CONTENTS

S.No. Name of the experiment Page No.

1&2 Study of soil sampling tools and methods - Collection and processing
of soil sample

3 Study and identification of rocks and minerals

4 Description of soil profile in field

5&6 Determination of soil texture by feel and Bouyoucos method

7 Determination of moisture content of soil by gravimetric method

8 Determination of bulk density of soil

9 Determination of particle density and porosity of soil

10 Determination of soil moisture constants by using Keen cup method

11 Determination of soil colour using Munsell colour chart

12 Determination of pH of soil

13 Determination of Electrical Conductivity of soil

14 Determination of infiltration capacity of soil by double ring infiltrometer

method

15 & 16 Study of soil structure and determination of aggregate stability of soil

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Experiment No: 1 & 2 Date:

STUDY OF SOIL SAMPLING TOOLS AND METHDOS - COLLECTION

AND PROCESSING OF SOIL SAMPLE

Introduction
Soil sampling is the most vital step in soil testing. Soil testing is a useful tool for making fertilizer
recommendations for various crops and cropping sequences as well as for reclamation of problem soils. As a
very small fraction of the huge soil mass is used for analysis, it becomes extremely important to get a true
representative soil sample of the entire field.
Objectives of soil testing:
1. To evaluate soil fertility status for making fertilizer recommendations
2. To predict the probable crop response to the applied nutrient
3. To classify the soils in to different fertility groups for preparing soil fertility map
4. To identify the type and degree of soil related problems like, salinity, alkalinity and acidity etc.
5. To suggest appropriate reclamation measure.
Important points to be considered for soil sample collection:
i. The sample must truly represent the field to which it belongs.
ii. A field should be treated as a single sampling unit if it is uniform, generally an area of not exceeding 0.5
ha is taken as single unit.
iii. Variation in slope, colour, texture, crop growth and management practices are to be considered.
iv. Sampling from recently fertilized plots, near bunds, irrigation channels and areas near trees, wells,
compost pits must be avoided for sampling.
v. An area of about 2 to 3 m along the side of the field should be left unsampled
vi. Larger areas may be divided into appropriate number of smaller homogenous units.
SAMPLING TOOLS:
a. Samples can be drawn with the help of soil tube or screw type auger, post hole auger, spade or kurpi.
b. In hard and dry soils screw type auger must be preferred
c. If spade / kurpi is used, a “V” shaped cut may be made up to the plough layer and uniformly 2 cm thick
slice is taken out from one side.
TIME OF SAMPLING:
• The ideal time for collection of soil sample is summer
• Always collect the soil sample when the soil is in dry condition (preferably).
Depth of soil sampling:
• For annual crops the sample should be drawn from 0 to 15 cm depth or plough sole depth. For deep
rooted crops like cotton sample should be drawn from >15 to 30 cm depth.

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• For plantation / orchard / horticultural crops the composite sample is prepared by collecting soil
from different depths of 0 – 30, 30-60 and 60 – 100 cm.
• For saline, alkali soils if salt encrustation is visible on the surface should be sampled separately.
• In case of compost samples if drawn below 50 cm as in case of flowering plants like rose, the depth
should be indicated.

Sampling tools Shovel Post-hole auger

Screw auger

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PROCEDURE OF SOIL SAMPLING:
• For making composite sample, collect small portions of soil up to a desired depth by means of suitable
sampling tools from 15 to 20 cm from well distributed parts, moving in a zig zag manner, from each
individual sample site after removing the
surface litter / waste material/ dust without removing the top soil.
• In standing crops, the soil samples must be drawn in between the rows
• Mix the soil collected from different parts and spread on a clean cloth
or polyethylene sheet
• Reduce the bulk soil to half kilogram by quartering technique.
QUARTERING:
• Mix the soil thoroughly and spread it a thin layer on a clean floor / sheet / cloth in to a circle
• Divide the sample into 4 (four) equal portions (quadrants)
• Combine two of the four portions diagonally rejecting the other two parts, repeat this procedure until the
desired amount of set is obtained (preferably 500 g )
• Special care must be taken for collection and handling the soil sample for preventing contamination.
The following precautions are to be taken for minimizing the errors:
• Avoid contact of soil sample with chemical fertilizer or manure.
• Use stainless steel augars instead of rusted iron spade / kurpi for micronutrients analysis..
• Do not use fertilizer or seed package bags for collection of soil sample.
• Store the soil samples preferably in a clean cloth or polyethylene bag.
• Use glass bottle or polyethylene box for long duration storage.
LABELLING OF SAMPLES:
• Sample should be labeled for identification, using a thick paper with identification mark and other details
should be put inside the sample bag and other label carrying some details should be pasted outside the
bag.
• Label should always be written with pencil.
• In addition, to the location name, field number, name of the farmer, relevant information, identification
marks, drainage, slope, previous cropping history, fertilizers, manures added to the previous crops must
be recorded and sent along with the soil sample.
Processing of soil sample for analysis:
•. Air dry the samples in shade
• Break the clods with the help of wooden pestle and mortor
• Sieve the samples through 2 mm sieve
• Remove the plant residues, gravel and other material retained on the sieve, if the gravel content is
substand it should be recorded and expressed as % of sample
• For certain types of analysis like organic carbon estimation pass the soil further through 0.5mm sieve

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Note: Before weighting the sample for any analysis mix the sample thoroughly.
Fig. No.1. Collection of soil sample in the field

Field

Sampling point’s composite sample

Diagrammatic representation of steps in soil sampling (Quartering technique)

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

1 2 1x 2 2 1 2x

3 4 3 4x 3 3x 4

Make composite Discard 1 & 4 parts Mix remaining two Discard 2 &3 parts Representative sample
sample parts and make into 4parts (500 g)

Label / information sheet

1 Name of the farmer :

2 Field number / survey number :

3 Bench mark / land mark if any :

4 Village :

5 Mandal and District :

6 Date of sampling and depth of sampling :

7 Name of sampler and signature :

8 Colour / type of soil : red / black

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 9 Irrigation method and source : canal / well / tank /
rainfed

10 Topography : level / uneven

11 Crop rotation followed :

12 Previous crops grown :

13 Crops to be taken up during current seasons :

14 Details of manures / fertilizers / amendments applied to previous crops

15 Nature of drainage :

Exercise:
1. What are the objectives of soil testing?
2. What is quartering?

3. What are the precautions to be followed while collecting soil sample?

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Experiment No: 3 Date:

STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

Rocks and minerals are formed from the cooling and crystallization of molten magma. From these
rocks and minerals different types of soils are developed through the action of different soil farming factors and
by undergoing different pedogenic processes. Hence by knowing the characteristics of rocks and minerals we
can understand the physical and chemical properties of soils developed under field conditions and their
suitability for cultivation of different crops.
Aim: To identify important rocks and minerals
Rock is a hard mineral material which contains one or more than one rock farming minerals. Based
on origin rocks are classified rocks in to 3 major groups
1.Primary rocks, 2. Secondary rocks and 3. Metamorphic rocks.
1. PRIMARY OR IGNEOUS ROCKS: - Rocks are formed by cooling and consolidation of molten magma
within (Intrusive rock) or on the surface of the earth (extrusive rock) are called as Primary or Igneous rocks.
Based on chemical composition (silica content) of igneous rocks (Crystalline rocks) are further divided
as acid igneous and basic igneous rocks.
• Granite :- An acid igneous rock , formed as plutonic or intrusive rock within the earth crust. A
coarse textured and light colored rock that contains 60 -70% feldspars (orthoclase 40-45%,
plagioclase 20-25%), 3-10% ferromagnesian minerals and 20-30% quartz (The fine grained rock
with above composition is ‘Rhyolite’)
• Basalt : - This is the most abundant rock formed from molten material. It is classified as basic
igneous rock formed as volcanic rock, fine grained and dark colored rock which contains 50%
feldspars and 50% Ferro magnesium minerals
• Pumice :- A light weight, light colored cellular extrusive rock formed by the escaping of volatile
constituents. The cellular structure is due to the lava which has been frothed up to many times its
original volume by expansion of its gases. It has a lower specific weight than water so it floats on
water. In composition it is comparable to granite / rhyolite and in texture it is like a sponge.
2. SEDIMENTARY OR SECONDARY ROCKS :- The sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments, derived
from the breaking down of primary rocks. The sediments are transported to new places and deposited in new
arrangements and cemented to form secondary rocks.

