QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY

MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 1

MODULE 5: BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION

The cattle was domesticated with the main purpose of producing meat and meat
products for human consumption. Buffaloes, on the other hand, are also raised mainly
by farmers as source of draft power for crop production. The beef cattle industry is the
least developed among the livestock and poultry industries in the country.
Lesson 1. OVERVIEW OF BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY

Cattle Situation Report, January-March 2020

As of 01 January 2020, the total cattle inventory in the country was 2.54 million heads,
0.3 percent higher than the 2.54 million heads recorded in the same period of the
previous year. Of the total cattle inventory, 94.1 percent were raised in backyard farms
while the remaining 5.9 percent were from commercial farms

As of 1 January 2019, the top three regions in terms of inventory were Ilocos
Region, Central Visayas and CALABARZON. These regions contributed about 33.67
percent of the total cattle population in the country. In backyard farms, Ilocos Region,
Central Visayas and CALABARZON reported the highest inventories. These regions
accounted for 35.20 percent of the total cattle stocks in backyard farms. Cattle stocks
in commercial farm were highest in Bicol Region, Cagayan Valley and Central Luzon.
These regions contributed 55.63 percent share of the total cattle population in
commercial farms.

Per capita consumption of bees in 1999 was 2.70 kg Per capita consumption of
bees in 2023 was 3.19 for the past 11 years, cattle inventory has only increased at a
rate of 4.3 percent per year
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of the Industry
Strengths
1. Local breeds readily adopts to the country’s tropical climate
2. Traditional production practices are well practiced by raisers
3. Excellent converter of low quality farm residues into high value protein
Weaknesses
1. Low breeding base
2. Poor nutrition and herd management
3. Lack of technical know-how (Production and marketing)
4. Inadequate Veterinary and technical services from the government
Opportunities
1. Increasing human population
2. Demand for beef and beef products increases
Threats
1. Importation of meat and meat products
2. Unfavorable government policies
3. The limitations set by agrarian reform law
4. Localized peace and order situation

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 2

Lesson 2. BEEF CATTLE BREEDS, BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION

Origins of Modern Cattle

Aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius)
• India thought to be the homeland of primitive cattle which later expanded to
Eurasia and North Africa
Some species related to the Aurochs also underwent domestication
Yak (Poephagus grunniens)
• From mountains of Tibet
• Some regions of Middle Asia
• South Siberia
Origins of Modern Cattle
Genus Bibos
• (B banteng) or Ban cattle
• (B frontalis) or gayal
• From India, Malay archipelago and Indochina, particularly Burma
Modern Cattle family bovine, genus Bos
a. Bos taurus
• Of Europe origin such as Shorthorn or Jersey
• Without humps and therefore temperate origins
b. Bos indicus
• Of tropical origin such as Brahman or Zebu of India or Afrikander of Africa
• Humped cattle
• Adapted to tropical conditions (has survived through centuries exposure to
inadequate conditioned such as food supplies, insect pests, parasites/diseases
an extreme weather conditions
c. Crosses of two, Sta. Gertrudis (5/8

Characteristics of Zebu breeds as compared to temperate breeds:

• Large humped over top of shoulder and neck
• Large pendulous ears
• Dewlap having large amounts of excess skin
• Highly developed sweat glands (perspire more freely)
• Oily secretion from sebaceous glands

Breeds of Beef Cattle, Their Origin and Physical Characteristics

TROPICAL BREEDS
Name of Breed Origin Characteristics
1. Brahman India Large hump over
shoulder, loose skin in
area of dewlap,
drooping ears and
grunts instead of
mooing. Resistant to
heat and external
parasites and able to
subsist on poor
quality forage.
2. Africander South Africa Red in color, shows
heat resistance,
temperament, good
fertility under harsh
conditions, medium
size and late to
mature.

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 3

3. Sta. Gertrudis Texas, USA 3/8 Brahman and 5/8

Shorthorn, a large
beef animal, cherry-
red in color and
horned. Ears are
pendulant, body in
smoother and more
compact than
Brahman. Adapted to
subtropical & semi-
arid areas. They make
large gains on grass
with good foraging
ability & tolerate ecto-
parasites
4. Belmont Red Australia Red in color, fertile,
heat and tick tolerant

EUROPEAN BREEDS
1. Charolais France Light, creamy-colored
and are one of the
largest of all beef
breeds, big-long
bodied, heavily
muscled but lack the
smoothness of the
other breeds.
2. Chianina France Largest of cattle
breeds, late maturing,
white with black in
color

3. Simmental France Light red or cream

with white faces, like
Herefords white spots
or white band over the
shoulders. Large size
and considered of a
dairy breeds for milk
production, docile &
noted for muscling
ability
BRITISH BREEDS
1. Angus Scotland Black w/ moderate
white color on
underline behind

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 4

namel, pelled,
resistant to certain
eye diseases & calves
at birth are smaller
than other breeds but
weaning weights are
equal or higher. Body
form is smooth, trim,
medium-size,
adequate in length of
side & well-muscled.
Excellent as show
animal
2. Hereford England Red color with white
face & white color on
flank, underline,
breast, crest, tail
switch & below knees.
They are muscular,
moderate to long in
length of side,
adequately long-
legged, large in size,
trim & smooth. They
are known for vigor
and & foraging ability.
3. Galloway Scotland Good rustlers &
extremely hardy
making them
withstand cold
weather conditions,
black in color with
long curly hairs,
polled & has short
legs, blocky &
compact in type,
smallest of the beef
breeds.
4. Devon England Ruby red in color,
horned, average size
and early maturing

5. Shorthorn England Roan, red white or

combination in color

US BREEDS
1. Brangus US Tolerate heat &
ectoparasites, winter
hardiness; black
polled & found to

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 5

performed ell in feed

lots.

2. Beef Master US No specific color

(maybe brown, red
reddish brown & with
white spots or band),
large, horned & noted
for rapid growth rates.
Can withstand variety
of climatic conditions
& produce good
carcass
3. Charbray US Calves born are light
tan that can change to
cream-white after a
few weeks; horned
and large. Vigorous,
fast grazers. Produce
excellent carcass with
tender & high-flavored
meat.

4. Braford US Red or red with white

face or dark brown;
good growers and
disease resistant

SWAMP TYPE BUFFALOES

1. Philippine Carabao Philippines Light, gray in color,
two stripes or chevron
distinct on the ventral
side of the neck. Color
is lighter on the legs,
underside of the body
and the ears. Horn is
curved outward and
inward to form a semi-
circle from the base of
the head. The body is
lo wide and heavy
built w/ enough type
for draft and meat.
2. Thai Buffalo Thailand Black in color. Hair is
long compared to the
other types. Strong
and broad bodied with
prominent muscles in
the neck, chest and
back. Measure and
strong with moonlike
cresent and ends
upwards.

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 6

RIVER TYPE BUFFALOES

1. Murrah India Jet black in color with
white parking on the
tail, face and legs. The
skin texture is soft
and fine. Horn are
short and tightly
curved. Massive and
stocky built with light
neck and head, short
limbs, broad hips and
dropping quarter,
udder and teats are
well-developed.

2. Surti India Brown or black with

the skin either black
or reddish and the
hair gray to rusty
brown. Horns are of
medium length that
coil downward am
upward. Wedge shape
body conformation
that are more
developed in bulls.

3. Nili Ravi Pakistan The color is usually

black with white
parkings on the
forehead, muzzle, face
and legs has white
switch and small eyes.
Horns are small and
lightly polled,
elongated coarse and
heavy head that is
bulging at the top.
4. Japarabadi India Black with occasional
white markings on the
face and legs. Body is
long and heavy with
large and broad flat
horns that tends to
droop on each side of
the neck and turn up
at the tips but not
curled. The teats and
udder are well-
developed.

