predator also swell. The predator continue to prey on the herbivores. When the
population of the herbivores decline significantly due to increase in predation, prey species are
harder to obtain. This results to a collapse of the predator population (a natural chance for the
herbivores to grow). This natural relationship between the prey species and the predator is termed
prey- predator relationship
- Water
All living organism require water but species vary greatly in their need for drinking water. Some
species drink a lot of water and are often found near water source while others will drink when
water is available. Wildlife’s water needs are met by rivers, creeks, ponds, springs, seeps, and other

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wetlands. Some animals can survive on moisture content from insects, seeds, leaves, and dew or
as a byproduct of the body breaking down fat and starches. Animals require water for several
reasons: digestion and metabolism, reducing body temperature, and removal of metabolic wastes.
Most wildlife can survive for weeks without food but only days without water. Wild animals will
not inhabit areas too far from water, even if food and cover are abundant. The availability of
properly distributed standing water usually enhances a wildlife population

- Shelter or cover

Any variation in the habitat that provides protection from weather or predators or that offers a
better vintage point is termed Cover. A common use of cover is escape from predators, although
predators that ambush prey may themselves require cover to get close enough to make a kill.
Wildlife cover has 2 components:

• it provides shelter from adverse weather conditions (thermal cover), and

• it provides protection from predators (screening or escape cover).
Wildlife also need cover for nesting, roosting, thermal cover, escaping predators, breeding, rearing
young, and loafing. Some wildlife are not very selective about what they use for cover while other
animals are selective about the type of cover they require
- Space
All animals need space to roam, eat, drink, reproduce and many establish territories to defend from
others of their kind, especially during the breeding season. This type of habitat requirement is
called living space or simply space. Each wildlife species requires a certain amount of space to
move about, avoid or escape potential predators, locate a mate, obtain sufficient food and water
for survival, and rest. This space is often referred to as the home range of an animal. The exact
needs and the arrangement of space differ according to species, age, and even season but generally,
the amount of space required is determined by the quantity and quality of food, cover, and water
(habitat) found in an area. Other factors affecting space needs of wildlife include:
• how large the animal is (larger animals require more space),
• the animal’s dietary preferences (carnivores-lion generally require more space than
herbivores-kangaroo), and
• how well the animal can withstand crowded conditions

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Space requirements (as a function of habitat quantity and quality) essentially determine the
carrying capacity of the site for wildlife. Often you can increase the carrying capacity of an area
to support wildlife by increasing the quantity and quality of the habitat components. A long-term
increase in a population can only be accomplished by increasing the habitat’s carrying capacity.
Space is necessary to avoid over-competition for food. Some animals also need a certain amount
of territorial space for mating and nesting.

• Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is the number of each wildlife species a habitat can support throughout the year
without damage to the animals or the habitat. The goal of wildlife management is to control the
number of animals at or below carrying capacity so that no damage is done to the animals or their
habitat. If wildlife numbers exceed the carrying capacity of the habitat, the excess animals die from
starvation or other causes

EXTINCTION OF WILDLIFE SPECIES

Human population on earth has increased in geometric proportions for years. Agriculture, housing
and several human economic activities have put unprecedented pressure on all natural resources
including wildlife resources. The exploitation of these resources in a non-renewable fashion has
led to the extinction of a number of wild species including dinosaurs and the passenger pigeons.
Many more get to the brink of extinction
• Characteristic of Extinction-Prone Species
Species which are categorized as extinction-prone have characteristics such as low production
rate, specialized feeding habits (giant panda-eat bamboo and Australian Koala – eat certain types
of eucalyptus leaves). Size is another characteristics and this is common in animals like African
Lion, giant panda which all have large sizes. They have specialized or limited nesting. Another
characteristic of extinction prone species is that they are found in one place or region for example
are many unique island species. They also have fixed migratory patterns. They are also known
to have certain behavioral patterns
• Causes of Extinction

