Important Definitions & Statements

The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the IAF. The Chief of Air Staff, an Air Chief Marshal, is a four-
star officer and commands the Air Force.

The staff of Air Headquarters consists of three branches - Air Operations, Administrative branch Maintenance
branch.

In recognition of his services the Government of India gave the rank of Marshal of the Air Force to Arjan Singh in
January 2002 making him the first and the only “Five Star” rank officer in the Indian Air Force.

Indian Armed Forces honours and awards can be divided into two categories-
(a) Gallantry Awards
(b) Non-Gallantry wards / Distinguished Service Awards.

Station/Wing is always what is called a self-accounting unit, ie it is fully capable and independently responsible
for its administration. A Wing/Station exercises its functional and administrative control over its lodger units.

The Western, Central, Eastern, South Western, Southern Air Commands control all operational units. Operational
Commands execute the operational roles of the Air Force in war.

The Indian Air Force came into being with the promulgation of the IAF bill on 8 Oct 1932.

Different Branches in the IAF:-(a) Flying Branch (b) Navigation Branch (c) Education Branch (d) Medical Branch
(e) Administration Branch (f) Logistic Branch (g) Meteorology Branch (h) Engineering Branch.

Identification of Aircraft. Many factors are involved in making an identification of an aircraft and the distance at which it
can be positively identified. Some of these are size, viewing angel, visibility, aircraft finish, visual characteristics, colour
and external markings.

During Peace Time. Aircraft recognition helps to identify the different types of aircraft possessed by the enemy and
assess the strength of the country and prepare for own self-defence.

During War Time. Aircraft recognition helps the MOP (mobile observation post) to identify the Aircraft as friend or
foe. It also helps to know the capability of the aircraft by identifying its type.

Methods used to identify the aircrafts:-(a) Wing position(b) Shape of canopy(c) Wing shape(d) Shape of fins and tail
plane (e) Shape of wing tips (f) Markings

Purpose of aircraft recognition - to assess the strength of the country during peace, to identify the enemy's aircraft
during war & to determine the capabilities of the enemy's aircraft

Recognition by Wing Shape is the method used to recognize aircraft based on the Shape of The Wings

Recognition by Canopy Shape is the method used to recognize aircraft based on the Shape of the Canopy

Low tail plane is the shape of the tail plane characterized by its low position

GREEN WHITE SAFFRON - inner to outer circle

SU-30 MKI - twin engine multirole fighter (Russian) - has the highest max speed of 2500 km/hr (Mach 2.35)

MIRAGE-2000 - single seater air defence and multi- role fighter – France.

MiG-29 - Twin engine, single seater air superiority fighter (Russian).

MiG-27 - Single engine, single seater tactical strike fighter (Russian).

MiG-21 BISON - Single engine, single seater multirole fighter/ground attack aircraft (Russian).

JAGUAR - twin-engine, single seater deep penetration strike aircraft.

C-130J - aircraft is capable of performing paradrop, heavy-drop, casualty evacuation and can also operate from
short and semi prepared surfaces

C-17 - aircraft is capable of carrying a payload of 40-70 tons up to a distance of 4200-9000 km in in a single hop

IL-76 - four engine heavy duty/long haul military transport aircraft - max speed of 850 km/hr capacity to carry 225
paratroopers.

AN-32 - medium tactical transport aircraft with a crew capacity to carry 39 paratroopers.

EMBRAER - executive Jet Aircraft – main role - to convey VVIPs/VIPs.

AVRO - transport aircraft - capacity of 48 paratroopers

DORNIER - logistic air support staff transport aircraft - can carry 19 passengers.

BOEING 737-200 - VIP passenger aircraft - total seating capacity of 60 passengers.

MI-25/MI-35 - Assault and anti-armour helicopter – has Scorpion anti- tank missiles. max cruise speed - 310 km/hr.

Mi-26 - heavy lift helicopter - carrying capacity of 70 combat equipped troops or 20,000 kg.