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 7

Beef Breeding

Breeding is the defined as the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities

desirable to man.

Modern goal:
1. To develop types that will meet market demand.
2. Be productive under adverse climatic conditions.
3. Efficient in converting feeds to animal products

Variations due to Genetics and Environment

Cattle traits are either qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative traits show discontinuous variations.
 Homed or polled
 Coat color
 Certain blood characteristic
- blood types
- presence or absence of particular enzymes

Generally, inheritance of qualitative traits is simple in accordance with the laws

of heredity. Environment plays a very minor role.
The quantitative traits show continuous variations between the extremes. The
mean types among the characteristics are most frequent to change. These are:
 Growth rate
 Live weight
 Body measurements at maturity
 Environmental factors are possible for a considerable part of the variation.
 Milk yield
 Milk composition
Breeding Method
1. Natural method – conventional use of bull to impregnate a heifer or cow.
a. Hand mating – a bull in good condition can serve 3-4 times/week or one
service every other day.
 18 months old – 1:12-15
 2 years old – 1:20-25
 3 years old – 1:40-50
b. Pasture mating
 2-3 years old – 10-15 cows
 9 years old – 20-25 cows

2. Artificial insemination - process of inducing fertilization in female without the

benefit of sexual contact between male and female animals.
Females observed estrus in the morning, are inseminated not later than noon
time the next day.

REPRODUCTION
Reproductive Phenomena
a. Sexual maturity (bulls/heifers) 6-8 months
b. Estrus cycle = 18-24 days (21 days average)
c. Estrus duration
- exotic/European breeds 14-18 hours
- indigenous/Zebu = 10-12 hours
d. Ovulation=0-14 hours after the estrus
e. Parturition average 283 days
f. A bull ejaculates about 2-12 ml of 500 or more sperm cells per ml
g. The sperm cells survive the oviduct up to a maximum of 48 hours
h. Many sperm cells reach the oviduct in 6 to 7 hours after deposition in the vagina

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 8

i. There are many thousand egg cells produced by the female but those released
are very few. One mature egg cell is released at any time.
j. One egg cell is fertilized by one sperm cell at the oviduct (fallopian tube)

Signs of Estrus
a. Mount others
b. Reddening and swelling of the vulva
c. Mucous discharge
d. Isolates herself
e. Seem sickly and has no appetite
f. Frequent urination, restlessness and sometimes bellowing or mooing, and
g. Standing still when mounted (the only reliable or true sign of estrus, estrus is
defined as the period of sexual receptivity of the female to the male).

Due to the reproductive phenomena in both male and female cattle, a simple
guideline is adopted when artificial insemination (AI) is practiced. Thus, females
observed in estrus in the morning, are inseminated late afternoon of the same day.
Those observed in the late afternoon, are inseminated not later than noon the next day.
Some Indicator of Good Breeding or Reproductive Management
a. Conception Rate (Pregnancy)- percent of breeding females that conceived versus
the total of exposed females

CR=cows pregnant at end of breeding season x 100

Cows exposed during breeding season
Pregnant =65
Exposed= 100
CR= 65%
A 65% AI rate is very high; an 85-90% natural rate is exceptional
b. % (90 or 120 day) non-returns
= percent of breeding females confirmed pregnant at 90 or 120 days; by
pregnancy diagnosis, versus the total exposed females. This is similar to
conception rate.

c. Calving Rate- percent of breeding females that give birth versus the total exposed
females.
d. Calving Interval - the average length of time (in days) between successive calving
-can be calculated for each cow or the entire herd
-one year is ideal. Eighteen (18) months in common.
e. First heat after parturition- he occurrence of estrus after giving birth to a young.
First heat is related to calving interval.

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 9

Lesson 3. BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. RANCHING OR EXTENSIVE SYSTEM

a. Cow-calf operation
Aim: to produce stockers and feeders
It has the following characteristics:
a. Uses grade or Philippine cows and purebred or high-grade bulls;
b. Involves selling calves at weaning as stockers; or as feeder stocks after grazing
them out on the range; or as fat slaughter cattle after feeding them out; or selling
heifers to other ranchers for breeding purposes depending on the availability of
feeds/pastures;
c. Extensive use of native pastures and minimum outlay for supplemental
feed/concentrates; and
d. Maybe integrated with orchard or coconut plantation.

b. Purebred program or breeder farm operation

Aim: is to produce breeder stock to be sold to other ranchers. It use purebred cows and
bulls and requires large capital for animals/equipment, better feeding and
salesmanship.

2. FEEDLOT FATTENING OPERATION

Feedlot fattening of cattle has become important to the livestock industry of the
Philippines for three main reasons:
1) It provides the farmer with extra income;
2) It gives the farmer year -round work and allow the use of cheap, plentiful farm by-
products such as corn stove, hay, silage, rice straw, copra meal, rice bran and
sugarcane tops which might otherwise be wasted; and most important;
3) It helps meet the urgent demand for high protein foods in the Filipino diet.

Because of its high nutritional value and appealing flavor, property fattened cattle is in
great demand in the market place. However, feedlot cattle operations have found
popular acceptance only in Batangas, Tarlac, and Pangasinan, with few operations
found in other parts of the country like Masbate, Bukidnon, Cotabato and Iloilo.

The objective of a feedlot fattening operation is to add weight to the animal and increase
its value. The feedlot fattening operation is characterized by the following:
a) Returns from cattle feeding comes from the difference between the buying and
selling prices, and the gain in weight;
b) Turnover of capital is faster in this operation than in ranching. Feeder stocks are
usually require a fattening period of only 120 to 180 days from the date of purchase;
c) Use of high-energy feeds in order to give the cattle a better “finish" (more fat covering
the carcass) and appearance;
d) Requires very little land area. A sheltered feeding area of one and a half to two
square meters per head is required, with a fence loafing area of five square meters
per head;
e) Located in areas where large quantities of little stocks feeds are raised; and
f) May also be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises or any set-up
which produces.

3. BACKYARD CATTLE RAISING OR SEMI-SUBSISTENCE OR SMALL HOLDER

The backyard sector constitutes 92%of the total cattle population. The aggregate share
of the top five regions accounts for 56.9 percent of the total population. These regions
are Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao, and Davao Region.

The aim is to produce livestock that can be sold to augment farm income. Backyard
cattle raising is characterized by the following:

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 10

a) One or two heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a farmer's spare
time;
b) Farmers usually tethers animals to graze around the home lot and then
supplements this with farm wastes like rice straw or corn stover/stalks when back in
the pen;
c) Others practice soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocepahala),
as a source of protein, and rice bran, corn bran, or copra meal at 1-2 kg/anima; and
d) In Batangas, force feeding (supa or supak) of feed mixture is a common practice
among backyard cattle raisers.

AS 12 – Introduction to Poultry and Livestock Production Prepared by: Pammela T. Daquioag

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 QUIRINO STATE UNIVERSITY
MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 11

Lesson 4. BEEF CATTLE NUTRITION

Unlike the monogastric animals, ruminants can totally subsist on highly fibrous
diets, like grasses, legumes, tree leaves, and can efficiently utilize farm-by products
concentrates. This is due to the unique digestive anatomy of the ruminant, a foregut
fermenter with a four-compartment compound stomach namely: the reticulum, rumen,
omasum and abomasum.
A. NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. Water
The main components of feed are water and dry matter. The dry matter contains
the organic material and inorganic elements. Water is essential in the transport
of metabolic products and wastes and in most chemical reactions in the body.
The amount of water consumed by cattle depends on the water content of the
feed, body size and environmental temperature. A deficiency in water intake
depresses feed intake.

2. Carbohydrates/Energy
All animals require energy for maintenance, growth, work and production. The
amount of energy for each of the above function varies with body size, level of
production and physiological state. The most common source of energy for
ruminants are carbohydrates, namely the soluble (starch and sugar) and
structural (cellulose and hemicelluloses), carbohydrates. Lipids are the other
source of energy from plants.