• Sandstone: is a secondary rock formed from weathering debris. It occurs in beaches, deserts,
flood plains and deltas.
• Conglomerate: it is a classic sedimentary rock with more or less rounded particles formed
mechanically.
• Shale: it is weathered debris, breaks in to thin fine pieces. It typically breaks into thin flat pieces.
It is a fine grained detrital rock composed of clay, silt and sand.
• Coal: an organic sedimentary rock, forms mainly from plant debris.
• Halite (Rock salt – NaCl): is a sedimentary rock, formed from the evaporation of ocean or saline
lake waters. Rarely found at Earth’s surface (arid climate). Mined for use in the chemical industry or
for use as a winter highway treatment. Processed salt is used for seasoning of food.

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3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS : The primary and secondary rocks when subjected to earth’s movement and to
high temperature and pressures, they are partially or wholly reconstituted or altered to new rocks called
metamorphic rocks
Ex: Gneiss, Schist (Coarse grained), Phyllite (medium grained), Slate (Very fine grained), Marble etc.,
ROCK CYCLE

Gneiss : It is a foliated metamorphic rock. Metamorphism of sandstone and is mainly composed

of quartz.
Schist : It is a rock with well developed foliation and contains significant amounts of mica which
allow the rock to split into thin pieces. It is an intermediate metamorphic grade
between Phyllite and Gneiss.
Soapstone : It is a metamorphic rock contains talc, micas, chlorite, amphiboles, pyroxenes and
carbonates. It is soft, dense, heat resistant rock with high specific heat capacity.
These properties make it useful for a wide variety of architectural, practical and artistic
uses.
Slate : It is a foliated metamorphic rock. Shale on metamorphosis becomes slate. It is a low
grade metamorphic rock that splits into thin pieces.
Marble : It is a non foliated metamorphic rock. It is a metamorphism of limestone or dolomite
contains mainly calcium carbonate.
Graphite : Graphite on metamorphosis becomes coal.

Granite Basalt

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 Pumice

Secondary minerals
sand stone

Slate Marble

Schist Quartzite

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MINERALS:
Mineral is a naturally occurring, homogenous element or inorganic compound that has a definite
chemical composition and a characteristic geometric form.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS BASED ON MODE OF ORIGIN:
I. Primary minerals or Primary silicate minerals: The primary minerals are those which are formed
from the crystallization of the molten magma.
i. Quartz : It occurs in a high degree of purity and most resistant primary mineral. It is resistant to physical
and chemical weathering as the structure is densely packed, electrically neutral and prevents any form
of substitution. It is ubiquitous in soils but its abundance is next only to feldspars.
ii. Feldspars : Its frame work is less dense than quartz. These are most abundant among rock forming
minerals in the earth’s crust, non ferro - magnesian minerals and act as store house of sodium, calcium,
potassium minerals and many trace elements in soils.
iii. Micas : Occur most extensively in soils. Muscovite (white mica) a non- ferromagnesian mineral, resistant
for weathering. Muscovite is present only in acid igneous rocks. Biotite (black mica) a ferro- magnesian
mineral, highly susceptible for weathering.
iv. Pyroxenes and Amphiboles : These two minerals are two groups of ferro- magnesian minerals and
their structure consists of long chains of linked silica tetrahedral units (Inosilicate). Due to variety of
substitutions these minerals are excellent host minerals for trace cations in soils and also for main
constituent cations like Ca, Mg and Fe. Their weatherability is quite favorable to provide sufficient amounts
of these ions in available form for plant nutrition.

Pyroxenes - Single chain ex: Augite

v. Olivines: Olive green colored minerals. Olivines are relatively easily weathered. These minerals are also
called island silicate mineral. Ex: Forsterite – Mg2SiO4; Fayalite – Fe2SiO4
II. SECONDARY MINERALS: The secondary minerals are formed at the earth’s surface by the weathering
of the pre-existing primary minerals under variable conditions of temperature and pressure. Due to the
action of weathering processes primary minerals are altered or decomposed. Secondary minerals are
classified as
A. Silicates -Clay minerals: Illite, Montmorillonite, Kaolinite
B. Non silicates minerals-

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• Oxides, Hydroxides of Al and Fe: Hematite, Goethite, Gibbsite
• Carbonates: Calcite (CaCO3),
• Sulphates: Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
• Phosphates: Apatite (Ca10 (PO4)6. X2)
• ‘P’ containing minerals – apatite
• Zn - Smithsonite (ZnCO3), Sphalerite (Zn S)
• Mg – Epsomite (MgSO4. 7H2O), Dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3)
• Mn – Pyrolusite (MnO2), Rhodocrosite (MnCO3) , Manganite (Mn OOH)
• Mo – Molybdenite (Mo O2), Wulfenite (CaMoO4), Powellite (PbMoO4)
• Fe – Siderite (FeCO3), Pyrite (FeS2).
Calcite: is a white mineral. It is widely distributed in sedimentary rock (limestone) decomposes easily as
Ca (HCO3).
Siderite: is an alteration of other iron bearing minerals and may itself alter to haematite or limonite.
Observations:

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Questions:
1. How igneous rocks are formed?
2. What are the differences between igneous and sedimentary rocks?

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Experiment No: 4 Date:

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL PROFILE IN FIELD

Introduction:
Soil is a dynamic natural body on the earth surface in which plants grow, composed of minerals
and organic materials and living forms (Buckman and Brady).
Soil Profile: is a vertical section through a soil. It represents sequence of horizons or layers differentiated
from one another but genetically related and included to the parent material from which the soil profile is
developed.
Horizon: is a layer of soil, approximately parallel to soil surface, differing in properties from layer above
and below.
Aim: to study and identify the different horizons in soil profile.
Procedure:
1. Selection of the profile site: profile site should be selected in such a way that
• It represents the normal conditions prevailing in the area
• It should be away from tree, an irrigation channel/ditch/river, human inhabitations, road etc., as these
prevent the normal development of the soil.
2. Digging of soil profile
The pit should be dug in such a way that the sun is at the back of the person when he describes
the soil profile. Dig a pit of the dimensions of about 2 m long, 1.25 m wide and 1.5 m deep (in case of
deep soils upto bed rock , incase of shallow soils upto parent material and upto water table in case of
waterlogged soils.
3. Examination and description of soil profile
Mark different layers on the basis of characteristics that can be visually observed or measured in
the field such as colour, texture, structure, consistence and presence of carbonates etc.
Describe each horizon for the following characteristics: (detailed morphological description sheet is given
as Annexure-II
• Horizon symbol – O, A, E, BE, Bt,BC, C, R.
• Depth of each horizon /layer (cm):
• Soil colour (when wet or moist or dry): using Munsell colour chart
• Mottling (if any): Contrast- Abundance – few (<2 mottles), common (2- 20 mottles) and many ( >20
mottles)
• Soil texture: sand/ silit/ clay/ sandy loam/ loam/ clay loam etc.
• Soil structure: granular/ crumb/ platy/ prismatic/ blocky.
• Soil consistence
Dry- 0 -loose, 1 -soft, 2 - slightly hard, 3-hard, 4 - very hard, 5 - extremely hard.

