The Endocrine System

 Two systems that directly/indirectly control most body functions are endocrine system and
nervous systems. Out of these two systems, nervous system transmits impulses and endocrine
system produces hormones. Out of these two systems, nervous system is the faster system and
endocrine system may take hours or days to respond.
 Endocrine system consists of cells or structures that secrete chemicals called hormones. These
cells and structures are called glands.
exocrine glands secrete chemicals through ducts.
endocrine glands secrete chemicals that diffuse into blood.
Pancreas are referred to as a dual gland; because it secretes digestive enzymes into small
intestine via ducts and therefore it is called an exocrine gland; because it secretes hormones
that diffuse into the blood, it is also called an endocrince gland.
 There are three types of chemicals that regulate body functions. Endocrines are chemicals that
are made by primary glands, diffuse into blood, and act on specific target cells.
Paracrines are chemicals that act on neighboring cells and referred to as local hormones.
Autocrines are chemicals that act on the same cells and are also referred to as local hormones.
 Hormones travel through blood and are recognized by target cells by presence of receptor
proteins. When the level of a hormone goes down, the number of receptors may go up. This is
called up-regulation. When the level of a hormone goes up, the number of receptors may go
down. This is called down-regulation.
 Hormones play a very important role in maintaining water, pH, blood sugar, temperature, and
minerals. Maintaining internal levels is referred to as homeostasis.
 Hormones vary in their chemical structure that affects it function. Amine hormones, peptide
hormones and protein hormones are mostly water soluble and lipid insoluble. Steroid hormones
are lipid soluble and water insoluble.
Eicosanoids are derived from membrane phospholipid and have hormone like activity. They are
often referred to as the protein regulators.
Based on their solubility, steroid hormones travel in blood by binding to plasma
receptors/membrane while peptide hormones can travel in the dissolved form in blood plasma.
Hormones are mostly tested by taking a sample of blood from the patient.
 There are 3 types of signals that stimulate endocrine glands: humoral, hormonal, and neural.
Hormone insulin is stimulated by blood sugar levels.
 For water insoluble/lipid soluble hormones, the receptor/s is/are present in the cytoplasm or
nucleus of the cell. These hormones form a hormone-receptor complex that activates specific
genes of DNA and activates synthesis of new mRNA and proteins .
For water soluble/lipid insoluble hormones, the receptors is present in the plasma membrane of
the cell. These hormones form a hormone-receptor complex that activates production of second
messenger called cyclic-AMP .
The enzyme activated to make this messenger is called adenylyl cyclase/G-protein. Protein
kinases involved in this mechanism of action attached phosphates to inactive proteins, a process
called ______.
 Most body functions are regulated by two or more hormones. When the effect of one hormone
is required before the target cell is exposed to another hormone, it is called permissive
interaction.
 When two or more hormones complement each other to produce a greater response, it is called
synergistic interaction.
Insulin decreases blood sugar while glucagon increases blood sugar; this type of interaction is
referred to as antagonistic interaction.
 A sequence of events where the end response regulates the secretion of the hormone is called
the hormone control mechanism. The two types of these mechanisms are water insoluble/lipid
soluble and water soluble/lipid insoluble mechanisms. Low blood sugar stimulates the secretion
of glucagon from hypothalamus, insulin from anterior pituitary, thyroid hormones from thyroid
gland and eventually increase blood sugar. This is called the negative feedback system. Infant
suckling on the breast generates impulses that stimulate release of oxytocin from posterior
pituitary and eventually leads to release of milk. This is an example of a positive feedback
system.
 Pituitary gland is divided into two main lobes; anterior pituitary also known as adenohypophysis
and posterior pituitary also known as neurohypophysis.
 Hypothalamus makes releasing and inhibitory hormones that regulate hormones made by
anterior pituitary gland. These releasing hormones are referred to as the anterior pituitary
hormones because they stimulate another endocrine gland to release its hormones.
Hypothalamus also has neurosecretory cells that secrete two hormones ADH and oxytocin.
These hormones are stored and released from the anterior pituitary gland.
 List all hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland growth hormone (GH), prolactin
(PRL), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
 Human growth hormone is made by anterior pituitary gland and act mostly on bone, cartilage
and fat cells.
Hyposecretion of hGH during early childhood years leads to dwarfism; whereas its
hypersecretion causes giantism.
Hypersecretion of hGH in an adult causes symptoms similar to diabetes mellitus and it is
referred to as diabetogenic effect of hGH.
 TSH released by anterior pituitary stimulates release of hormones from thyroid gland and
therefore it is referred to as a tropic hormone.
 FSH and LH are hormones that stimulate ovaries and testis to produce their hormones.
Together they are called the gonadotropins.
 Prolactin is the hormone that stimulates making of milk by the mammary gland and milk
production stimulates the release of milk.
 ACTH released by pituitary gland stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol.
 ADH is made by hypothalamus, released by posterior pituitary, and is responsible for
reabsorption of water in kidneys.
 Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone leads to symptoms similar to diabetes mellitus (large
amounts of urine formed, dehydration, thirst) and this condition is referred to as diabetes
insipidus.
 Thyroid gland has two types of cells that make hormones; follicular cells make thyroid
hormones while parafollicular cells make calcitonin.
thyroid hormone regulates metabolism whereas parathyroid hormone regulates blood and bone
 calcium levels.
Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone in infants causes dwarfism.
 Parathyroid hormone from parathyroid gland and calcitonin from thyroid gland have opposing
effects on blood calcium levels. Such hormones are referred to as antagonistic hormones.
 Adrenal gland is divided into two regions: adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. Adrenal cortex
makes three different types of hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and
gonadocorticoids.
Adrenal medulla makes two types of hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Hormones from adrenal medulla are involved in fight or flight response.
Hormones from adrenal cortex are involved in regulating minerals and water. Adrenal hormone
that is regulated by ACTH secreted from anterior pituitary is adrenal cortex.
 Pancreas have groups of cells which make up the endocrine part of the gland called the
pancreatic Islets .
Beta cells secrete insulin.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon.
Delta cells secrete somatostatin.
Insulin decreases blood sugar whereas glucagon increases blood sugar.
Diabetes mellitus is detected by a series of symptoms.
Decreased blood glucose is called hypoglycemia; increased blood glucose is called
hyperglycemia; glucose in urine is called glycosuria; production of large amounts of urine is
called diabetes insipidus.
 The main function of ovaries and testis is to produce gamete formation (eggs and sperms).
However, they are also endocrine glands because they produce hormones.
They are regulated by gonadotropins released by anterior pituitary.
 Pineal gland makes melatonin that regulates internal cycle.
 Primary function of thymus is maturation of T lymphocytes and the hormone thymosin helps in
this process.
 Stomach and small intestine produce hormones to help with breaking down proteins of food.
Placenta makes a variety of hormones to support pregnancy.
 Kidneys make erythropoietin to stimulate RBC formation by red bone marrow.