3. Proteins
Proteins are large chemical units made up of amino acids. Monogastric animals
consume and digest proteins to be able to use amino acids for synthesis of
muscles, tissues and other body components. In ruminants, proteins are first
utilized by the microorganisms in the rumen for their own growth and
reproduction. Microbial fermentation of proteins produces ammonia and CO2 as
main end- products. Undigested feed proteins and the microorganisms from the
rumen are passed on to the lower gastrointestinal tract, where these are the
enzymatically digested and absorbed as amino acids. Thus, microbial protein
becomes an excellent source of amino acids for ruminants.

4. Minerals
The mineral nutrition of ruminants is largely influenced by the mineral status of
the soil where the animals are grazed. In the country, phosphorus is the single
most limiting mineral since the soil and therefore the grasses are deficient in this
element. Deficiency in P results in low feed intake, low production levels and in
severe cases osteoporosis.
Salt is likewise deficient in the normal diet of the ruminant and is best provided
ad libitum in the form of blocks or loose form.
Calcium, magnesium and potassium are normally sufficient in grasses to satisfy
the requirements of the animals. Feeding large amounts of concentrates and
grains may lead to deficiencies in these minerals and should be supplemented.

5. Vitamins
The water-soluble vitamins including Vitamin C are synthesized by the rumen
microorganisms. The fat-soluble Vitamin K is likewise synthesized in the rumen
by the bacteria. Vitamin E is found in most feeds, while Vitamin D is synthesized
in the skin when the animals are exposed to sunlight. Vitamin A is synthesized
from carotene which is abundant in young, fresh grass, but devoid in mature

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 12

grasses, most crop residues and some grains. Animals may tolerate low dietary
intake of Vitamin A for as long as sufficient Vitamin A has been stored in liver.

B. COMMON FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS

1. Forages
Forage is the natural and cheapest feed for ruminants and includes not only
grasses but also legumes. Number of grass species is available in the country
consisting of native and introduced species.
Leguminous vines and trees also bound. Grasses at pre-flowing stage average 8%
CP while legumes requirement of the animals. Hence, a grass-legume pasture is
in ideal ration for ruminants. Season of the average about 20%. In grasses, CP
level drastically goes down to 4% at maturity which is way below the year, amount
of rainfall, fertilization, grazing management are other factors affecting the
nutritive value of grasses.

2. By-products roughages
As an agricultural country, farm by-product roughages constitute a potential
source of feed for ruminants. Most of these are highly fibrous (rice straw, corn
Stover, com cobs, sugar cane tops), low in CP and TDN and have poor
digestibility. The amounts of these feeds voluntarily consumed by the animals
are limited. As such, concentrate supplementation is a must for more efficient
utilization of by product roughages.

3. Concentrates
Unlike in developed countries, little amount of grain is fed to ruminants locally.
Instead, agro industrial by-product concentrates constitute the bulk of
supplements to roughages. Copra meal, rice bran, heat pollard are commonly
used by-product concentrates, contain on the average 75% TDN and vary widely
in their CP content from 0% as in case of molasses to 21% in copra meal.

C. METHODS OF UTILIZING FORAGE CROPS

1. Pasture – forages which are harvested by grazing animals
2. Soilage (green chop) – refers to the green forage that has been cut and chopped in
the field and then fed directly to livestock in confinement
3. Hay – feed produced by dehydrating green forage to moisture content of 15% or
less
4. Silage – product of acid fermentation of green forage crops that have been
compressed and stored under anaerobic conditions in a container called silo.

D. FEEDING SYSTEM
A. All Roughage Feeding System
- Roughage is defined as feed w/c is relatively high in fiber and low in TDN.
- it includes forages of either grass or legume in the form of pasture herbage,
soilage, silage, hay and crop residues such as rice straw, corn stover, sugar cane
tops and the like.

B. Roughage – Concentrate
- High in digestible energy, low fiber
- Grains, oil meals, root crops and grain by-products
- recommended during the summer months where grasses are scarce
- needed by fast growing animals and those who are lactating

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 13

Lesson 5. HERD MANAGEMENT

The goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality, heavyweight

calves. The factors that contribute to the accomplishment of this goal are:

1. Early sexual maturity of females

2. High conception rate
3. High calf crop
4. Early rebreeding after calving
5. Excellent milk production of the cows
6. Availability of a year round feed supply, and
7. Others

Quality of management, plane of nutrition, and farm infrastructures are

important determinants of profit or loss.

A. HERD DIVISION

Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age groups of the herd,
prevent premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and heifers
and prevent high rate of abortion resulting from butting and fighting of animals.
Animals may be divided into the following herd:

a. Pregnant Herd - composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the
breeding herd during the breeding season.
b. Breeding Herd- consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the
breeding season, pregnant animal are transferred to the pregnant herd.
c. Heifer Herd - composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves are
included in this herd after weaning
d. Steers, feeders, or fattening herd- consists of growing cattle and those to be
fattened for market.
e. Bull herd- consists of mature males' kept mainly for servicing the breeder cows.

B. MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES

1. Lactating and pregnant cows
Once the cows are determined pregnant, they should be separated from the herd
to prevent injury and possible abortion due to riding, butting and fighting with other
animals. The signs pregnancy are the cessation of the estrus or heat and the
enlargement of the abdomen and udder. However, a more reliable pregnancy test is
through palpation 60-90 days after breeding. Palpation is the manual examination of
the reproductive tract by way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in cattle.
This method needs training and experience.
2. Open cows and replacement heifers
Open or non-pregnant cows and replacement heifers should be given the right
amount of feed daily to ensure that they are in the right physiological status. Animals
with reproductive problems are those which fail to settle after the clean-up breeding
period should be culled.

C. MANAGEMENT OF CALVES, GROWERS AND FATTENERS

1. Calves
Calves should suck colostrum milk from their mother within three hours after
calving.
2. Grower
Growers are usually maintained in the pasture with very little attention. They are
given salt and mineral supplement.

3. Fatteners

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Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 14

Fatteners require a shorter period to reach slaughter weight. They are generally
bigger, mature or nearing maturity. However, one and a half to two year old animals
weighing 200- 300kg are preferred. They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture,
or both areas.

D. MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING BULLS

Breeding bull should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of the
genetic make-up of the offspring. They should be in the good condition at the start of
the breeding season. Selected bulls should be allowed to breed when they are at least
two years of age. They should be given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates
60-90 days before and after the breeding period depending on their condition. A
breeding bull should be kept in the herd as long as he is aggressive enough to mate.
However, to avoid inbreeding, a bull should be kept out of the herd after two and a half
to three years when the offspring reach the breeding age.

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 15

Lesson 6. GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

A. CATTLE IDENTIFICATION
This practice is necessary for management purposes and to demote ownership.
Branding with high iron is the most common method of identifying cattle. The animal
should be legally branded. The brand must be properly registered by the owner with the
livestock identification office of the municipality concerned. The owner's brand is placed
in the animal's left foreleg.
Putting ear tags or ear notches are other effective methods of identifying cattle.

B. DEHORNING
Dehorning has the following advantages:
a. Dehorning cattle requires less spaces in feedlot
b. They occupy less space in transit or shipment
c. They are more uniform in appearance
Methods:
a. Very young calves whose horn buttons grow a little can be dehorned by
applying caustic soda or a commercial dehorning paste on the horn button.
b. Calves with horn button or horns not over 15-2.2 cm long can be easily
dehorned with dehorning irons.
c. Old animals are dehorned with a metal spoon, Bames Dehorner, a dehorning
clipper, or hand or electric saws.