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Some of the major causes of wildlife extinction are:
Habitat Loss
One major cause of wildlife extinction is the alteration or complete loss of natural habitats
following human activities. The expansion of human settlements, construction works, wetland
reclamation and mining are just a few of the activities that greatly disturb, and in some cases
outrightly destroy natural habitats. The deforestation of tropical forests destroys sources of food,
and breeding areas for a number of wild species.
Commercial Hunting and Poaching
The killing of wild animals for food, recreation and financial gain either legally or illegally
contribute immensely to the declining population of wild species. Poaching – illegal hunting of
wild species for profit – probably contributes more of all. Poachers deplete wildlife resources in
non-conservative ways because of the fortune made from the sale of certain parts of these species.
For example, elephants are hunted for their valuable ivory tusks, while rhinoceros are hunted for
their horns
Predator and Pest Control
In a bid to exterminate such wild animals that compete with humans in one way or the other, people
take deliberate actions including poisoning of wild species. These efforts significantly deplete their
populations. For example, large numbers of elephants have been killed in Africa in the effort to
keep them from eating or destroying food crops
Population and Climate Change
Environmental pollution has been occurring for ages in different form and degrees, particularly as
a result of industrial processes. The release of toxic pollutants such as DDT and dieldrin either
deliberately or by accident affect wildlife population negatively. The present and anticipated
changes in global climate are also predicted to lead to the extermination of many wild species.
Introduction and Exterminations
Humans have cause losses by the intentional extermination of species and the introduction of
others. In 1995 farmers hunted African wild dogs in Namibia number at 250 out of a total
population of 5,000 in Africa. Wild dogs are considered vermin in Namibia. Remnant wolf and
bear populations throughout Europe are still subject to persecution even where officially protected.
Also extinctions can be caused by the introductions of species. More insidious problem of
extinction through genetic dilution and blurring with introductions has come to the fore in recent

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years. For example, the world’s most endangered dog, the Ethiopian dog is vulnerable to this fate.
Its population was reduced to less than 500 by diseases such as rabies and hybridization with dogs,
which was meant to save this species, is further eroding the species.
Resource Pressures
These pressures include human population growth and drive to globalization. The unabating
growth of human population has led to increase in consumption rates as well as the destruction of
fragmentation of habitats.
Globalization on the other hand has reduced diversity of crops; agricultural techniques and
production systems around the world have been replaced by an increasing reliance on small
number of crop species. The globalization of economies has broken the links between the
management and consumption of resources
o Conservation Status of Wildlife Species
Conservation status of species is an indicator of the likelihood of that endangered species not
living. Many factors are taken into considering the status of species, not simply the number
remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rate,
known threats etc.

The IUCN Red List

International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List refer to a specific category
of threatened species and may include critically endangered species. According to the 2021 Red
List, the number of species threatened with extinction is increasing across almost all the major
taxonomic groups that have been assessed. There are now 134,425 species on IUCN Red list, of
which 37,480 are threatened with extinction. A significant proportion of Nigeria’s wildlife
resources is now either endangered or under threat of extinction. Recent estimates show that some
6,000 species of fauna are considered to be threatened with extinction or extinct from the wild in
Nigeria either because their habitats are being destroyed , they are being over-exploited, they are
declining in numbers, or they are simply very restricted in distribution range. Among those
globally considered threatened and documented in the World Conservation Union (IUCN)’s Red
List, Nigeria has 148 animal species and 146 plant species. Of these, 26 animal species and 18
plant species are classified as endangered and another 3 animal species and 15 plant species are
critically endangered.

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• Extinct (Ex): species has not been seen in the wild or in captivity during the past 50 years.
Example includes passenger dove and dodo. The passenger pigeon or wild
pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) is an extinct North American bird. It was once the most
abundant bird in North America, and possibly the world. The species lived in enormous
migratory flocks until the early 20th century, when hunting and habitat destruction led to its
demise. Martha, thought to be the world's last passenger pigeon, died on September 1, 1914,
at the Cincinnati Zoo
• Extinct in the Wild (EW): an animal or plant is extinct in the wild when only captive(species
still held in zoological gardens or other live collection) individual survive, but there is no free-
living, natural population.eg Alagoas curassow
• Critically Endangered (CR): The species is very threatened and at risk of becoming extinct
in the immediate future. Critically endangered species have about a 50% risk of going extinct
in the wild within ten years or 3 generation. e.g. Cross River gorrillas, rhino, African forest
elephant
• Endangered (EN): Endangered species is a population of organisms which is at the risk of
becoming extinct because it is either few in number or threatened by changing environmental
or predation parameter. Species is unlikely to survive if the factor thus is posing threat persists.
In simple terms endangered species face very high risk of extinction in near future e.g. African
savanna Elephant, whale, tiger
• Vulnerable (VU): Likely to become endangered in the future if factor that is posing threat
persists. Vulnerable species face high risk of extinction in medium term e.g lion
• Near Threatened (NT): Species is approaching the threshold of vulnerability. species
considered as near threatened are those that may be threatened in near future
• Least Concern (LC)
Least concern species have no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Example
laughing dove, Olive baboons

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