Mi-17V5 - equipped with modern avionics and glass cockpit instrumentation, state-of-art navigational equipment,
avionics, weather radar and are NVG-compatible

CHETAK - capacity of 6 passengers or 500 kg load.

CHEETAH - carry 3 passengers or 1000 kg external sling, it is the life line of Siachen Glacier dropping load and
evacuating soldiers from the highest battlefield in the world.

KIRAN -Basic Jet and Armament Trainer - Indigenous design of HAL.

PILATUS PC-7 - low-wing tandem- seat training aircraft, it is capable of all basic training functions including
aerobatics, instrument, tactical and night flying.

LIGHT COMBAT AIRCRAFT (LCA) - Multi Role Combat aircraft. World’s smallest light weight (Max takeoff weight
8500 Kg) & highly manoeuverable combat aircraft with seven hard-points. Developed by aeronautical development
agency with contribution from more than 100 government/ private agencies.

Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) - multirole combat helicopter being developed in India by Hindustan Aeronautics
Limited (HAL) for use by the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army.

Dhruv (ALH)- is a utility helicopter developed and manufactured by India's Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL),
max speed -295 kmph

Fly-by-wire (FBW) is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an aircraft with an electronic
interface.

Fly-by-optics is sometimes used instead of fly-by-wire because it can transfer data at higher speeds the cables are just
changed from electrical to fiber cables.

Power by Wire - The power circuits power electrical or self-contained electro hydraulic actuators that are controlled by
the digital flight control computers. All benefits of digital fly-by-wire are retained along with elimination of bulky and
heavy hydraulic circuits.

Fly-by-wireless systems are very similar to fly-by-wire systems; however, instead of using a wired protocol for the
physical layer a wireless protocol is employed.

UAV - acronym for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle - aircraft with no pilot on board.
UAVs can be remote controlled aircraft or can fly autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans or more complex
dynamic automation systems. UAVs used for a number of missions, including reconnaissance and attack roles.
UAV Types - Target and Decoy, Reconnaissance, Combat, Research and Development, Endurance.

Glass Cockpit - aircraft cockpit that features electronics instrument displays rather than mechanical gauge; uses
displays driven by flight management system that can be adjusted to displays flight information as needed.

Rafale - Extremely powerful, superbly agile this is a Vth generation combat aircraft (France). It encompasses largest
and most modern range of sensors and multiplies their efficiency with technological breakthrough.

Chinook - tandem rotor Heavy Lift Helicopters (USA)- an all-weather aircraft with state of the art NVG to permit
operations in all conditions. It is the battle proven machine, highly manoeuverable and specially suited for narrow
valleys. Expected to greatly enhance India‟s capabilities across a range of Military Missions.

S-400 - Russian made S-400 Triumf advanced Air Defence System, operational range of 400 km and an altitude
of upto 185 km. Claimed by Russia to be a fool proof Air Defence system. extremely accurate target acquisition and
engagement radar system integrated to command force.

INDO PAK WAR- 1971 -our armed forces in conjunction with the Mukti Bahini ended the dark night of oppression and
brutality in East Bengal and ushered in the new state of Bangladesh. All this was achieved in a remarkably short period
of fourteen days. Infact the unconditional surrender by the enemy’s one lakh armed forces is unprecedented. The
Prime Minister Smt Indira Gandhi was away from New Delhi on day’s visit to Calcutta, where she had just finished
speaking to a large gathering on the Pakistani threat to India‟s security and the liberation struggle in the Bangladesh.
The Defence Minister, Shri Jagjivan Ram was at Patna. The Pakistani Air Force and ground troops following the
Israeli type pre-emptive strike had launched a massive attack on the Western front stretching from Jammu &
Kashmir to Rajasthan. In addition to air raids by the Pakistani Air Force the ground forces also launched a massive
attack on our border posts. In the West the IAF's primary tasks were disruption of enemy communications, the
destruction of fuel and ammunition reserves, and the prevention of any ground force concentrations so that no
major offensive could be mounted against India while Indian forces were primarily engaged in the East. On the
Eastern front, the Indian forces launched a sophisticated campaign which included rapid-moving infantry and armour
advancing from three directions, airborne and heliborne assaults, missile bombardments from ships and an amphibious
landing, the IAF's task being primarily direct support of the ground forces.