C. CASTRATION
Bull calves can be castrated anytime, but preferably when they are a few weeks
to seven months of age. The slit and the caps method are both effective ways of surgically
removing testicles. Bloodless castration can also be done with Burdizzo pinchers or
emasculator. Castration tends to decrease the rate of live weight gain by 15%-20%, it
should be resorted to only when there is difficulty in separating males from females,
e.g., inadequate fencing or limited availability of pasture paddocks.

D. RECORD-KEEPING
Records list genetically-superior cattle that may be used for breeding. Moreover,
slow-gaining heifers, bulls that produce undesirable hereditary traits and those that do
not perform satisfactory despite good feeding and management can be identified, too.
These animals are culled or removed to improve the herd quality and to increase profit
in beef production.

E. SELECTION AND CULLING

Breeding stock with poor performance should be culled for slaughter. These are
as follows:
1. A cow that calves every one and a half to two years;
2. A cow that produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good
feeding and management;
3. Small, weak, and unhealthy animals which are susceptible to diseases and may
become the source of infection of the herd if not removed on time;
4. Heifers that do not come in heat inspite of proper age, good size, healthy
condition, vigor and strength
5. Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd; and
6. Bulls and cows which have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats,
hernia, dwarfisn, bull dog, cryptorchidism (failure of one or both teats to descend
normally), and the like.

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Maddela, 3404 Quirino
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 16

Lesson 7. ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAM

A. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Herd health management must integrate livestock medicine with modern
production technology. The responsibility of a programmed health and care and disease
control is equally divided between the veterinarian and the livestock raiser. The
veterinarian devices such a program with due consideration to the local conditions and
resources while the livestock raisers implements in with optical supervision. The
complementary activities have the objective of attaining healthy and productive animals.
Even with such efforts, diseases or abnormalities may still occur and these must be
reported promptly for early suppression and treatment.

The slow growth of cattle industry in the country in spite of the efforts to increase
the number of the species may be partly attributed to low conception rate (<50%), a high
pre-weaning mortality rates (>10%) and annual death losses in mature cattle (>2%).
These death losses affecting young and mature stocks are expectedly high in as much
as these animals do not get the benefit of an effective disease control program. The
readily identifiable causes of deaths among cattle herds fall under the broad categories
of infectious, nutritional and parasitic diseases. Although variations in their degree of
incidence and severity of illness occur between herds and age groups, the ultimate effect
is the poor production either due to death or setbacks in growth and reproductive
efficiency of the animal.

Some suggested disease preventive measures are:

a. Start with healthy stocks. Purchase animals must be rigidly examined for
abnormalities, defects or signs of illness; must come from reliable sources of
known sturdy parental stocks and must be under isolation for a minimum of 30
days after purchase.
b. Work-ups for parasite and disease control such as deworming, deticking and
immunizations must be done during the isolation period.
c. For the unconfined stock or pastured herds, maintain a similar program with
emphasis on their proper application on a continuing basis. In areas where there
is a high incidence of liver fluke, deworming with effective flukecides every 3-4
months will help control this parasite.
d. Provide adequate quality ration since well-nourished cattle do not only perform
better but are more resistant to infectious and parasitic agents.
e. Give optimum protection from environmental stress by providing proper housing
and clean water supply.
f. When individually confined or herd quartered, practice sanitation in the pens.
Prompt waste disposal should be done to rid houses and pens of pests and insects
which thrive on manure and other wastes.
g. Graze in pasture relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites
particularly liver fluke. For the latter, snail control and pasture management
should complement regular deworming with an effective flukecides.
h. Deworm regularly for other internal or gastro enteric parasites. Mature stocks
may serve as carriers of parasites. Where parasitism with nematodes s high,
deworm 3 to 4 times year or as recommended.
i. Detick with effective chemicals with due consideration on proper concentration
and frequency as recommended by the manufacturers.
j. Unproductive breeding stocks must be culled out of the herd and replaced with
tested or potentially good breeders.
k. Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic diseases. Random fecal
examination conducted at regular intervals may help check the increase in the
incidence and severity of parasitism.
l. During disease outbreaks or when the animal is visibly ill, segregate it
immediately and seek immediate veterinary assistance.

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m. Immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area; community

vaccination may be arranged with the proper authorities' way ahead of expected
disease outbreaks.
n. Segregate the cattle from other animals like carabaos, goats and sheep to avoid
intertransmission of the disease among these species.

B. HEALTH PR0GRAM FOR CATTLE

Before Breeding:
a. If there is a group of animals from which breeders are to be selected, pick out
those which are potentially good ones based on physical characteristics,
temperament or previous reproductive performance and pedigree if unknown.
b. Blood test the animals for disease such as brucellosis and leptospirosis especially
in areas where these diseases are known to occur or when reproductive failures
suggest their presence in the area. Consult the provincial veterinarian or any
other veterinary authority for guidance.
c. Deworm animals with wide spectrum anthelmintic. Where liver fluke is
widespread or is confirmed to be present in the animal or herd, treat it
simultaneously with any available flukecides.
d. Inject with Vitamin ADE to improve the reproductive performance.
e. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area i.e. FMD, hemorrhagic
septicemia, blackleg, brucellosis, anthrax. All vaccination must be spaced out
and accomplished preferably before breeding or pregnancy.

Pregnancy period:
a. Maintain animal on a high plane of nutrition. Provide nutritional supplements
such as minerals and vitamins, if necessary. Deficiencies of energy, protein,
vitamins and minerals during gestation have been linked to increased mortality
and poor livability of calves. Inject Vitamin ADE in the second or third trimester
of pregnancy.
b. Where immunization of bacterial diseases are indicated (Salmonella,
Pasteurellea, Leptospira) bacteria's may be given 7-8 months of pregnancy. The
protection conferred is not only for the dam but also for the calf by way of passive
immunity through the colostrum.
c. At about the last 2 to 3 weeks of pregnancy, deworm against common internal
roundworm using wide spectrum dewormers.

Calving and Post-calving:

a. Segregate expectant cows from the herd at least one week before calving. Provide
adequate and comfortable quarters. Avoid unnecessary stresses caused by
excitement, transport, unsanitary environment, adverse climatic conditions, etc.
b. Prepare calving area. An ideal calving pen should be a small, clean and dry area
preferably free from build-up of filth and manure. Clean straw as bedding in the
maternity area is a practical material to reduce gross contamination and infection
of the calf during suckling time.
c. For day old calf, cut the umbilical cord and paint the remaining stump with
strong stricture of iodine. It must suckle after parturition to receive the
colostrum. If the calf is unable to suckle, assist or train it to nurse on the dam.
d. To prevent the uterine infection in the dam, antibiotic boluses may be inserted
high up into the vagina. Retained placenta (unexcelled beyond 24hours) must be
removed by gentle traction and when unsuccessful, inject Pitocin or oxytocin as
indicated. Flush genitalia with mild antiseptics like diluted Lysol or potassium
permanganate solution.

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Calves up to Weaning:
a. In area where parasitism is common especially ascaris infection, deworm calves
as early as 4 to 5 weeks, repeat after 30 days. Dose with piperazine compounds
or any equivalent deworm in their proper dosages.
b. When necessary, as when calves appear weak, unthrifty looking or runty,
supplement nursing calves with multi-vitamin preparations preferably Vitamin B
complex. Water-soluble nutritional supplements may be made available at all
times to the calves.
c. Since calves are easily infected with ticks and other external parasites, spray with
appropriate insecticides. These chemicals are potentially poisonous if applied
improperly. Seek technical advice as to the proper dosages, formulations, and
interval of application. For cattle ticks, the general advice is to apply the chemical
solution at interval of 3 weeks for 5 consecutive times.
d. Vaccine against diseases prevalent in the area when calf is 6 months or more,
preferably before weaning.
e. Repeat deworming against gastrointestinal parasites at 2 to 3 months and again
immediately before weaning.
f. To reduce the stressful effect of weaning the calf from the dam, allow it to creep
feed a few weeks in advance of their weaning. Leave the calf in the pasture or
coral where creep is located until final weaning is done.