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Moist – 0 - loose , 1 - very friable, 3 - firm , 4 - very firm, 5 - extremely firm.
Wet – 0 - non sticky, 1- slightly sticky, 2-sticky, 3 - very sticky.
•. Cutans (ped coatings), pressure faces, slicken sides etc.
• Nodules/concretions and cementation (if any):
• Content of carbonates:
• Roots:
• Depth of each horizon (cm) - record the depth from the top to the bottom of a particular horizon.
• Nature of the boundary with the horizon below:
The vertical change from one horizon to the other varies in distinctness and outline. Depending upon
the vertical distance over which the change takes place five classes of distinctness are used as under
Abrupt (a) : Change takes place within 2 cm
Sharp (s) : Change takes place within 2 - 5 cm
Clear : Change takes place within 5 - 10 cm
Gradual (g) : Change takes place within 10 -20 cm
Diffused (d) : Change takes place within > 20 cm
The outline of the horizon boundaries varies considerably from soil to soil. The different types of
outlines are described below
Smooth(s) : Almost straight
Wavy (w) : Gently undulating
Lobate (l) : With regular lobes
Irregular (ir) : Strongly undulating and mamillated
Tongued (t) : Forming tongues into the underlying horizon, shallow tongues and deep
tongues.
• pH:
• Hard pans:
• Pores

Soil Profile

Exercise: Draw the diagram of profile with horizons observed in the field

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Exercise
1. What is soil profile? Describe the master horizons of soil profile
2. Does all the soil contain all the master horizons? Explain why

3. What is solum and what is regolith?

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Experiment No: 5 & 6 Date:

Determination of soil texture by feel and Bouyoucos method

Sand, silt and clay are the primary particles comprising the soil solids. These are generally clustered
together as secondary particles. The grouping of particles based on the size is given in Table 1. The procedure
of separating out these primary particles and measuring their proportions is called particle size analysis or
mechanical analysis. The relative proportion of size groups of sand, silt and clay in a soil is called soil
texture. Soil texture helps in understanding all phenomena of soils such as infiltration, hydraulic conductivity,
water retention, plasticity, cation exchange capacity, workability etc. The texture of soil does not change by
normal management practices.
Estimating soil texture under field conditions is called Feel Method and exact determination of different
sized particles fraction in the laboratory is done in three steps as given below
1. Dispersion
2. Fractionation
3. Identification of textural class
Fractionation can be done by two standard procedures
1. International /Robinsons Pipette method
2. Bouyoucos hydrometer method
Though International /Robinsons Pipette method is more accurate than hydrometer method. we will
learn the procedure of Bouyoucos hydrometer method as it takes less time and it will give considerably good
results.
Determining soil Texture by the Feel Method
Materials: Water, Paper towels, Ruler, Determining Soil Texture Flow Chart (Hand out).
Procedures:
• In order to determine the soil texture by feel, the soil must be moistened. Add a small amount of water to
the soil too give it a putty-like consistency.
• Move the soil between your thumb and forefinger to determine if the soil feels gritty, sticky or smooth I the
"feel' characteristics for sand, clay and silt respectively).
• Try to push the soil between your thumb and forefinger to make a "ribbon" the longer the ribbon, the more
clay there is in the soil. Using a ruler, measure the length of the ribbon and record the data.
• Note the Ribbon classification of your soil :
good ribbon: A soil containing more than 40% clay is sticky enough to form a ribbon 2 inches
long or longer.
fair ribbon : A soil containing 27- 40% clay is sitcky enough to form a ribbon at least 1 inch long
but not longer than 2 inches.
no ribbon : The ribbon formed by a soil containing less than 2% clay will be less than 1 inch
long.

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Determination Soil Texture By the Feel Method

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Table 1: The International Society of Soil Science (ISSS) and USDA has grouped soil particles into
the following classes based on size

System Fraction ISSS (mm) USDA ( mm)

Very coarse sand - 2–1

Coarse sand 2 – 0.2 1 – 0.5

Medium sand - 0.5 – 0.25

Fine sand 0.2 – 0.02 0.25 – 0.1

Very find sand - 0.1 – 0.05

Silt 0.02 – 0.002 0.05 – 0.002

Clay < 0.002 < 0.002

Stoke’s law (1851):

The resistance offered by the liquid to a freely falling insoluble spherical smooth particle varies with
square of the radius of the particle but not with the surface area of the particle.
Stoke’s equation for settling velocity:
A rigid smooth spherical particle falling freely through a liquid of a lower density will attain a
constant velocity, called terminal velocity when the downward and upward forces acting on the particle are
equal.
Fdownward = (force of gravity) – (buoyant force offered by the liquid)
= (4/3 Π r3 p s g) – (4/3 Π r3 p l g)
= 4/3 Π r3. (p s – p l). g ….. (1)
Where r is radius of the particle, ps is density of particles, pl is density of liquid and g acceleration
due to gravity
Fupward = resistance to fall offered by the liquid to the sphere = viscous force

= 2 Πr η v x 3
= 6 Πr η v ….. (2)

Where η is the co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid and “v” is velocity of particle
When the magnitude of these two forces are equal and at in opposite directions, particles move
with constant velocity
Fdownward = Fupward ….. (3)
After rearranging, we get settling velocity as
2 gr2 (Ps – P1) h
V= 9 η =
t

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 V = K r2 (where K is constant)
Vα r2

Where “h” is depth of settling. The equation (2.4) is called the Stoke’s equation
Thus, in a time “t” all particles having settling velocities greater than h/t would have traveled beyond
h and the particles having settling velocities lesser than h/t would be yet present above this depth i.e., within
“h” cm.

Determination of Soil Texture by Bouyoucos Hydrometer method

Aim: To determine the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in soil
Principle: Two important steps are involved in particle size analysis are, (i) dispersion of soil solids and (ii)
their fractionation. Stoke’s law is the basic principle involved in the fractionation of finer particles. Two methods
commonly followed in particle size analysis are – International pipette method or Robinson pipette method
and Bouyoucos hydrometer method or hydrometer method. Density of suspension is determined at different
time periods in Hydrometer method. Particle size analysis of soil is the based on the principle that there is a
continuours reduction in density of the soil suspension over time and depth as the rate of the particles fall
below the level of the hydrometer. The density of the suspension progressively increases downward. By
knowing the density of the suspension with calibrated hydrometer for known times different fractions are
calculated.
Apparatus: Hydrometer (Fig.1) 500ml beaker, 100ml measuring cylinder, glass rod, mechanical stirrer,
hotplate, funnel, wash bottle etc.
Hydrometer meant for particle size analysis was introduced by Bouyoucos in 1927. This is made up
of glass having bulb at its bottom and lengthy stem on its top. The total length of this hydrometer is 28.5 cm
and the length of its stem is 15 cm. A dead weight, either mercury or lead, is added at the bottom of the bulb
to make the hydrometer to float vertically in the suspension. The scale drawn on the stem at 680F or 19.40C
is calibrated in grams per liter to give densities of the liquids.

