U.S.

Geological Survey Global Seabed Mineral Resources

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) provides science and The USGS provides the Nation with expertise in many
data on seabed mineral resources and ecosystems, as well as any aspects of global seabed minerals through a collaboration of
potential hazards associated with extraction. The Nation relies three Mission Areas:
on minerals for infrastructure, technology, manufacturing, and • The Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources
energy production. Critical minerals (USGS, 2022a) are essential Program in the Natural Hazards Mission Area
to the economic and national security of the United States and (https://www.usgs.gov/programs/cmhrp) leads Federal
have a supply chain vulnerable to disruption. scientific work on seabed minerals, which has included
For decades, USGS scientific innovation has contributed research into polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-
to the delineation of seabed mineral resources, the mechanisms Clipperton Zone, Cook Islands, and elsewhere; cobalt-rich
of seabed mineral formation, and the environmental impacts of ferromanganese crusts throughout the central and western
resource extraction. Since 1962, the USGS has also led scientific Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean; and
inquiries into the potential for deep sea mining. By providing polymetallic sulfides in many locations globally, including
impartial science on seabed minerals and their environmental most recently on an interagency research expedition to
setting in the deep oceans, the USGS enables decision-makers to the Escanaba Trough off the shore of northern California
evaluate the best practices for mineral resource development. (Pearsall, 2022).
• The Land Management Research Program in the
Ecosystems Mission Area (https://www.usgs.gov/programs/
What Is the Role of the USGS in Understanding
land-management-research-program) characterizes seabed
Seabed Minerals? and water-column ecosystems and studies the potential
environmental effects of disturbing habitats or ecosystems,
In many regions of the global ocean, limited data are including recent work on the Blake Plateau off the shore of
available regarding the abundance, composition, environmental South Carolina (USGS, 2024).
setting, and associated ecology of seabed minerals. The USGS
provides cutting-edge, impartial data on seabed minerals by • The Mineral Resources Program in the Energy and
creating prospective maps of the places where these minerals Minerals Mission Area (https://www.usgs.gov/programs/
may occur, investigating the processes that lead to specific mineral-resources-program) contributes expertise in
enrichments within these minerals, and studying the physical natural resources, mineral lifecycles, and mineral supply
and chemical implications of potential commercial extraction. chains. The Program’s National Mineral Information
The USGS also conducts multidisciplinary studies of the marine Center (https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-
and seabed environments where these minerals exist. Such information-center) tracks mineral commodities, including
investigations provide data and insights that are any extracted seabed minerals.
essential for decision-makers and the public to USGS activities focused on seabed mineral studies
understand and make informed decisions complement the Survey’s work on land-based minerals and
regarding potential resource extraction. mineral supply chains. USGS data collection and analysis are
used to evaluate and identify minerals that are critical to the
economic and national security interests of the United States.
The USGS also analyzes mineral markets and provides statistics
on mineral commodities in all sectors of the U.S. economy,
including analysis in support of national security.
In addition to collaboration within the three Mission Areas,
the USGS collaborates on targeted studies of seabed minerals
and associated ecosystems with the Bureau of Ocean
Energy Management, which has regulatory authority
for mineral extraction on the U.S. Outer Continental
Shelf, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, which has regulatory authority for
Remotely operated U.S. activities related to mineral extraction on the
vehicle collects a high seas. Such studies provide crucial data that
sulfide mineral sample inform the regulatory decisions of other agencies.
from Escanaba Trough.

U.S. Department of the Interior 1 Fact Sheet 2025–3017

U.S. Geological Survey Ver. 1.1, April 2025
Which Minerals Are Found in Seabed Environments? Heavy mineral sands.

Minerals can be found in every ocean basin, from the

coastal zone to the deep ocean (USGS, 2022b). In the deep
ocean, exploration is ongoing for polymetallic nodules,
polymetallic sulfides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.
These minerals are considered a potential future source of Polymetallic nodules.
many elements, including some elements that are designated
as critical minerals (table 1). Critical minerals that are
abundant in sea-floor deposits include nickel, cobalt,
and manganese. These minerals are crucial components
in stainless steel, superalloys, and batteries. The
rare earth elements and yttrium, often abbreviated
as REY, are a group of 17 elements. Two of
these, neodymium and dysprosium, are used in
permanent magnets and lasers.

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust. Phosphorite. Polymetallic sulfide.

Table 1. Elements found in seabed minerals.