Yearling -Growing period:

a. When immunity due to previous vaccination has lapsed, repeat the procedure.
b. Repeat tick control.
c. Treat against liverfluke. Repeat flukecide treatment every 3 months especially in
areas where this parasite is very common. Where such treatment has
considerably reduced the infection, dosing may be repeated twice a year
thereafter.
d. For sporadic incidence of specific diseases, consult a veterinarian for proper
treatment and control.

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TERMINOLOGIES USED IN BEEF CATTLE AND CARABAO

Bovine – relating to cattle; an animal of cattle group, which also includes buffaloes and
bison
Cattle – domesticated bovine animals
Ox – ruminant member of the bovine family
Bull – male breeding cattle of any age
Calf – young cattle of either sex, under one year of age
Bull calf – young male calf under one year of age
Stag – male ox castrated after sexual maturity
Bullock – usually stag for draft purposes
Steer – male ox castrated before sexual maturity
Proven sire – bull about whom one have sufficient unselected information to indicate
his transmitting ability
Cow– mature female cattle, one that has given birth
Caracow – mature female carabao, one that has given birth
Heifer – young female cattle under the age of three years, usually one has not yet given
birth
Caraheifer – young female carabao under the age of three years, usually one has not yet
given birth
Calving– the act of giving birth in cattle
Herd – any number of cattle under one management
Beef – meat from cattle
Carabeef – meat from carabao
Marbling – deposition of intramuscular fat

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MODULE 6: DAIRY PRODUCTION

Lesson1. OVERVIEW OF DAIRY PRODUCTION

I. MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk
 Nature's most perfect food
 With its assortment of protein, fat lactose (milk sugar), minerals, vitamins,
enzymes, and water

Main Sources of Milk

1. Cow
2. Carabao
3. Goat and Sheep

Nutritional Importance of Milk

 Contains all the essential amino acids needed by humans.
 The protein of milk is composed of casein, lactalbumin, giobulin, and serum
albumin.
Casein is the most abundant protein consistent of milk. It has many uses
in addition to providing protein in the diet.
Lactalbumin is part of the enzyme system that synthesizes lactose in the
mammary gland. It is part of the enzymes into milk as a by-product and
becomes part of milk protein.
Protein globulins of milk are structural parts of antibodies.

Colostrum
 The first milk a female produces after the young is born.
 It contains many antibodies that give the new-born protection from harmful
microorganisms that invade the body and causes illness.
 Other constituents of milk include lactose, minerals such as Ca and P (both of
which are important in bone growth and other body functions), and vitamins.
 Milk is, however, low in Fe, therefore young animals consuming nothing but milk
may develop anemia.
 Milk contains several important vitamins such as vitamin A which help keep the
intestinal tract and skin in proper repair, the vitamin B complex, and vitamins D
and E. Vitamin D is added to most marketed milk.
 Milk is low in vitamin C which prevents scurvy (a disease characterized by
bleeding, spangy gums and loose teeth);

Milk Products
 Cream
 Butter
 Buttermilk
 Skim milk
 Cheese
 Evaporated milk
 Sweetened condensed milk
 Whole milk powder
 Ice cream
 Yoghurt
 Fresh milk

II. THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY SITUATION, YEAR 2000

RDA (Required Dietary Allowance) for Milk for Filipinos = 30 kg
LME (liquid milk equivalent) per capita per eat

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MILK CONSUMPTION PER FILIPINO 16 kg per year

TOTAL MILK REQUIRED BY 75 MILLION FILIPINOS 30 kg x 75M = 2250M kg
LOCAL PRODUCTION = 10.21 million kg
Importation = 1904.25 million kg
91% of imports were cream and milk, mainly in powder form
5% were butter and butterfat, 3% curd, 1% cheese
Source of Importation
Australia – 44.5%
New Zealand – 20.7%
Netherlands – 8.3%
USA – 7.4%

III. GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TO DEVELOP THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY INDUSTRY

Dairy Development Act of 1995 (R.A. 7884)
 Signed into law by President Fidel V Ramos on February 20, 1995 and became
effective on12 March 1995.
 The Act integrates all government dairy development programs into the
National Dairy Authority or NDA.

DTRI (Dairy Training and Research Institute)

 Organized in 1962 the dairy Husbandry Division of then department of Animal
Science UPLBCA, is mandated to conduct research and training in dairy
production and technology.

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Lesson 2. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE

In the selection of the dairy cows, dairy operators look for property attached udder
and strong feet. These characteristics are best indicators that a cow will remain a high
producer for a long time.

Breeds of Dairy Cattle

Bos taurus group
BREED DESCRIPTION/CHARACTERISTICS
1. Holstein- Friesian The Holstein/Friesian breed was
originally developed in the Northern part
of the Netherlands in the Province of
Friesland and Northern Germany. The
breed has long been known for its large
body frame and high milk yield on average
20 – 25 litres/day, and butterfat content
3.5%. They are docile animals. Live weight
613kg. The colour pattern is varying
proportions of black and white. There are
occasionally red and white born from a
black and white parent that carry the red
factor as a recessive gene.
2. Ayrshire The breed was developed in County Ayr in
South Western Scotland hence the breed
name comes from the county name. The
breed was molded under rugged
conditions of the hilly county of the area.
The breed of cattle is characterized by its
red and white colour, shapely udders
generally symmetry, balanced and
smoothness of body. The red colour is
characterized from cherry red to
mahogany red which is different from the
reds found in other breeds.
Live weight is about 477 Kg for mature
animals. Milk yield is on average 20
litres/day.
3. Brown Swiss The Dairy Swiss (Braunveigh) produces
on average 18 - 20 litres/day of milk
whilst the Brown Swiss produces 10 -15
litres/day. The Brown Swiss is common
in Botswana and performs very well under
our weather conditions provided they are
managed well. Their colour varies from
fawn to brown. The nose and tongue black
and a light-colored bond extend around
the nose.
4. Guernsey The breed originated in Channel Islands
near the north coast of France. The
Guernsey breeds are a shade of fawn with
clearly defined white markings. The skin
shows a yellow pigmentation.
The horns incline forward, are refined and
medium in length and taper towards the
tips. They are small and yellow at the
base. The Guernsey’s are alert but not
easily excited.
Butterfat content averages 4.5% and is
much yellow in colour than other breeds.
The milk is also yellowish. On average a
Guernsey produces 16 litre/day of milk.
The Guernsey is a larger animal with a

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live weight of 459 kg. Its colour is

yellowish and white with a white nose.
5. Jersey The Jersey breed was developed on the
Island of Jersey the largest Channel
Islands. Jerseys are very nervous and
react quickly to both good and bad
treatment.
Jerseys color includes various shades of
fawn either with or without white
markings. The horns are inclined forward,
are incurving small, at the base, refined
medium length and tapered towards the
tips. Heifers of this breed develop more
rapidly than any other breed.
Jersey milk averages between 15 – 20
litres/day with butterfat content of 4.5%,
which is rich in color. Jerseys perform
better under Botswana conditions than
Friesians due to high ambient
temperatures. Live weight of Jerseys is an
average 386kg for a mature animal.
6. Milking Shorthorn The Dairy shorthorn is an English breed
with a live weight of about 546 Kg. Their
common colors are red or deep roan,
although red and white are also found.
The breed has a small head while the neck
is thin towards the head rapidly
thickening as it approaches the shoulder.
Horns are short blunt and creamy. They
do not have black tips and should curve
with age inwards or upwards.
Bos indicus group
1. Sahiwal or Australian Friesian It is kept for both milk and draught
Sahiwal (ASF) purpose. Colour: Brownish red to grayish
red. Weight: 600kg Height: 114 to 127 cm
Average milk yield: 7 to 10 liters per day.