Fig 1. Bouyoucos Hydrometer

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Procedure: There are three steps – A. Dispersion, B. Fractionation and C. Texture identification
A. Dispersion
Primary soil particles are grouped and cemented together by various cementing materials like organic
matter, calcium carbonate etc. present in soils. To determine relative distribution of ultimate soil particles,
disperse the soil particles completely and is accomplished as described below:
Removal of cementing agents
Organic matter : It is removed by treating the soil with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)which oxidizes the organic
matter to carbon dioxide and water.
Oxides of iron and aluminum : It is different to eliminate the cementation influence of the oxides of iron and
aluminum. The oxides are inactivated by reduction with sodium dithionate in sodium citrate which convert
them into soluble forms.
Clay and clay cementation : Clay particles results in strong bonding upon dehydration. Thus these bonds
can be broken by rehydration. The physical methods of dispersion after rehydration are shaking and stirring
with an electric shaker.
Calcium carbonate : Cementation due to calcium carbonate is removed by treating the soil sample with
dilute HCl.
Electrolytes : To deflocculate the soil particles, the soil is repeatedly washed with distilled water till it is free
from soluble salts.
The HCl treatment saturates the exchange complex with hydrogen ions (H+) which also keeps the
soil flocculated. To disperse the soil, the H+ in the soil exchange complex is replaced by a peptizing cation
like Na+ by treating the sample with sodium hexa meta phosphate {(Na PO 3)}6 and dispersed by vigorous
stirring of the soil water suspension with mechanical stirrer.
• Add 4-5ml of 30% H2O2 and swirl the contents well.
• Allow the reaction to take place for 5-10 minutes
• Heat the contents on a hot water bath or on a hot plate while stirring the contents all the time with a glass
rod to minimize frothing, till completion of the reaction. If frothing and reaction persists for a long period
another lot of H2O2 should be added.
• Cool the contents wash down the soil particles from the inner sides of the beaker by rubbing with the
glass rod and using a jet of distilled water.
• Add 30-40ml of 0.1N HCl. If more than 2% CaCO3 is present, more HCl should be added at the rate of
2.5ml for each per cent of CaCO3. This step can be omitted if soil is free from CaCO3.
• Leave it for about an hour with intermittent shaking.
• Filter the contents through Whatman No. 50 filter paper
• Discard the filtrate.
• Wash the soil retained on the filter paper with distilled water till the filtrate is free from chlorides. (This
can be tested by adding a small amount of Ag NO3 to the filtrate. If a white precipitate appears, chloride
is still present and sample needs more washing).
• Transfer back the soil from filter paper to a 600 ml beaker with a jet of distilled water.
• The volume is to be made up to about 300ml with distilled water.

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• Then few drops (5-6) of phenolphthalein indicator is to be added
• Add 0.1N NaOH till the whole suspension shows a pink colour indicating its alkaline reaction. Avoid over-
alkalization.
•· Add 10ml of 5% of sodium hexa meta phosphate, stir the contents and leave it for two hours
• Shake the contents of the beaker with an electric stirrer for 10 minutes.
Fractionation
• Transfer the contents to one liter measuring cylinder
• Make the volume of the suspension in the cylinder to one litre by adding more distilled water.
• Note down the temperature of the suspension.
• Stir the contents with plunger by moving it up and down gently for about 20-25 times in one minute so that
no soil remains settled at the bottom of the cylinder. This is the beginning time for settling of particles
• Insert the hydrometer gently into the suspension stir the contents with plunger by moving it up and down
gently for about 20-25 times in one minute so that no soil remains settled at the bottom of the cylinder.
This is the beginning time for settling of particles. The hydrometer bulb should not touch the sides of the
cylinder
Note: Temperature correction to be made
Bouyoucos (1927) considered the hydrometer readings taken at 4 min and 2 hours to calculate (silt +
clay) and clay content, respectively, in a soil sample. He recommended the temperature to be maintained at
680F (19.40C). If temperature varies, add 0.2 to the hydrometer reading (HMR) for each degree rise above 680F
and subtract 0.2 for each degree fall below 680F within 60 to 750 F. (Add 0.3 to the HMR for each 10C rise and
subtract 0.3 for each 10C fall in temperature if HM scale is calibrated at 19.40C).

Table 2.3 Observations and calculations for ISSS system

Hydrometer Temperature Temperature Corrected HMR

reading (HMR) correction (CHMR)
Blank
At 40 sec
At 2 hrs

CHMR after 4 min - Blank

% (silt + clay) = X 100
Weight of soil

CHMR after 2 hrs - Blank

% clay = X 100
Weight of soil

% silt = % (silt + clay) - % clay

% sand = 100 - % (silt + clay)
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Precautions:
• Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 is oxidizing agent and should be handled carefully
• Do not add excess alkali than required, otherwise it will initiate flocculation instead of dispersion
• Temperature fluctuations should be avoided
C. Identification of soil texture
Texture of soil is identified from the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay. Two systems of soil
texture classifications, as suggested by USDA and ISSS Figure, are in common use. Both make use of
equilateral triangle whose area is divided into 12 compartments, each representing a textural class. The
difference between the two is primarily due to difference in size ranges of sand and silt fraction. For the
determination of the texture of a soil, locate the clay and the silt percentages on the respective sides of the
triangle. Draw a line inward parallel to the sand side in the former case and parallel to the clay side in the
latter case. The compartment in which the two lines intersect is the texture of the soil.

Fig. 2 Textural Diagram (ISSS) Fig. 3 Textural Diagram (USDA)

Result:

Soil fraction (%) Hydrometer method

Sand

Silt

Clay

Texture

Conclusion: The given soil belongs to textural class

Exercise
1. Why International pipette method is more accurate than Bouyoucos hydrometer method?
2. Why blank reading is required in this experiment?

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29
Experiment No: 7 Date:

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL BY

GRAVIMETRIC METHOD

Agricultural Scientists, farmers and other producers are often interested in the nutrient and water
status of soil in order to increase and sustain food production. Soil water is essential for all the forms of life.
It plays a significant role in soil and plant relationship. The irrigation requirement of different crops is only
decided by knowing the moisture content of soil.
The relative water content of soil can be expressed in various ways, relative to total mass, mass of
solids, volume of solids, total volume or volume of pores. The mass of water relative to the mass of dry soil
particles is often referred to as the gravimetric water content.
Moisture content is the basic measurement required to answer these questions, and there are
several direct and indirect methods for measuring it.
Aim: to determine the amount of moisture content in field.
Principle:
Water content measurement by gravimetric method involves sampling of soil sample from the field by
an augar or any other sampling tool. Weighing the wet soil sample, removing the water from the soil by oven-
drying and reweighing the sample to determine the amount of water removed. Its moisture content is determined
by drying the sample in an oven at 1050C for 48 to 72 hours or till the weight becomes constant, whichever
is earlier. Water content then is obtained by dividing the difference between wet and oven dry masses by
the mass of the oven dry sample. Thus resulting in ratio of the mass of water to the mass of dry soil. The percent
moisture content will be obtained by multiplying with 100,
Apparatus:
An auger or sampling tube, core ring, hammer for driving the soil tube (if required), knife, a board or
hard wood, soil containers (aluminum box) with tight fitting lids, a wooden box for transporting samples, hot
air oven, balance.
Procedure:
The procedure given here is intended for use in routine work where moderate precision (precision of + 0.5%
water content) is desired.
• Select the site where the samples are to be taken.
• Drive the sampling tube or auger or core to the desired soil depth.
• Draw soil sample from field from the desired depth, pull out the soil sampling tube or auger and carefully
sample the soil transfer it quickly to the pre weighed aluminum can. Cover the can immediately with a lid
and place it in the wooden box.
• Repeat the above procedure for collecting other soil samples from various soil depths and sites.
• Transport the samples to the laboratory.Weigh the can boxes containing moist soil immediately to an
accuracy of 0.01g.