[The term “potential byproducts” indicates elements that are not a main product of a potential mining operation but could possibly be produced in addition to the main
products. REY, rare earth elements including yttrium; —, not applicable]

Mineral type Mineral setting Minerals of interest Potential byproducts

Polymetallic nodules Found on sediment-covered abyssal plains Nickel,* copper, cobalt,* and REY* and lithium*
with low particle flux at depths of manganese*
11,500–21,325 feet (3,500–6,500 meters)
below sea level.
Polymetallic sulfides Form at some hydrothermal vents, which Copper, zinc,* gold, silver, Beryllium,* bismuth,* cadmium, cobalt,*
occur where new sea floor is formed and lead chromium,* gallium,* germanium,*
(spreading centers) and in the areas where mercury, indium,* manganese,*
sea floor is consumed at subduction zones molybdenum, nickel,* selenium, tin,*
(arcs and back arcs). tellurium,* and platinum group elements*
Cobalt-rich ferro- Form on rock surfaces at depths of 1,300– Manganese,* cobalt,* REY, tellurium,* scandium,* and platinum*
manganese crusts 23,000 feet (400–7,000 meters) below sea nickel,* and copper
level. They are often found on seamounts.
REY-rich muds Deep sea muds that can also occur in the REY* —
deep ocean, usually several meters below
the sediment surface.
Phosphorite minerals Can be found in continental margins or Phosphorus and REY* —
further offshore on seamounts.
Heavy mineral sands Can accumulate in coastal environments Titanium,* tin,* platinum,* —
as water transport sorts these sands from gold, silver, and REY*
other sediments.
*Included in the 2022 list of critical minerals (USGS, 2022a).

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Where Are Seabed Minerals Found? The map shows prospective regions, or regions where
minerals may occur based on geological and oceanographic
Seabed minerals occur in every ocean basin, including criteria, for polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich ferromanganese
within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (Hein and crusts. The map also outlines mid-ocean ridges and back
others, 2005), which is larger than the land area of the arc basins, which, along with volcanic arcs, are regions
United States, as well as the Extended Continental Shelf where hydrothermal vents form. Under certain conditions,
(U.S. Department of State, 2023). However, as of 2025, only a hydrothermal vents can form polymetallic sulfide deposits. As
few of these locations have sufficient data to determine whether of 2025, there are only a handful of locations where enough data
they have deposits, defined as mineral concentrations that could have been collected on the grade and tonnage of these minerals
be viable for commercial production. for the term “deposit” to be used with confidence.

Seabed Mineral Prospective Regions

Global seabed mineral prospective regions, including those that occur within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (U.S. EEZ). More information
on these regions can be found in Mizell and others (2022) and Gartman and others (2022).

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Selected References U.S. Department of State, 2023, The outer limits of the
extended continental shelf of the United States of America—
Executive summary (revised 2025): Washington, D.C.,
Burton, J., 2022, U.S. Geological Survey releases 2022 list
U.S. Department of State, 100 p., accessed March 12, 2025,
of critical minerals: U.S. Geological Survey news release,
at https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ECS_
accessed March 12, 2025, at https://www.usgs.gov/news/
Executive_Summary.pdf.
national-news-release/us-geological-survey-releases-2022-list-
critical-minerals. U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 2022a, 2022 final list
of critical minerals [notice]: Federal Register vol. 87,
Gartman, A., Mizell, K., and Kreiner, D.C., 2022, Marine
no. 37, p. 10381–10382, accessed March 12, 2025, at
minerals in Alaska—A review of coastal and deep-ocean
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/02/24/2022-
regions: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1870,
04027/2022-final-list-of-critical-minerals.
46 p., accessed March 12, 2025, at https://doi.org/10.3133/
pp1870. U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 2022b, Global seabed mineral
resources: U.S. Geological Survey web page, accessed
Hein, J.R., McIntyre, B.R., and Piper, D.Z., 2005, Marine
March 27, 2025, at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/
mineral resources of Pacific Islands—A review of the
science/global-marine-mineral-resources.
Exclusive Economic Zones of islands of U.S. affiliation,
excluding the State of Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 2024, Environmental impacts
Circular 1286, 62 p., accessed March 12, 2025, at following the 1970 testing of seabed mining equipment on the
https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1286. Blake Plateau—Quantification of benthic communities across
disturbance gradients: U.S. Geological Survey web page,
Mizell, K., Hein, J.R., Au, M., and Gartman, A., 2022, Estimates
accessed March 12, 2025, at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/
of metals contained in abyssal manganese nodules and
wetland-and-aquatic-research-center/science/environmental-
ferromanganese crusts in the global ocean based on regional
impacts-following-1970-testing.
variations and genetic types of nodules, in Sharma, R.,
ed., Perspectives on deep-sea mining: Cham, Switzerland, U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 2025, Extended continental
Springer, p. 53–80, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87982- shelf: U.S. Geological Survey web site, accessed
2_3. March 12, 2025, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/deep-
sea-exploration%2C-mapping-and-characterization/science/
Pearsall, P.L., 2022, USGS leads research expedition to deep-sea
extended-continental.
Escanaba Trough: U.S. Geological Survey web page, accessed
March 12, 2025, at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/news/
usgs-leads-research-expedition-deep-sea-escanaba-trough.

For more information about this fact sheet, contact:

Lead, Global Seabed Mineral Resources Project
https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-seabed-mineral-
resources
Coordinator, Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program
https://www.usgs.gov/programs/cmhrp
Coordinator, Mineral Resources Program
https://www.usgs.gov/programs/mineral-resources-program
Coordinator, Land Management Research Program
https://www.usgs.gov/programs/land-management-research-program

Publishing support provided by the Moffett Field and

Pembroke Publishing Service Centers
All figures are by the U.S. Geological Survey and are in the public domain.
ISSN 2327-6916 (print)
ISSN 2327-6932 (online)
https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20253017
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