Mahatma Gandhi on non-violence- Cowardice is the use of force & nonviolence is submission before force

Air Defence Guns and Gnats went blazing and ensured 03 of Pakistanis Sabre jets were shot down. Throughout
the conflict, in which Indian strategy was to maintain basically defensive postures on the western and northern
fronts whilst placing emphasis on a lightning campaign in the east. In the West the IAF's primary tasks were
disruption of enemy communications, the destruction of fuel and ammunition reserves, and the prevention of
any ground force concentrations so that no major offensive could be mounted against India while Indian forces were
primarily engaged in the East.

Four Hunters of the OCU, detachment at Jaisalmer destroyed an entire armoured regiment at Longewala, literally
stopping the enemy offensive in its tracks.

OPERATION SAFED SAGAR - May 1999 - Operation Safed Sagar was the code name assigned to the Indian Air
Force's strike to support the Ground troops during Operation Vijay that was aimed to flush out Regular and
Irregular troops of the Pakistani Army from Indian Positions in the Kargil sector along the Line of Control.

Operation Vijay - mobilization of 200000 (two lakh) Indian troops. Two divisions of the Indian Army numbering
20,000, along with several thousand from the Paramilitary forces of India and the Air force were deployed in the conflict
zone.

The Indian Air Force (IAF) was first approached to Provide air support on 11 May with the use of helicopters. On
21 May a Canberra on a reconnaissance mission was hit by ground fire. The flight was however, recovered safely, and
returned to base on one engine. On 25 May, the Cabinet Committee on Security authorized the IAF to mount attacks on
the infiltrators without crossing the LoC. On 26 May, the go-ahead was given and the IAF started its strike role
tasks. Flying from the Indian airfields of Srinagar, Avantipur and Adampur, ground attack aircraft MiG-21s, MiG-
23s, MiG-27s, Jaguars and the Mirage 2000 struck insurgent positions. The first strikes were launched on the 26
May, when the Indian Air Force struck infiltrator positions with fighter aircraft and helicopter gunships. The initial strikes
saw MiG-27s carrying out offensive sorties, with MiG-21s and (later) MiG-29s providing fighter cover. Mi-17 gunships
were also deployed in the Tololing sector. However, on 27 May, the first fatalities were suffered when a MiG-21 and
a MiG-27 jets were shot down over Batalik Sector by Pakistan Army. The following day, a Mi-17 was lost with the loss of
all four of the crew, when it was hit by three Stinger missiles while on an offensive sortie. These losses forced the Indian
Air Force to reassess its strategy. The helicopters were immediately withdrawn from offensive roles as a measure
against the man-portable missiles in possession of the infiltrators. On 30 May, the Indian Air Force called into
operation the Mirage 2000 which was deemed the best aircraft capable of optimum performance under the
conditions of high- altitude in the zone of conflict. Armed with Laser Guided Bombs (LGB) (LGB kits were
provided by Israel to India) the Mirages repeatedly struck enemy positions, Destroying Logistics and resupply
capability of the infiltrators. The LGBs ensured accuracy and extensive damage to the deeply entrenched
enemy position. The aircraft employed steepdive attacks ensuring safety. The choppers used were Mi-8 and the
Mi-17. The transport planes were Avro, An-32 and IL-76. According to IAF the "air strikes against the Pakistani
infiltrators, supply camps and other targets yielded rich dividends. By July all the remaining intruders had
withdrawn and the operation was declared a success by the IAF in having achieved its primary objectives.