30
• Place the boxes with their lid off in the drying oven at a constant temperature 1050 C till a constant weight
is obtained (normally it takes 48 - 72 h).
• Remove the samples frequently from the oven and quickly cover them with lid, cool the box and weigh
them to accuracy to 0.01g.
• Record the weights of oven dried samples till constant weights are obtained for two days and tare the
weight of cans.
Precautions:
• All weights should be recorded immediately with the precision of 0.01g (to avoid any loss of water by
evaporation or drainage).
• While driving the core sampler, it must be seen that the entire ring goes in to the soil and ring should not
tilt at one side
• Transfer the soil from core sampler to aluminum box without any wastage / loss of soil.
Observations:
Mass of container (W1) = —————
—— — — g
Mass of wet soil +container (W2) = —————
—g
Mass of dry soil + container (W3) = —————
—g
Mass of wet soil = W2 – W3 = —————
—— g
Mass of dry soil = W3- W1 = —————
—— — g
Calculations:
Weight of moist soil - weight of oven dry soil (W2 - W3)
w (%) = X100 = X100

Weight of oven dry soil - weight of empty box (W3 – W1)

w ρ b
θ =
ρw
Where,

w = gravimetric water content (g of water g-1 of soil)

W2 = mass of wet soil and container (g),
W3 = mass of dry soil and container (g)
W1 = mass of container (g),
ρb = bulk density of the soil (g cm-3) and
ρw = density of water (g cm-3)
θ = volumetric water content
Result: Moisture content in given soil is — — — — — — — — — — on dry
weightbasis and — — — — — — — on volume basis.
Practical significance: Based on soil moisture content time of irrigation can be scheduled i.e. if soil
moisture content falls 50% DASM, then crop should be given irrigation.

31
Problems:
1. Calculate the moisture content of given soil with the following data. Weight of empty box is 57.63 g, box
with moist soil is 461.17g and weight of dry soil with box is 408.58 g

32
33
Experiment No: 8 Date:

DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY

Bulk density is an important soil parameter. It is defined as the ratio of mass of oven dry soil to its
bulk volume. It is expressed as g cm-3 or Mg m-3. The bulk volume is the volume of soil particles plus pore
space. Bulk density of soil depends upon the soil texture, structure, mineralogical composition, organic
matter content, depth of soil and soil management practices like tillage. Bulk density values are used to
convert water content on mass basis to volume basis, for calculating porosity and void ratio. It is a simple
index for soil structure. In general, it ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 g cm-3 in fine textured soils and 1.5 to 1.8 g cm-
3
in coarse textured soils. It is measured by different methods viz., core method, clod method, scoop method
and densitometer method. Clod method usually gives higher bulk density values than do other methods.

Aim: to determine the bulk density of soil.

Principle: A metallic core of known volume is driven into the soil and an undisturbed soil sample is taken in
its most natural conditions. The soil sample is weighed after oven drying the soil. The volume is calculated
from the core dimensions used for drawing the sample. By substituting the values in the formula bulk density
is calculated.
Apparatus: Core sampler (Fig.), hammer, oven, balance, aluminum boxes and knife

Fig 1. Core Sampler

Procedure:
• Smoothen the surface and remove the loose surface soil, where bulk density is to be determined
• Drive the metallic core by putting sharp edge into the soil by hammering on iron plate covering core
sampler blunt edge side with a small hammer (< 1 kg. weight).
• Before driving entire core sampler into the soil put another core sampler with blunt edges on both sides
and hammer it by placing iron plate till 1/3 of upper core sampler goes into soil. Care should be taken so
that core sampler uniformly driven into soil.
• Now, carefully remove the core containing soil sample by excavating soil from the sides, using a pick axe
or crow bar

34
• Trim the protruding soil with the knife on either side of the core so that soil will not be pressed on either
side
• Transfer the sample from the core to the pre-weighed aluminum box
• Dry the soil in oven at 1050C for 72 hours, cool it and determine oven-dry weight of the sample
• Measure inner dimensions i.e., radius and height of the core sampler and find its volume.
Precautions
• Always use dent-free cores
• Core should be driven straight (non-inclined) into soil
• Core should be driven gently and uniformly to avoid shattering or compaction of soil
• Sample should be dried at temperature not exceeding 105 0 C till constant weight is obtained.
Observations and Calculations:
Weight of the empty aluminum box = W1 g
Weight of the aluminum box with oven dried soil = W2 g
Diameter of the core = d= cm
Radius of the core, r = d/2 = cm
Length / height of the core = h= cm
Volume of the core sampler = П r2 h cm3

,V

W2- W1 -3
Bulkdensity = Mgm
V

Result: The given soil bulk density is ____________________________Mg m-3

Conclusion: To determine porosity of soil the particle density of soil is to be determined to which bulk density
is determined

35
Experiment No: 9 Date:

DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE DENSITY A N D POROSITY OF SOIL

The particle density of a soil is defined as the ratio of mass of soil particles and their volume. It is
expressed as g cm-3 which is equivalent to Mega grams per cubic meter (Mg m-3) in SI units. In most of the
mineral soils it varies between 2.60 and 2.70 Mg m-3 with an average value of 2.65 Mg m-3. The presence of
large amount of organic matter may decrease and that of heavy minerals like hornblende and zircon may
increase the particle density value. Knowledge of particle density is of great significance in the volume-mass
relationships of the soil e.g. bulk density, porosity and void ratio.
Aim: to determination of particle density using pycnometer.
Principle: To find out the volume of soil particles of known mass of dry soil it is immersed in water. The
amount of displaced water is equal to the volume of soil particles, i.e., solid phase of the soil sample.
Apparatus: Pycnometer (Fig.), 20 mL pipette, balance, hot plate, filter paper.

36
Pycnometer Procedure:

• Take a clean empty and dry specific gravity bottle along with its stopper (pycnometer) and weigh it.

• Place approximately 10 g of oven dried 2mm sieved soil in the pycnometer and note down the weight
along with the stopper (take same soil sample which is used for determination of bulk density).

• Fill the pycnometer to about half with water and wash soil particles sticking to the inner side of the neck
with a jet of water

• Expel the entrapped air by shaking and gentle boiling of the contents.

• Allow the contents to cool to room temperature and fill the pycnometer to the brim with boiled and cooled
distilled water

• Fix the stopper well

• Clean the outer side of the pycnometer with a filter paper and weigh it.

• Remove the contents of the pycnometer i.e., soil and water and clean it with distilled water and fill it with
boiled and cooled distilled water and replace the stopper.

• Wipe outer side of the pycnometer with a piece of filter paper and weigh it.

Precautions:

• Soils rich in organic matter should be treated first with H2O2 to oxidize organic matter.

• Use deaerated distilled water.

Observations and Calculations:

Weight of empty pycnometer along with stopper = Wp g

Weight of the pycnometer along with stopper + soil = Wps g
Weight of the pycnometer + soil + water = Wpsw g
Weight of the water-filled pycnometer = Wpw g
Volume of soil solids, Vs in cm3 = volume of water equal to the volume of soil solids

= (wpw – wp) – (wpsw – wps) = wpw – wp – wpsw + wps

37
 -3 -3 Mass of the oven dried sample
Particle density (g cm or Mg m ) =
Volume of the solids excluding pore

= (Wps – Wp) / (Wpw – Wp – Wpsw + Wps)

Porosity /percent pore space of the soil =(1-bd/pd)x100
Result :
Bulk density of the soil is — — — — — — — — — —
.
————
— — — — g/cc or Mgm-3
Particle density of the given soil is — — — — — — —
—— — — — — — — — — — - Porosity of
the soil is %.

Exercise1.
1. Calculate the bulk density of a 400 cm3 soil sample that weighs 575 g (oven dry weight).
2. Calculate the volume of a soil sample that is 12% moisture, weighs 650 g and has a bulk density of 1.3
g/cm3
3. Calculate the bulk density of a soil sample that has a porosity of 45%.
4. Why Particle density of soil is more than bulk density?
5. Give reason for getting accurate results with kerosene than using water
6. What is the particle density of a soil sample that has a bulk density of 1.55 g/cm3 and a porosity of
40%.?