2. Red Body weight: Males: 530 kg Females: 325

Shindi Kg. Height: Males: 132 cm Female: 115
cm. Average milk yield: 12 liters per day.

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DAIRY BUFFALO’S BREEDS

Average Wt. Milk
(kg) Yield/
Breed Origin Color/ Description
Day
Male Female
(kg)
SWAMP TYPE BUFFALOES
Light gray in color,
two stripes chevron
distinct on the
Water Buffaloes ventral side of the
neck, one near the
dewlap the other near
the jaw. Horn is curve
outward and inward 1.2-
Philippines 443 398
to form a semi-circle 2.0
from the base of the
head. Upper surface
of the horns has
grooves. The body is
low, wide and heavy
built. Raised for draft
and meat purposes.

Black in color. Hair is

Thai Buffalo long compared to the
other types. Strong
and broad bodied
with prominent
0.9-
Thailand muscles in the neck, 540 400
1.0
chest and back.
Medium and strong
horn with a moonlike
crescent and ends
upwards.

RIVER TYPE BUFFALOES

Jet black in color
with sometimes white
markings on the tail,
Murrah face and legs. The
skin texture is soft
and fine. Horns are
short and tightly
5.0-
India curled similar to ram 625 525
7.0
horns. Massive and
stocky built with light
neck and head, short
limbs, broad hips and
drooping quarter.
Udder and teats are
well-developed
Nili-Ravi The color is usually
black with white
markings on the
forehead, muzzle, 6.0-
Pakistan 590 453
face and legs. Has a 7.5
white switch and
small eyes, horns are
small
Surti Brown or black skin 5.0-
Indian 499 48
and the hair gray to 6.0

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rusty brown. Horns

are medium length
and coil downward
and upward. Two
streaks of white
markings are evident
around the jaw from
ear and the other is at
lower part of the
brisket
Japarapadi Black with occasional
white markings on
the face and legs.
Body is long and
heavy with large and 7.0-
India 589 553
broad flat horns tend 8.0
to drop each other on
each side of the neck
and turned up at the
tips but nor curled.
UPGRADED BUFFALOES
Philippine Murrah
Crossbreed
Black in color with
white switch
sometimes. Chevrons
are absent. Body 1.8-
Philippines 534 479
built are stronger 5.4
than the carabao, the
limbs are longer than
the Murrah.

MAJOR DAIRY GOAT BREEDS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Breeds of Dairy Goats

BREED DESCRIPTION/CHARACTERISTICS
1. Saanen Animals of this breed are probably the
largest among the Swiss dairy goats. The
mature wither height and body weight of
females are 30 inches and 64 kilos.
Saanens are white or creamy colored with
flesh colored muzzle. Their hair is short;
they possess beards and most of them are
hornless.
2. French This breed originated in the French Alps
Alphine and was the first breed of dairy goats.
They have cone-shaped perky ears and
alert appearance. Their color varies from
pure white to pure black, but they usually
white spots along the belly and legs.
Wither height and body weight of mature
does are 29 inches and 59 kilos, while
their mature mates measure 34 inches
and weighs 72 kilos. Both sexes may have
wattles and boards. Wattles are
apparently relics of the gill slits of
prehistoric times. They may be cut off
with a pair of sharp scissors.

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3. Anglo- The Nubian dairy goats were Develop by

Nubian the British: the have short hair and with
combination of various colors like black,
brown, white, cream or gray. They may
be solid in color or have spots or dappled
patterns. Nubian are characterized by
large pendulous ears and convex roman
noses. Average withers height and body
weights of mature females are 30 inches
and 70 kilos whereas those of males are
35 inches and 84 kilos, respectively.
Nubian are usually yield less, but have
richer milk fat than other breeds of dairy
goats. They are the most popular breeds
of dairy goats in the United States.
4. Toggenburg This breed took its name from the place it
originated, the Toggenburg Valley of
Switzerland. Colors Vary from Light fawn
to dark chocolate. A white stripe is
common on each side of face of the
animal. The legs are white from knees
down to the hocks and the hoofs. Wither
height and body weight of the doe vary
from 27 to 31 inches and from 54 to 64
kilos.

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Lesson 3. DAIRY CATTLE HERD MANAGEMENT

Cattle are kept for two main purposes: beef production and milk production.
Another type is draft cattle, which are still present in many third world countries. The
management of a dairy farm is more challenging and complex because it involves not
only feeding and management but also milk production, which is a dairy process, and
reproduction (breeding), which essentially is a continuous process with its attendant
complexities. Each fieldmakes its own unique contribution, but they integrate into the
one broad field of general management.

I. BREEDING MANAGEMENT
The cow comes into estrus the whole year, but chiefly in the summer, heat,
season or estrus lasts for about 18hours and recurs every three weeks. The period of
gestation is about nine months. These frequent periods of estrus make it possible to
arrange that every cow in the herd does not calve at the same time, and that the supply
of milk is more or less distributed throughout the year. To achieve this cows-in-milk
should be about 45% of dairy herd. When in heat, a dairy cow may show restlessness,
enlarge vulvas, a tendency to ride other cows and a decline in milk production; other
cows tend to ride her too. The most reliable sign is standing still when mounted on,
which is called standing heat. It is easier to detect dairy cows that are in heat than beef
cows because they are milked each day and therefore are closely observed. The cow can
then be bred.

Dairy cows are generally hand mated, i.e. the cow is taken to the bull for breeding,
or inseminated artificially. There are technicians available from SUC’s and government
livestock breeding centers to artificially inseminate cattle, but individual operators can
also do it after taking the procedure by participating in artificial insemination training
short courses regularly offered by various organizations as an extension service. It is
desirable to use semen from outstanding or proven sires which usually are the ones
used in AI services. Whatever mating system is used it is well to heed a byword among
good cattlemen: "a good bull is cheap at any price, an inferior bull is expensive at any
price”.
Heifers of dairy breeds are sometimes served at 15 months, but they grow better
if not served until at least 18 months old, so that they calved at 2 ½ years old. The
duration of lactation depends on age, breed, and feeding, but in the case of a first calver
usually lasts from 5 to 7 months, while some adult heavy-milking cows may continue
in milk for a year. The average cow is kept in the herd until she is 5 or 6 years old.

Dairy cows should be allowed a period of at least 2 months between lactation to

enable their body to replenish fat and protein that previous lactation may have depleted.
It is advisable to dry the cow two months before her next calf is due. Also, during this
period globulins accumulate in the mammary gland. Globulins serve as carriers of
antibodies in the colostrums'. Cows that are milked out right up to parturition have very
low proportion of these proteins in their milk. One way of drying off a cow is to reduce
the number of milking to one daily and her rations curtailed; later she is milked every
other day and not completely stripped of milk is not withdrawn from the mammary gland
at frequent intervals.

Cows should not be bred right away after they have freshened since the uterus
may undergo characteristic involution and preparation for their next pregnancy. An
average days open or service period of 85 is thought to be ideal. A good practical goal is
an average of 100 days open. If the average day open exceeds 110-115, it indicates a
serious problem and the cause(s) should be identified and corrected

Dairv cows due to calve may do so out of door in summer. However, it is always
advisable especially for first calver, that they are separated from other cows, and each
be housed for 2 to 3 weeks before the calf is due into maternity stall or pen that is
bedded with clean straws. In this way the cow can be observed closely and protected

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from stray predators such as dogs that may mangle to newly born calf. The cow in a
maternity stall maybe fed there and must have access to water. The caretaker should
be on hand when the cow delivers her calf in case his assistance is necessary. But by
no means should he disturb the cow if the delivery is without difficulty. Calving
difficulties such as caused by abnormal presentations will require the services of a
veterinarian who should be called as early as possible.