FAMOUS AIR HEROES

Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh, DFC. His contribution during 1965 Indo-China war was recognized by
the nation.

Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, AC, Hero of Soviet Union, is a former Indian Air Force test pilot who flew aboard
Soyuz T-11 as part of the Inter-cosmos program. He was the first Indian to travel in space and brought laurels to our
country.

Flying Officer Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon, 1971 war, flying Gnat with No 18 Squadron from Srinagar, was posthumously
awarded the Param Vir Chakra.

PRINCIPLE OF FLIGHT

Mass. The quantity of matter in a body.

Density. It is the mass per unit volume.

Motion. Motion is said to be there when a body changes its position in relation to its surroundings.

Speed. Speed is the rate of change of position.

Velocity. Velocity is speed in particular direction. Velocity is a vector quantity having both magnitude and direction.

Acceleration. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. A body moving along a circular path at constant speed
has acceleration.

Momentum. Unit – The quantity of motion possessed by a body.

Power - the rate of doing work (the time taken to do work).

Centre of Gravity (CG). The point through which the weight of an aircraft acts.

Kinetic Energy - The energy possessed by mass because of its motion.

Newton’s First Law of Motion. A body will continue to be in state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external force. This property of all bodies is called inertia and a body in such a state is said
to be in Equilibrium.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion. To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Newton's third law of motion - principle of motion is used in propelling aircraft

Slats are Movable high lift devices used to generate additional lift at low speeds and reduce drag

Lift - force caused by the difference in air pressure under & above a wing

Aerofoil - shape of a wing or blade

Chord Line It is line joining the centres of curvature of leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil.

Chord Length. It is the length of chord line intercepted between the leading and trailing edges.
Angle of Attack. It is the angle between the chord line and the relative air flow undisturbed by the presence of
aerofoil.

Angle of Incidence. The angle between the chord line and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

Lift. The vertical component of Total Reaction, resolved at right angles to the relative airflow.

Drag. The horizontal component of the Total Reaction acting angles and in the same direction as the relative airflow.

A flying object is a mechanical body in a three dimensional space.

FORCES ACTING ON AIRCRAFT

Lift is a positive force caused by the difference in air pressure under and above a wing. Weight is the force that
causes objects to fall downwards. Thrust is the force that propels an object forward. Drag is the resistance of
the air to anything moving through it. Lift and Drag are the most important components of aircraft in level flight.
They act in 90 degrees to each other. The Lift component of aircraft supports the aircraft in air whereas the drag
resists the aircraft movement in air.

Flaps are hinged surfaces mounted on the trailing edges of the wings of a fixed- wing aircraft to reduce the speed at
which an aircraft can be safely flown and to increase the angle of descent for landing. They shorten takeoff and
landing distances. Flaps do this by lowering the stall speed and increasing the drag.

Slats- extended over the leading edge of the wings. Types of Slats (a) Automatic (b) Fixed (c) Powered.

Stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases beyond a certain point such
that the lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the critical angle of attack.

Stall Speed - the speed below which the airplane cannot create enough lift to sustain its weight in flight. The stall speed
will vary depending on the airplane's weight, altitude, and configuration (flap setting, etc).

Propeller converts shaft power from the engine into thrust. The propeller accelerates a large mass of air rearwards
thereby propelling the aircraft forward.

Thrust is the force which moves an aircraft through the air. Thrust is used to overcome the drag of an airplane.
Thrust is generated by the engines of the aircraft.

Bernoulli’s principle / Venturi effect - pressure drops as velocity increases (in fuilds) - the phenomenon of
decreasing fluid pressure with increasing velocity

Weight - the force responsible for objects falling down

AIRMANSHIP

Airmanship is a study of rules and regulations which must be followed both on the ground and in air to ensure
safety and proper discipline in flying. It, thus, includes all air traffic control procedures and other actions laid down to
deal with any type of aircraft emergencies, and other contingencies. Airmanship when studied in correct sense
promotes flight safety and prevents aircraft accidents. Good airmanship ensures a pilot at his best, when the
situation is at its worst.