38
39
Experiment No: 10 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SOIL MOISTURE CONSTANTS BY USING

KEEN CUP METHOD

The physical constants of soil like bulk density, particle density, porosity and maximum water holding
capacity (WHC) can be determined with the help of Keen cup. This method was developed by Keen Roezkowski
in 1905. When all the pores of soil are filled with water the soil is said to be at its maximum WHC. The free
energy of water at that stage is zero
Aim: To determine the physical constants of processed soil.
Apparatus: Keen cup (Fig.), filter paper, glass rod/knife, balance, water trough, oven and Vernier calipers/
scale

Fig. Keen Cup

Principle:
Ratio of mass and bulk volume of soil sample including pore spaces gives bulk density whereas ratio
of mass and volume of soil solids gives particle density. Porosity of the soil can be determined from bulk
density and particle density values. The soil being saturated gives information about maximum water holding
capacity.
Procedure:
• Take a clean and dry Keen cup. Fix a filter paper which is cut to the size of the cup in circular shape at
its bottom
• Take the weight of dry Keen box along with filter paper in it.
• Take the soil sample passed through 2 mm sieve in the box giving small tappings.
• Fill the box till it is completely full.
• Remove the excess soil with a glass rod or spatula
• Keep the Keen cup in a trough of water. Adjust the water level in such a way that it is 2 cm from the
bottom of Keen cup in water. Allow it to saturate for 24 hours.
• Remove the excess amount of soil using a sharp knife/glass rod
• Next day take out the box from the trough and allow the excess water to drain out for half an hour.
• Note down the weight of the Keen cup with wet soil.

40
• Keep the sample for drying along with the box in an oven at 1050 C till a constant weight is obtained.
• Note down the weight of the box with dry soil.
• Note down the inner diameter and height of the Keen cup with Vernier calipers or scale.
Precautions:
• Wipe the outer side of the Keen box to remove soil and water before weighing it.
• Ensure even fixation of the mesh
• Take care to maintain the water level below the brim and above the mesh bottom of the Keen cup,
approximately 3/4th of total height of the cup, while saturating the soil
Observations and Calculations:
Weight of the Keen cup + filter paper = Wb g
Weight of the Keen box + filter paper + air dry soil = Wbs g
Weight of the Keen box + filter paper + wet soil = Wbws g
Weight of the Keen box + filter paper + oven dried soil = Wbds g
Inner diameter of the Keen box = d cm
Inner radius of Keen box, r = d/2 cm
Inner depth of the Keen box = h cm
Volume of the Keen box, V = π r2 h cm3

(Wbds - Wb)
Bulk density = gcm - 3
V

(Wbds - Wb)
Particle density = gcm - 3
V - (Wbws - Wbds)

(Wbws - Wbds) bulk density

Porosity = X 100 (or) 1- X 100

V L particle density

(Wbds - Wb)
Maximum water holding capacity = X 100
Wbds - Wb

Result:
The given soil has a bulk density of — — — — — — — — — — — — g
cm-3, Particle density of ——
— — — — —
— — — — — g cm-3 pore space — — — — — — — — — —
— % and maximum water holding capacity of — — — —
————
Exercise:
41
1. Calculate the porosity of a 250 g sample that contains 65 g of water when 55% of the pores are filled with
water.
2. A 98 cm3 core of soil weighed 132 grams when oven-dried and 180 grams when saturated with water.
What is the pore space of the soil?

42
43
44
Experiment No: 11 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SOIL COLOUR USING MUNSELL

COLOUR CHART

Soil colour is one of the most important characteristics of soil which is frequently used to describe a
soil than any other property. Soil colour has no direct effect on plant growth but an indirect effect on temperature
and moisture. Colour can be an indicator of the climatic condition under which a soil was developed or its
parent material. The productivity of soil can be judged from its colour. Practically all colours occur in soils like
white, red, brown, gray, yellow and black. Even bluish and greenish colour tinges occur. Generally soil
colours are not pure. Blue and green are not known to exist. Frequently two or three colours occur in patches.
This is called “mottling”. The colour of the soil is a composite of the colours of its components. The effect of
these components on colour of the soil is proportional to the total surface which is equal to their specific
surface times their volume percentage in the soil that means colloidal material plays an important role in the
colour.
Aim: To measure the colour of the soil using Munsell colour chart.
Apparatus:
1. Munsel colour chart – it contains an orderly arrangement of 175 colour combinations with notation each
colour unit. The arrangement of the colours is according to the three basic components of colour – hue ,
value, chroma.
2. Wash bottle
Hue refers to the dominant spectral wavelength band (quality) i.e., colour such as Red, Yellow, Blue etc.
Value refers to the relative brightness or darkness of colour with in a scale of 0 – 10 as compared to absolute
white. It refers to gradation from white to black.
Chroma refers to the relative purity of a colour with in scale ranging from 0- 20. Chips of the main colours
occurring in soils are placed on card board charts. Each of these chip is designed by a numerical system that
includes hue, value and chorma. A circular hole between two adjoining and similar colour chips permits one
to put a soil ped next to these chips and compare the colours. After the best match is found the soil colour is
described by the number of the chip to which it corresponds.
For ex: 2.5 YR 5/6
2.5 YR represents hue;
5 represents value and
6 represent chroma
Principles:
Colour is the visual impression created by the object which is carried by electromagnetic radiation.
The wave length of visible light extends from 0.3 to 0.75 microns. The effect of the light of the various wave
lengths affects the eye very differently. These different impression are called colours, the color of an object
depends on the kind of light which it reflects on the eye the impressions received by the human eye or the
color of the object depends upon variations in the impressions had by different people, the proportion of the

45
objection and the quality of light that it reflects and the texture of the object (finer the particles lighter is the
color)
Procedure:
• Take the soil sample preferably in small aggregates.
• Place the dry aggregate under the holes provided between the colored chips to match the colour in the
Munsell chart.
• Note down the respective hue given at the right hand corner of the chart, value given on the left hand
corner of the chart and chroma given at the bottom of the chart of the soil colour in dry state.
• Then moisten the aggregate with few drops of water.
• Place the moist aggregate under the holes provided to match the colour in the Munsell colour chart and
note down the respective hue, value and chroma values of the soil aggregate in moist state.
Precautions:
• To avoid confusion use white mark for dark coloured soil and dark for other soils while confirming the
colour
• Consider natural surface of weakness (fracture) of the aggregate for identifying the colour.
• Determination done either early in the morning or late in the evening will not be accurate
Results:
The Munsel colour notation of given sample is (dry) and (wet)

Exercise:
1. what do yellow, black and red colours indicate?
2. How do you measure soil colour in the field?