Breeding Characteristics of Cattle, Carabao and Goat

Cattle Philippine Goat
Carabao
Age of Puberty 8 months 3.5 years 5-6 months
Age at 1st breeding 15 months 4 years 8 – 10 months
Estrus duration 18 hours 21 hours 1-2 days
Signs of heat which is the most reliable
Estrous cycle 21 days 21 days 21 days
Ovulation 10 – 11 hours 15 hours 33 hours
Gestation 283 days 320 days 150 days
Dry period 2 months 2 months 6-8 weeks

Care of calves
After a calf is born, it should be wiped dry, any membrane clinging to its mouth
and nostrils should be removed, and its navel dipped in an appropriate disinfectant. On
the first day of it’s the calf should have some of the first milk or colostrum produced by
the dam because this contains antibodies to help calf resist any disease-causing
microorganisms. Many dairy operators often castrate bull calves and grow them out for
beef. Heifer calves are usually grown out and most of them are kept for one lactation to
determine how much milk they produce.
Dairy calves are allowed to nurse from their dams from 1 to 3 days of age, or in
some cases weaned or taken away from their mother's milk right at birth, and reared on
the pail. It is easy but important to train or teach the calf to drink on the pail. Calves
are usually kept at small individual pens or elevated calf stalls as soon as they are
weaned. For the first month of their lives, calves should get whole milk at body
temperature, preferably from their own dam, the ration should be about 4 liters, divided
3 feeds. Grain and leafy hay are given to the young calves to let them start eating dry
feeds and to hasten rumen development. For the first month or 6 weeks, i.e., until they
are about 9 weeks old, whole milk may be gradually reduced and skim milk or milk
substitute given in its place. After 4 weeks, the calf should begin to eat solid feed, so
that at the age of about 6 weeks its ration may consist of chopped grass or hay, skim
milk or a milk substitute, or a concentrate mixture.

II. FEEDING MANAGEMENT

The objective of t the feeding program for the dairy operation is to provide a ration
that will encourage optimum economical milk production of acceptable composition
while conductive to the health of the cows. Achieving this objective is one of the greatest
challenges in dairy herd management.
The initial step in designing the feeding program for the individual herd should
be determine the most economical sources and nutrients for that herd. In most cases
this involves evaluating the land resources to determine which crop or combination of
crops to grow and harvest to produce an adequate supply of high quality forage at
minimum cost per unit of nutrient.
Forages must be defined as vegetable feed for domestic animals. Examples are
pasturage, green chopped feeds, silage, and hay. Because forages are relatively useless
as a nutrient sources for human and monogastric and the entire plant rather than the
cost per unit of nutrient from concentrate feeds. Forages are primary constituent of most
dairy rations for physiological and economic reasons. They can make up to 60 to 70%
of the total dry matter intake of dairy cattle. Dairy cattle must consume adequate
amount of fibers usually supplied by forages to ensure adequate rumen function.

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Consumption of rations too low in fiber may result in decreased milk fat percentage and
decreased ration digestibility.
Dairy cattle will consume and can utilize a wide variety of crops as forage,
including grasses, legumes, corn, small grains and other crops.

The next step involves supplementing the available forage with a combination of
concentrate feeds that provide the cow with a balanced ration at the lower total feed cost
per unit of milk produced. In addition, the ration should:
1. Contain adlib amount of clean, fresh water
2. Contain a total ration crude fiber level on a D.M. basis of 15 to 24%, 15 to 19% for
early lactation or high producing cows, and 19 to 24% for late lactation or lower
producing cows.
3. Contain a total ration crude protein level on a D.M. basis of 12 to l6% for early
lactation or high producing cows, and 12 to 14% for late lactation of low producing
cows.
4. Be within the DM intake capacity of the cow. This varies widely with individual
cows but in general ranges from 1.5 to 3.6% of body weight depending on milk
production level.

A logical step by step procedure can be used to formulate rations for milking
dairy cattle. The essentials are:

1. Estimate the daily nutrient needs or requirements. Dairy cattle requires nutrients
for maintenance, for growth if immature, for reproduction when pregnant, and for
reproduction, Nutrient requirements for maintenance refers lo nutrients needed to
maintain the animal body of homeostasis, neither gaining or losing weight, not
pregnant and not producing The requirements are in proportion to the body weight
of the animal. Nutrient requirements for growth are for laying down new muscle and
bone. Growth requirements for dairy cattle reach five to six years of age. Pregnant
animals need additional nutrients for reproduction or growth of the fetus. Lactating
cows also require additional nutrients for the production of milk. The amount
required for this function is proportionate to the amount and composition of the milk
2. Determine the nutrient content of the available forage.
3. Determine the forage intake.
4. Calculate the nutrient intake from forage.
5. Calculate the nutrient need from concentrates.
6. Balance the ration for energy with concentrates.
7. Balance the ration for protein, calcium, phosphorus, and the other micronutrients
by including proper amounts of these nutrients in the concentrate mixture.
8. Blend or purchase a mixture of supplemental feeds that provide the needed
amounts of the various remaining nutrients at least cost per unit.

The recommended nutrient allowances for dairy cattle in ration formulation are
determined using the US National Research Council feeding standards, prepared for
cattle by nutritionists who had made a specialty of dairy cattle nutrition.

Cows in DTRI are fed using challenge feeding, that is, adjusting concentrate
amounts according to milk production of cows-in-milk. The calves in the elevated
individual calf stalls are fed milk in decreasing amount and concentrate mixture in
increasing amounts as they grow older. They are encouraged to nibble on forage early
to hasten rumen development.

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III. HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Milk secretion is a process which can be carried out by the female with maximum
efficiency only if she is healthy. Dairy cattle are susceptible to a wide variety of diseases.

The goals or objectives of a herd health program are to maximize nongenetic

culling and mortality while maintaining a healthy herd with a high degree of
reproductive efficiency. To do this requires a herd health program centered on the
prevention of disease and other health problems rather that the sporadic treatment of
various conditions.

The basic principles of an effective health program should include the following:
1. Prevention of disease problems is more effective and more profitable than treatment.
Prevention can be achieved by the following practices:
a. Preventing exposure to disease producing organisms. Good sanitation and
cleanliness, isolation of incoming animals, and eradication of certain diseases can
achieve this.
b. Maintaining high level of resistance. This can be achieved by vaccination for those
disease for which there is an effective vaccine, maintaining all animals at a good level
of nutrition, and providing a comfortable environment.

2. Reducing the spread of diseases that occur. This can be achieved by the following
practices:
a. Isolation of animals that contract or are suspected of contracting a contagious
disease. Quarters inhabited by that animal should be thoroughly cleaned and
disinfected before being used.
b. Rapid, accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment of disease problems. This may
involve blood testing and other laboratory diagnostic tests as well as post mortem
examination.
c. Keen observation by the herd personnel to detect minor abnormalities before they
become serious problems. Good cow men can detect minor problems by the
characteristics and behavior of the animals. A cow that is slightly off feed, stands
uneasily, has toughened hair coat, passes feces that are too soft or too hard, or
stands by herself in the corner of the lot or barn one day may be seriously ill the next
time. Her condition may be easily remedied if treated immediately; if she has a
contagious disease through the herd.

3. Maintaining and using an accurate health record system. Good health records can
aid in the diagnosis of problems, help alert dairymen to potential problems, and ensure
that important details are not overlooked such as missing vaccinations on some
animals. The record system should be one that contains the needed information, yet is
not so exhaustive that it is not kept accurately.

4. Cooperation and mutual respect among the owner, manager, herdsman, veterinarian,
and government animal health extension personnel. A good working relationship among
there persons is essential to the success of the program. Each has vital areas of
responsibility, and the continued success of the program depends on each fulfilling his
or her responsibility in the total effort.

