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ARCH 3124
Chapter Two
Measurement of Horizontal Distance

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Pacing
Measuring Wheel

Odometer Pedometer
Speedometer
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Learning Outcomes
Out line On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
 Introduction • Define horizontal distance measurement
 Methods of Distance measurement • Select a suitable method of linear measurement for a particular
 Direct method survey task;

 Indirect method • Keep a field book and record all the relevant information in a manner
that can be interpreted by an independent observer;
 Principle of Chain Surveying/Taping
• Explain the corrections and errors that may occur in taping; and
 Miscellaneous Taping & Ranging Operation
• Reduce/Adjust steel tape measurements for temperature, tension,
 Correction for errors in Taping measurement
sag, and slope

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Introduction
• Distance , between two points, is a basic engineering measurements.

• One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of

the distance between two points (spatial distance).

• Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a network

Introduction of control points, to fix the position of topographic detail, to set out
the position of a point in construction work, and others.

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Methods for Hor. Distance measurements

The method used for any particular job depends upon the:
. nature of the ground,
. the range,
Techniques of Distance Measurement . the accuracy,
. the number of distances to be measured,
• the time available, and
. the cost and the availability of the equipment.

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Techniques for Distance measurements Techniques for Distance measurements…

• Their relative merit depends upon the degree of precision
required.
• Therefore, in general, four methods of making linear
measurements are discussed under:
 Direct method
A. Approximate methods
B. Taping
 In Direct method
A. Optical instruments
B. EDM

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Methods for Distance measurements… Methods for Distance measurements…

A. The approximate methods: 1. Pacing:
• Are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for the • Pacing consists of counting the number of steps

measurement of horizontal distances. or paces.

• It is used for rough measurements and to check
• These methods are also used sometimes to detect large
accurate measurements.
mistakes.
• A person can determine the
• Some of them are described as follows:
distance walked by counting the
• Pacing
number of paces made.
• Measuring Wheel
• The distance can be obtained by
• Odometer
multiplying the number of paces by
• Pedometer
February 24, 2025 Measurement of Horizontal Distance 15 the average
February 24, 2025 length of theMeasurement
paces.of Horizontal Distance 16

Methods for Distance measurements… Methods for Distance measurements…

2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted
on a lower end of rod about 1 m long through a fork.
• The upper end of the rod has a handle.
• The wheel is pushed along the ground. The distance traversed is
recorded on the dial attached the wheel. (see, Figure bellow)

Digital Measuring Wheel

Analogue Measuring Wheel

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Methods for Distance measurements…

3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate
the speed and the distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the
Speedometer can be used to measure the distance.

4. Odometer: Based on diameter of tires (no. of revolutions X wheel

diameter); this method gives a fairly reliable result. provided a
check is done periodically on a known length.

B. Optical methods: the distances are measured and is computed

indirectly. (Example: stadia tachometry, Subtence bar).

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Methods for Distance measurements…

C. Electro-Magnetic Distance Measuring (EDM): distances
are measured with instruments that rely on propagation,
reflection and subsequent reception of radio waves, light
waves or infrared waves.

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Principle of Chain surveying/ Taping

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Principles of Chain Surveying/Taping Principles of Chain Surveying/Taping

Taping (chaining): - D. Taping/Chaining:
• Chaining surveying is the branch of surveying in which the distances are Chaining surveying is the branch of surveying in which the distances are
measured with a chain and tape and the operation is called chaining. measured with a chain or tape and
• this method involves direct measurement of distances with a tape or Tapes
chain. Steel tapes are most commonly used. • Measuring tapes can be classified
• It is available in lengths varying from 5m to 100m. • depending upon the: material used in their manufacture and Length.
• Formerly on surveys of ordinary precision, lengths of lines were measured 1. Linen or cloth tapes
with chains. 2. Glass-fibre tapes
• It is the simplest method of surveying 3. Metallic tapes
• If carefully done, it gives us quite accurate results. 4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes
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Tapes Tapes…
Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth.
• Tapes are available in lengths up to 100 meters;
The tape is light and handy but not very accurate.
These tapes are available in length of 10m, 20m, 25m and 30m. precision of 1/1,000 to 1/5,000 are commonly obtained.
Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes
but they are made of glass-fibre. The tapes are quite flexible, strong
• For engineering work the lengths are generally
and non-Conductive
Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are made of water 10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.
proof fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic wires are interwoven.
Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in
surveying. They are more accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes
are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
Invar Tapes: Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel
(36%), which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar
tapes are used for linear measurements of very high precision

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Taping accessories
• In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and
accessories are required for the determination of the length of a
line.

– Arrows (Chain pins)

Miscellaneous Taping & Ranging
– Pegs

Operation – Ranging rods

– Plumb bobs or rod levels, etc.

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Ranging Pole
Arrows/ Chain Pins
Clinometers Ranging
• The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line
between two end points is known as ranging.
• Ranging must be done before a survey line is chained.
Pegs
• Ranging may be done by direct observation by the naked eye or by
line ranger or by theodolite.
• Generally, ranging is done by the naked eye with the help of three
Tension Handler
Tape ranging rods.
Hand levels Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight-grained
Spring Balance
timber.
PLUM BOBS
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Ranging… Taping accessories...

Arrow:
It is an instrument used in chain
surveying.
Arrows are used to mark the
position of the ends of the chain
on the ground.
The arrows are made of good
quality, hardened and tempered
steel wire of 4 mm diameter.

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Taping accessories... Taping accessories...

• Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role
in surveying.
• As a freely suspended plumb bob always points towards
the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line.
• In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for
measuring distances on sloping ground.

plumb bob

Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods

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Taping accessories... Taping accessories...

Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the
An optical square is a hand instrument
survey stations or the end points of the survey line.
used by surveyor's to lay off right angles
that are multiples of 90° or of 45°.
They normally comprise of two optical
glass penta prisms in a sturdy housing.
Used for placing points on a line, offset
measurements, setting out curves or
determining horizontal plans.

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Taping Procedures
• Taping Procedures
• Tape must always be straight

• Tape must not be twisted

• Use chaining arrows for intermediate points

Taping Technique • Tape horizontally if possible.

• Tape on the ground if possible

• Slope taping need to be reduced

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Taping Techniques

Range pole is set at each end of the line and the tape is unwind and
laid out on the ground with the zero ends forward.
The front tape person then takes the zero end of the tape hands one
pin to the rear tape person, and moves forward along the line.

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Taping Techniques…
Measuring horizontal distance over level ground
• The simplest taping operation is measuring over level
ground where the tape can be stretched out while fully
supported by the ground as shown in the figure below.

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Taping Techniques… Taping Techniques…

Measuring horizontal distance over Slope ground

• Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a
slope.

• The horizontal distance between the two points can be measured by

supporting the tape at the two ends only

• Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape

person holds one end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground
so that the straight line joining the two ends are approximately level.

• Tension is applied and the position of the end of the tape is transferred by
means of a plumb bob to the ground.
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Taping over Sloping Ground

If the taping is done
over sloping ground
Measuring Horizontal and Vertical
where there is no
Distances in Steep Sloping Areas
underbrush, the
taping must be done
in sections, referred
to as breaking the
tape

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Measuring Horizontal and Vertical Measurement of horizontal and vertical

Distances in Steep Sloping Areas distances,

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Taping Techniques…
Measuring Distances in Tall Vegetation • The tape is stretched a second time and the mean of the two
measurements will be taken.

• It is hardly possible or good practice to hold the tape more than 5

ft. or 1.5m above the ground; if the slope is more than 5ft per
tape length it is necessary to break tape.

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Taping Techniques Cont…

Taping over Sloping Ground

Hold the tape level

Use a plumb bob to locate

the point
Height less than
5 feet

40 feet 30 feet 35 feet

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Corrections For Systematic

Errors in Taping

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Corrections For Systematic Errors in Taping Common Systematic Errors in Taping

• Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and
The common errors in taping are:
tension.
- Tape not standard length/erroneous tape-length
• Change in temperature, tension and mode of support affect the
result of taping. (error of standard)

• The errors caused by these sources behave according to physical - Tape not horizontal ( error of slop)
laws and can be expressed with mathematic expressions and - Variation in Temperature ( temperature error)
those they are systematic errors. - Variation in Tension ( tension error)
- Sag in the Tape ( sag error)

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1. CORRECTION FOR STANDARDIZATION 1. CORRECTION FOR STANDARDIZATION Cont...

• Is required if the absolute length or true length of tape is not Tape too long – recorded measurement (29.9 m) too short

equal to the nominal length or the designated length

• Correction per tape length (C) = l' - l

Where, l = nominal length of the tape

l’ = actual length of the tape

• Total correction in the measured distance (L) is given by:

Tape too short – recorded measurement (30.1 m) too long

l' l
Ca  ( )L
l

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Rules for Standardization Correction 2. CORRECTION FOR TENSION OR PULL

Rules in Applying Taping Corrections: • If a tape is used in the field under a tension different from the
standard tension, the tape will change length a slight amount, the
When MEASURING: correction will be:
Tape too long ………………………… ADD correction
Cp 
P  PS  L
Tape too short ………………………… SUBTRACT correction AE
When LAYING OUT:
Where; P is the tension applied in the field.
Tape too long ………………………… SUBTRACT correction Ps is the standard/ calibration tension
Tape too short ………………………… ADD correction A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
E is Young's modulus of elasticity for the tape material
(N/mm2)

To apply this correction a tension handle is needed

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.

3. CORRECTION FOR SAG 3. CORRECTION FOR SAG…

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3. CORRECTION FOR SAG… 4. CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE

• A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an • If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the
amount that is related to its weight and the pull (tension). standardization temperature, then the correction is
w 2 L3 W 2L
 or 
Ct  L T  Ts 
Cs
24 P 2 24 P 2
Where:
Where; w-the unit weight of the tape per linear meter
L-observed length
W-the total weight of the tape b/n unsupported distance
α - coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
L-observed length (unsupported length)
Ts - standard temperature
P- tension applied in the field.
Tf - field temperature
Note: Correction for sag is always negative
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5. CORRECTION FOR SLOPE Summery of Systematic corrections

When a distance is measured along a uniform slope

or Cg  S (1 Cos )

Where;

h: is the difference in height between the end points

S: is the measured slope distance

Cg: is the correction of height due to slope

θ: measured vertical angle

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Degree of Accuracy in Taping DEGREE OF ACCURACY IN TAPING…

• The degree of accuracy is a measure of how close and correct a Some permissible limits of error:
stated value. is to the actual, real value being described. • accuracy (a) For measurement with steel band = 1/2000
may be affected by rounding, the use of significant figures. or (b) For measurement with tested chain = 1/1000
designated units or ranges in measurement. (c) In normal condition = 1/500
• The degree of accuracy of chaining is expressed as a ratio called the (d) For rough work = 1/250
chaining ratio. The chaining ratio may be 1/1000, 1/2000 etc.
• For example, if there is an error of 0.25 m during the measurement of
a total length of 500 m.
Chaining ratio = 0.25 / 500 = 1/2000

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Degree of Accuracy … Summery

Distance measuring equipment and typical accuracies

• Pacing (1:100)
• Optical Range finder (1:300)
• Trundle Wheel (1:500)
• Stadia tachometry (1:1000)
• Taping or chaining (1:10,000)
• Electronic Distance Measurements (EDM) (1:50,000)

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