46
47
Experiment No: 12 Date:

DETERMINATION OF pH OF SOIL
Introduction:
The pH of soil is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration of the soil water system and expresses the
acidity and alkalinity of soil. pH is very important property of soil as it determines the nutrient availability,
microbial activity and physical condition of the soil.
The concept of pH was given by Sorenson in 1901. The pH of solution has been defined as negative
logarithm of hydrogen ion activity which in very dilute solution is expressed as g ions L-1 or g mol L-1
pH = -log 10 [H+] or [H+] = 10 –pH
It is found that in aqueous system at 220C
[H+] [OH+] = 10 -14
which is called ionic product of water
Principle:
In soil water system, some of the adsorbed hydrogen ions dissociate from the surface of the soil
colloids into soil solution. These dissociated H+ give rise to soluble acidity or active acidity. pH is a sort of
voltage measurement and to cover the entire range of 0 - 14, a potential measurement in the range of +420 to
– 420 mV is needed. A potential difference of 59.1 mV is developed for a difference of one pH unit.
Instrument used for pH determination is a glass electrode pH meter with a calomel or reference
electrode introducing salt bridge. Most digital pH meters now a days have a single or combined electrode
assembly.
Apparatus required: Digital pH meter, beaker (100 mL), measuring cylinder, glass rod and balance.
Reagents: Buffers of difference pH values (4.0, 7.0 and 9.2 or 10.0) for standardization or calibrating the pH
meter. Dissolve one tablet in 100 mL of solution.
Description of pH meter:
a) Glass electrode (indicator electrode): This electrode is a glass membrane electrode consisting of
hydrogen ion responsive thin walled soft glass bulb sealed to a stem of non hydrogen responsive high resistance
glass. Both the inner and outer surfaces of the bulb are sensitive to the changes in H+ ion concentration. The
inside bulb is filled with dilute HCl. When the glass electrode bulb is dipped in a solution having H+ concentration
different from the inside electrode, an electrical potential develops across the membrane and this potential is
proportional to the difference between the two cells.
b) Calomel electrode (reference electrode): it contains of Hg in contact with KCl saturated with HgCl2.
This electrode is having a constant potential. The two electrodes are connected to a potentiometer
and a galvano meter which reads the pH.
Procedure:
• Weigh 20 g of air dried soil into a 100 mL beaker.

48
• Add 50 mL of distilled water (1:2.5).
• Stir the contents with a glass rod intermittently for 30 minutes.
• . Switch on the pH meter and allow for warming.
• Calibrate with the known buffers of pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.2 or 10.0
• Immerse the electrodes in soil water suspension and record the pH reading.
Interpretation of soil pH results:

S. No pH range Rating Remarks

1 <4.5 Very strongly acidic Needs liming
2 4.5 – 5.5 Strongly acidic Needs liming
3 5.5 – 6.5 Slightly acidic Needs liming
4 6.5 – 7.5 Neutral Suitable for crop growth
5 7.5 – 8.5 Slightly alkaline Suitable for crop growth
6 8.5 – 10.0 Strongly alkaline Needs gypsum application
7 >10.0 Very strongly alkaline

Result: The pH of soil water suspension (1:2.5) is — — — — — — — — — —

andit is rated as

Fig 1. Digital pH meter Fig 2. Pocket pH meter

49
Experiment No: 13 Date:

DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL

Introduction: Soil salinity, which is caused due to the total soluble salt content, is determined by measuring
the electrical conductivity of soil. EC is a measure of the ability of soil solution to carry electric current by the
migration of ions under the influence of an electric field. Like metallic conductors, solutions also obey ohm’s
law.

Electric potential (E)

Resistance (R) =
Current (I)

Where
R in ‘ohms’
E in ‘volts’
I in ‘amperes’
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
Conductance (C) = 1/R; measured in ‘mhos’.
Specific conductance or electrical conductivity is the conductance 1 cc of solution measured between
two electrodes placed 1 cm apart. It is expressed in mho cm-1 or mmho cm-1 or dS m-1.
1 dS m-1 = 1 m S cm-1
Aim: To determine the electrical conductivity and soluble salt content of soil.
Principle:
Pure water offers maximum resistance to the passage of electricity. If any soluble salts are present
in water then they dissociate thus increasing the flow of current. The soil salinity in relation to plant growth is
generally measured in terms of conductivity of the soil water suspension or saturation extract of the soil. The
percentage of soluble salts in soils can then be computed from the following relationship
Percentage of soluble salts in soil = 0.064 x EC x SP/100 Where
SP the saturation percentage of soil and EC is in dS m-1
Principle of conductivity meter
The electrical conductivity of a solution is measured with a conductivity meter known as ‘salt bridge’
or ‘solubridge’. It is based on the principle of “Wheatstone bridge” in which alternate current is used. Two fixed
resistances R1 and R2; a variable resistance Rv are connected in a branched circuit with the conductance cell
having resistance Rx (Fig.2). The variable resistance Rv is adjusted till no current passes and the reading is
recorded. Rv is calibrated in terms of conductance
Apparatus: Balance, beaker (100 mL), measuring cylinder, a glass rod and conductivity meter.
Reagent:
1. Potassium chloride (0.01 N): Weigh 0.7456 g of potassium chloride and make the volume to 1 L with
distilled water. This solution gives an electrical conductivity of 1.41 dS m-1 at 25 0 C.

50
• Weigh 25 g of air dried soil into 100 mL beaker and add 50 mL of distilled water.
• Carry out intermittent stirring with a glass rod for 30 minutes and then allow to stand for obtaining clear
supernatant solution.
• Connect the salt bridge to the power supply, switch on the bridge and adjust it to room temperature with
the help of temperature setting knob.
• Calibrate the conductivity bridge with the help of standard KCl solution.
• Dip the conductivity cell in the supernatant solution so that platinum electrodes are completely immersed
in solution.
• Note down the EC value.
Observation Table:
S. No Sample taken Dilution Category

Interpretation of results: Rating chart for soil electrical conductively

E.C. (dSm-1) Approx salt Category
Concentration (%)
< 0.8 < 0.05 Normal
0.8 – 1.6 0.05 – 0.15 Critical for salt sensitive crops
1.6 – 2.5 0.15 – 0.20 Critical for salt tolerant crops
> 2.5 0.25 Injurious to all crops.

Result: The Electrical Conductivity (1 : 2) of the given soil is — — — — — — — ——

dS m-1.
Exercise
1. How do we measure the salt concentration of a soil?
2. What are the units of electrical conductivity of a soil?
3. What are the effects of salts on plant growth?

51
52
Experiment No: 14 Date:

DETERMINATION OF INFILTRATION CAPACITY OF SOIL BY

DOUBLE RING INFILTROMETER METHOD

The downward entry of water into the soil through the soil surface is called infiltration. It is an important
soil property because it partitions rain into soil water and runoff. It depends on many factors such as soil
texture, antecedent moisture content, surface cover, and soil management. Infiltration characteristics of soil
are of practical significance in irrigation, soil and water conservation and watershed management.

Aim To measure the water intake rate of the soil using double ring infiltrometer

Principle The main principle is to measure the amount of water entering the soil profile as a function of time.
During infiltration, appreciable lateral movement of water may also occur. To avoid error due to this lateral
movement, two concentric iron rings (infiltrometets) are used. Water level in both the rings should be kept
nearly equal. The rate of fall of water level in the inner ring is measured.

Apparatus Double ring infiltrometer (Fig1.) – two rings made from 14-16 gauge iron sheet rolled into a
cylinder, Outer ring is of 60 cm and inner ring of 30 cm diameter, both 30 cm height; spade; buckets;
polythene sheet; watch; hook gauge / scale; driving plate; hammer.

The lower edges of the rings are sharpened to facilitate easy drive of the rings. The top of the rings are
provided with sturdy rims.

Procedure

• Describe the texture, surface condition, structure, compaction, salt content and layering sequence in
the profile.

• Determine the initial soil moisture content.

• Install infiltrometer rings in a uniform and nearly level plot to a depth of 15 cm.

• Pond 10-15 cm of water in outer as well as inner ring.

• Record the fall of water level in the inner ring with hook gauge at 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100 and
120 minutes and thereafter on hourly basis till the water intake is constant. However, the time intervals
of observation can be varied according to objectives of study and soil permeability. More water should be
added into the rings when water level falls by 4 to 5 cm in order to check drastic water level fluctuations
which may affect constant intake rate otherwise.
• Using scale or hook gauge record the water level and
time just before and after responding. Keep the intervals
between these two observations as short as possible to
avoid errors caused by intake during the refilling period.

• Plot the values of infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration

as function of time.