IV. MILK PRODUCTION

After parturition the level of milk production rises rapidly, until peak lactation is
reached in two to six weeks, then declines slowly until drying off, or towards the end of
lactation. Milk secretion declines rapidly after the 5" month of pregnancy than in non-
pregnant cows. The effect is due to interaction of hormone which control milk secretion
and the reproductive state of the female. Hormones produced by the ovary and the
pregnant uterus interact with, or influence, the activity of the pituitary gland, the
hormones from which control the level of secretion as well as the amount and state of
milk-secreting tissue.

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Maddela, 3404 Quirino
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The milk yield is closely dependent upon lactation length. The ideal cow, calving
annually and provided with the necessary annual vacation, should milk for 300 days.
Thus farmers seeking a high producing herd must take persistency of lactation into
account in their selection techniques. Persistency of lactation is the degree to which
lactation is maintained.

A cow with 90% production persistency means that after its peak lactation is
reached, the succeeding monthly milk yields equal 90% of the previous month's milk
yield. Persistency percentages over 90% of desirable are result in high lactation yield
when compared cows with equal peak yield but lower persistency.

Length of actual milking

Depending on the number of cows raised, farmers milk their cows either by hand
or by machine. It will take an average of 1 ½ to 2 hours of milk 10 cows by hand
depending on the skill of the milkers. Using the herringbone system of machine milking
a dairyman can milk 40 cows in one hour. Whether the system of milking is by hand or
by machine, milkers should be taught to think cleanliness. Milk must reach the
consumers clean, fresh and safe for drinking.

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Lesson 4. PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Forage crops from the basis of the nutritional programs on ruminant livestock in
the Philippines. Most of the about 90% of the cattle in the Philippines which are raised
by small hood farmers, and of the almost 100% of the carabaos, are fed solely on forage,
without minimal or with minimal concentrates. The main sources of this forage or
roughage are: 1) weeds or indigenous, 2) farm by products or residues and, to a very
limited extent, 3) sown pastures.
Native tropical grasslands are mainly composed of short season species which
grow fast and tall during rainy season, and become dominant in the pastures. While
grasses are growing actively protein is reasonably good.
The end of the rainy season, the plants develop tall, flowering stems which
decrease in protein and increase in carbohydrates and fiber. From this point onwards,
the grass matured, dries off and becomes leached. Feed value is extremely low.
As native grasses are usually adopted to low soil fertility levels, the direct
application of fertilizers alone will not produce any dramatic improvement in feed value
or carrying capacity Further , in these native grasslands, there is no complete or almost
complete absence of legumes which themselves can supply high protein feed.

1. THE NEED FOR IMPROVED PASTURE

The value of a forage species is measured by its ability to supply the grazing
animal with energy, protein, vitamins and minerals. The feed value of native forage
species and/or farm by products or residues is low. The productivity of the ruminants
subsisting on these feeds is thus limited by inadequate nutrition. There is a low wide
range of forage species, both grasses and legumes available to replace native vegetation.

2. ESTABLISHING PASTURES
In a commercial dairy farm, it is necessary to establish pasture as soon as
possible. Here, a more thorough and positive method of establishing pasture is needed.
Land preparation is important in panting grasses as in planting agronomic crops as
corn and rice. The intensity of land preparation depends on whether the land is a newly
opened timber or rainforest land or native grassland or open woodland. Also the type of
planting materials affects the thoroughness of seedbed preparation. Planting seeds of
pasture species usually requires a finer seedbed that corn and sorghum because the
seeds are smaller.

3. SOWING TIME
The most reliable time for planting is just before the rainy season, or shortly after
the first rains have fallen. For many of the small grass a seed, which must be planted
close to the surface, available moisture, is quite critical for germination and emergence.
Warmer temperature usually occurs with the opening rains, and this favors germination
of grass and legume seeds. Further, at this time of the year the air humidity is high and
evaporation is reduced. Both these factors favor seeding survival.

4. MANAGEMENT OF IMPROVED PASTURES

Management is as important as selecting the right pasture species and applying
the correct fertilizers. It is perhaps more of art than a science, and the best managers
are those who by observation and practical experience endeavor to combine the welfare
of their livestock with the welfare of the plants in the pasture.

5. EFFICIENT PASTURE USE

Efficient use of the pasture aims at carying as much stock as possible but at the
same time animals should be making maximum live weight gains. In other words, as
stocking rates are increased, the output per animal decreases. Maximum production
per hectare is measured by beef of milk produced.
Stocking rates must, of course, be kept below a figure where damage to the sward or
influx of weeds occurs. This means that there must be some provision for feeding

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animals if this is likely. Alternatives open are conservation of hay or silage, purchase of
feed, adjustment or sale of stock.

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MADDELA CAMPUS
Maddela, 3404 Quirino
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Lesson 5. FORAGE PRESERVATION FOR A FEED SUPPLY

There are two systems in preserving forage, namely: silage making, and hay
making.
The growth of forage crops is affected by several factors, among these are the
seasons of the year. Usually, forage availability is a problem during the dry season in
our country. In the Philippines, most areas with cattle and carabao experience a dry
season ranging from 3 to 7 months. Forage production is seriously affected by a telling
effect on performance of animals. A study on growth curve on crossbred beef cattle
conducted in UPLB showed that steers on optimum feeding program attained slaughter
weight in 3-4 years of age while those under sub-o ptimum feeding took 7-8 months to
reach the same weight.

Livestock production in the temperate zones of the world has been progressively
freed from the sesonality of forage production by increasing the proportions of forage
production. For example in Europe, since the last three decades of the 19 century, the
meat and milk production has increased at an accelerated rate per animal, per hectare
and per farmer simultaneously with silage and hay assuming a major role in winter
feeding of dairy cows and fattening cattle.
1. STRATEGY OF PRESERVATION
Haymaking and silage making differ in how the moisture content is employed in
the strategy in preservation. Fish forage contains about 80% moisture, that is, 4 kg of
water for every 5 kg of water. The fundamental strategy in the preservation of forage as
hay is drying the forage below 20% moisture content. While in silage making, the
strategy is to exclude oxygen from the forage mass and to reduce the ph rapidly through
bacterial fermentation.

2. TYPES OF SILO
The most common types of silo in the Philippines are the tower or upright, trench,
bunker and pit silos. These are found in commercial farms, bureau of animal industry
and agricultural colleges. We have also tried drums and concrete culverts with success.

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COMMON TERMINOLOGIES USED IN DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION

Casein – the major protein of milk

Colostrum – the first milk given by a female following delivery of her young. It is high
in antibodies that give the young protection from invading microorganisms.
Curd – coagulated milk
Days open – number of days between freshening and conception
Dry cow – a cow that is not presently producing milk
Dry the cow – stop milking the cow: to let her body replenish fat & protein depleted by
previous lactation

Foremilk – the first few streams drawn from the udder, usually contains a larger
proportion of bacteria than the last milk, called the striping

Hard and Slow Milker – a cow with teat canal that is too small or the sphincter muscle
too strong

Homogenized milk – milk that has had the fat droplets broken into very small particles
so that the milk fats stay in suspension in the milk fluid.
Lactation period – the time during which milk is produced
Lactose – milk sugar
Milk – the secretion of mammary glands of animals that suckle their young

Milk let-down or Ejection – the moving of milk from the lumina of the alveoli and ducts
of the gland and teat cistems, where it may be removed.
Milk secretion – the synthesis and release of milk by the single layer epithelial cells,
which lined the inner surface of the alveolus.
Oxytocin – the milk let down hormone, released form the posterior pituitary gland after
a stimulus such as washing the udder, manipulating the teats, the nursing of a calf or
other factors that the cow relate to milking.
Udder – the encased group of the mammary glands of animals. Each mammary gland
is provided with a nipple or teat.

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