Aerodrome. Defined area on land or water including any buildings, installations and equipment intended to be used
either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and movement of ac.

Air Traffic Control Centre. An organisation established to provide:(a) Air traffic control within a control area (where
established).(b) Flight information service within a flight information region. (c) Alerting service for search and
rescue within its flight information region. Purpose of Flight Information Service (FIS) is to provide advice &
information for safe flight. Responsibility of an Approach Control Office – to provide air traffic control service for
arrivals & departures.

Air Traffic Control Services. A service provided for the purpose of: Preventing collisions between ac in the air, and
on the manoeuvering area between a/c and obstructions.
Aerodrome Traffic Zone - an airspace of defined dimensions established around an aerodrome for the protection of
aerodrome traffic

Control Zone - Airspace of defined dimensions extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a specified upper
limit, within which Air Traffic Control Service is provided to controlled flights. In control Zone Flight Information
Service and Alerting Service is provided to aircraft

Controlling traffic on the manoeuvring area of the aerodrome is the main responsibility of an Aerodrome Control
Tower

Area Control Centre provides air traffic control service to controlled flights in control areas

Flight Information Region (FIR) - airspace of defined dimensions with in which Flight Information Service and
Alerting Service are provided to the aircraft

Prohibited Area. Airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas of territorial waters of a State, within which the
flight of aircraft is prohibited.

Restricted Area. An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters of a State, within which
the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with specified conditions.

Altitude. The vertical distance of a level, a point or object considered as a point measured from mean sea level
(MSL).

Movement Areas. Movement areas are that part of an airfield intended for the surface movement of the aircraft.
These are paved areas and include runways, taxiways, dispersal areas, aprons etc.

Runways. Runways are paved surfaces intended for take-off and landing of ac. The number and orientation of
runways at an airfield will depend upon the volume of traffic, runway occupancy time and climatological data on surface
winds.

Taxiways. These are paved surfaces provided for the taxing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one
part of the aerodrome and another.

Aerodrome ground markings shall consist of the following: (a) Runway markings. (b) Taxiway markings. (c)
Unserviceability marking.

Emergency landing. An aircraft seen, or known to be carrying out an emergency landing has the right of way over all
others. Every aircraft obliged by the above rules to keep out of the way of another, is, if possible, to avoid passing over
or under the other or crossing ahead of it. The aircraft having the right of way should normally maintain its heading and
speed

The downwind leg is a flight path, opposite to the direction of landing, which is parallel to and at a sufficient distance
from the landing runway

Aerodrome Lighting. All permanent installations are normally on the mains electricity supply but also have some
alternative arrangements for use in the event of power failure.
Aerodrome lighting is considered under two headings.(a) Approach Lighting. This is to assist the pilots to make an
approach for landing in poor visibility or at night. (b) Airfield Lightings.

Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) are said to exist when the prevailing visibility, distance from cloud, and
ceiling are equal to or better than the specified minimum. InFlight the criteria are: (a) Visibility: 5 nm / 8 km. (b) Distance
from cloud: 200 yards / 1.5 km horizontally and 1000 feet / 200 meters vertically

AVIATION MEDICINE

Hypoxia comes on without warning of any kind, supplementary oxygen must be available in any aircraft that will be
flown above 10,000 Feet. The general rule of oxygen above 10000 ASL by day and above 5000 ASL by night is
essential. Hypoxia can be defined as a lack of sufficient oxygen in the body cells or tissues. At 16000 feet, a
pilot becomes disoriented and completely lacking in rational judgment & Control of the airplane can be easily lost. At
18000 feet loss of consciousness will occur within minutes
Hyperventilation- over breathing

Ear Block- Stretching of the ear drum because of blocked air in middle ear. Stretching of the eardrum due to higher
pressure causes ear block during ascent and descent. It is advisable to use the Valsalva technique