Fig. 1. Double Ring Infiltrometer

53
Observations and Calculations
Location
Texture of the surface
Soil surface conditions (kind and extent of vegetation, crust, salts)
Layering sequences in the profile
Antecedent soil water content
Specific problem, if any (Erosion, salinity, ponding)
Area of the inner ring
Tabulate the observations and calculations in the following format (an example is given below)

Infiltration rate,
Cumulative Time, Waterlevel
S.No. Cumulative intake cm dr/dt in cm/min
t in min reading, r in cm

Precautions
• Drive the rings straight down with minimum soil surface disturbance.
• Cover the soil surface in the rings with polythene sheet while pouring water in the rings.
• Try to keep level identical in the inner as well as outer ring.

Classification
Infiltration rate
Descriptive in./hr mm/hr
Very rapid >10.00 >254
Rapid 5.00 – 10.00 127 – 254
Moderately rapid 2.50 – 5.00 63 – 127
Moderate 0.80 – 2.50 20 – 63
Moderately slow 0.20 – 0.80 5 – 20
Slow 0.05 – 0.20 1–5
Very slow < 0.05 <1

Result
Infiltration rate of the soil is ……… mm/hr; the soil is described as — — — — — — — —
—— — in infiltration rate. Exercise:
1.Why outer ring is required to measure infiltration rate?

54
Experiment No: 15&!6 Date:

STUDY OF SOIL STRUCTURE AND DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE STABILITY OF SOIL

BY YODERS WET SIEVING APPAARATUS

Soil structure is morphologically described under field conditions by using 10X lens during Soil profile
study. Indirectly soil structure is evaluated by Yoder’s wet sieving Apparatus.

Principle

Mineral particles in close contact with each other are held together by cohesion and by the
action of organic ligands, iron oxides and calcium carbonate. Such a group of particles in soil is
termed as aggregates. The aggregate size distribution plays a significant role in modifying a physical
environment in terms of air and water movement, air capacity, water retention capacity, susceptibility
to wind and water erosion and overall productivity of soil. There is effect of tillage, cropping, manorial
and cultural practices on aggregation in soils.

The aggregate size distribution in soils is commonly determined by sieving with nests of sieves
arranged in descending order of their holes diameter from 2mm to 0.053mm. The aggregates larger
than 5mm are determined separately. In dry sieving sieves oscillate usually on a horizontal plane by
a mannual or motor driven mechanical device whereas wet sieving is done in a tub filled with water
upto the level of top sieve in the upward position. The sieves oscillate on a vertical plane i.e.

n
MWD = Σ xi , wi (1)
i = 1.

Procedure

1. Collect the sample when the soil is in a friable state. Sieve it through an 8-mm (2.5 mesh)
screen. Pull apart clods larger than 8 mm until their subunits are small enough to go through
the sieve, breaking the large clods so that practically all the subunits are retained on a 4-
mesh (4.76 mm) screen. Avoid compacting or powdering the soil during sampling and
transporation.

2. Air-dry the samples at room temperature. Weigh three representative 25-g subsamples.
Oven-dry and weigh one sample. Assume that the other two subsamples contain the same
amount of oven-dry soil. Use the two samples not oven – dried as duplicates in the following
determination.

3. Wet the samples at atmospheric pressure by filling the container in which sieving is to take
place with salt-free (less than 10-5 mm hos cm-1) water at a temperature between 200 and
250C, to a level below that of the screen in the top sieve. Distribute the air-dry sample evenly
over the top sieve. Immediately prior to sieving, raise the water level rapidly to a point where
it barely covers the sample when the sieves are in their highest position. Allow less than 3 s
to elapse between the time the water first touches the sample and the time it completely
covers the sample.

55
 4. Begin sieving approximately 10 min after the samples are wetted. Sieve the samples for 10
min. Remove the sieves from the water and determine the oven-dry weight of the material on
each sieve.

5. Part of the material on each sieve is usually sand which would be too large to go through the
sieve. Determine the amount of sand in the soil fraction on each sieve by dispersing the
material with dispersing agent and a mechanical stirrer, washing the material through the
sieve, which then retains the sand larger than the sieve holes. Then oven-dry the sand and
weigh it.

6. Determine the weight of aggregates in each sieve by subtracing the weight of the sand that
is retained on the sieve from the weight of the oven-dry material retained after the first sieving.

7. Calculate the quantity of material smaller than 0.21 mm by subtracing the sum of the oven-
dry weights of material retained on each sieve from the oven-dry weight of the original
sample.

Calculations

1. Divide the weight of aggregates in each of the five size classes by the weight of the oven-dry
sample minus the weight of the sand remaining on all the sieves, to obtain a fraction for each
size class.

2. Calculate the mean weight-diameter (MWD) using eqn (1).

3. The data can also be expressed in terms of the geometric mean diameter (Gardner 1956).
However, this method of representation is not recommended for general use because of the
extensive work of calculating the results. For most practical work, the MWD gives an
adequate basis for comparison.

Notes

One of the main sources of variation is in the sampling procedure at the point where lumps of soil
greater than 8 mm are broken into aggregates to pass through the 8-mm sieve.
Table 1.
Sieve size X Mean W Mass of P Xi x Wi Wi x log Xi
class mm diameter aggregates Cumulative
mm g/100 g percentage
sample %
8.00 5.00 5.00
5.00 2.00 2.00
2.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.50 0.50
0.50 0.212 0.212
0.212 0.100 0.100
0.100 0.053 0.053
0.053 0.000 0.000
Total 100.0

56
comments

1. Another source of variation is segregation of the sample if the aggregate size distribution in
the subsamples is not representative. This variation can be decreased by counting the large-
aggregate sizes in the dry subsamples and making sure that there are approximately the
same number of large aggregates in each subsamples.

2. Rewetting procedure is another source of variation. Procedures for different wetting methods
are discussed by Kemper et al. (1985). It is important to note that wetting under tension or
vaccum gives different results from the method discussed above. The coefficient of variation
of the MWD for replicate subsamples should be less than 7% if reasonably good care is taken
to follow the wetting procedure.

MWD = Σ Xi Wi
i=l

The mean weight diameter (MWD) is equal to the sum of products of mean diameter (Xi) of
each aggregate size fraction, and the mass of soil aggregates W occurring in the corresponding size
fraction. Σ denote the summation of the sum of products from ith to nth.

n
Σ Wi log Xi
i=l
GMD = exp -------------------------
N
Σ Wi
i=l

The geometric mean diameter (GMD) is calculated approximately by the above equation where Wi
is the mass of aggregates in a size class with a mean diameter Xi
n

and Σ Wi is the total mass of the sample.

Log GMD and log standard deviation.

When mean diameter of each aggregate size class is plotted on a log scale and the
corresponding cumulative frequency of % aggregates i.e., percent oversize is plotted on probability
scale. The diameter of aggregates at 50% over size is log GMD and the log standard deviation i.e.
 is given by ratio.

57
 PRACTICAL MANUAL
FOR
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL SCIENCE
COURSE No. SSAC 121
Credit : 3 (2+1)

T. SRI JAYA
J. KAMALAKAR
M. RAM PRASAD
P. MADHAVI
M. SURESH
E. SATYANARAYANA
R. SAI KUMAR
G. JAYASREE

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry

PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA AGRICULTRAL UNIVERSITY
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

58
 PRACTICAL MANUAL
FOR
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL SCIENCE
COURSE NO. SSAC 121

T. SRI JAYA
J. KAMALAKAR
M. RAM PRASAD
P. MADHAVI
M. SURESH
E. SATYANARAYANA
R. SAI KUMAR
G. JAYASREE

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry

PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA AGRICULTRAL UNIVERSITY
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad

59
 PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of the work done in the course during the year ________

1. Name : _______________________

2. ID. No. : _______________________

3. Class : _______________________

4. Batch : _______________________

5. Course No. : _______________________

6. College : _______________________

Signature of the teacher

60