Fatigue is the most common psychological problems for aircrew/pilots. Fatigue degrades performance. A tired pilot
cannot carry out task as reliably and accurately as he should. Fatigue begins when the pilot begins a flight and
increases with each hour in the air. Due to cumulative effects of fatigue on a pilot Landing is most effected part of the
flight

NAVIGATION

Air Navigation is the art of guiding an aircraft through the air, so that it arrives at a desired position at a pre-
calculated time. Since the pilot has the primary duty of flying the aircraft, it would not be possible for him to carry
out the detailed task of a professional navigator in usage of plotting tables, computers, charts etc. He however has to
be skilled in map reading and mental DR in order to navigate accurately.

Air Navigation Techniques can be broadly classified into two groups - Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument
Flight Rules (IFR)

Visual Flight Rules (VFR). The pilot largely navigates using dead reckoning combined with Visual observations with
reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented by radio navigation aids.

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). Under these rules the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio nav aids
such as beacons, or as directed under radar control by a controlling air traffic controller.

Variation in speed, heights and directions often results in unexpected gross errors and place the aircraft quite
faraway from the desired track and time. A good pilot will plan a good flight meticulously and fly that good plan. If a
pilot doesn‟t stick to the flight plan - he will get lost or go off-track. Successful air navigation involves piloting an
aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft or endangering the safety
of those on board or on ground. For navigating accurately, the pilot before carrying out the flight refers to correct scale
maps & takes forecast winds into consideration. Planning the flight meticulously ensures the pilot is prepared for
unforeseen situations. Mental DR (dead reckoning) - navigating accurately using map reading and mental DR

In order to simplify Identification and measurement of directions, the earth has been marked by number of
imaginary but well defined lines. The earth is an oblate spheroid whose polar diameter is 23NM less than the
equatorial diameter which is 6884NM.However for the purpose of air navigation on the earth is considered to be
a perfect sphere. On this sphere a number of imaginary lines are drawn to understand and simplify air navigation.

Great Circle. The circle drawn on the surface of the earth whose plane cuts the earth into two equal halves, eg- the
Equator, meridians together with their anti-meridians.

Small Circle. The circle on the surface of the earth which cuts the earth into two parts which are unequal. It follows that
the plane of a great circle always passes through the centre of the earth but that of a small circle does not. e.g.-
parallels of a latitude.

Rhumb Line. The line cutting all the meridians at the same angle. It thus becomes a regularly curved line.
examples are the Equator and all the meridians

Equator - great circle whose plane is perpendicular to axis of rotation of the earth. Equator is a line dividing the
earth into the northern and southern hemispheres. It cuts the earth in 02 equal halves

Latitude. The latitude of a place is defined as the arc of its meridian between the equator and the place and is
named North or south depending upon its corresponding position in respect to the equator. The latitude is measured in
degrees, minutes and seconds form 0° to 90° from the equator.

Longitude. These are angular distances along the equator on east or west of the prime-meridian. The longitude of a
place is defined as the shorter arc of the equator between the meridian of the place and the prime-meridian. It is
measured in degrees, minutes a n d seconds from 0° to 180°along with suffix East or West of the Prime-Meridian.
Prime-Meridian. The meridian passing through Greenwich Village of England which is the datum for record.

MET AND ATMOSPHERE

Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and the weather processes that occur in it. Since an aircraft is flown through
a medium of the atmosphere, an aviator must have adequate knowledge of meteorology and an appreciation of the
effect of weather on all aspects of flying.

Meteorological briefing is undertaken to explain to the aircrew the prevailing met conditions and expected conditions
(forecast) over the required areas of operation. The met officer gives the following information:- (a) Salient features
observed on latest weather charts. (b) Present state of weather at base and diversionary air fields with emphasis on the
aspects that are adverse for flying. (c) Forecast for base and diversionary airfields for the next 6-12 hours with specific
mention of weather warnings that may be in force and the likelihood of its extension.

Met briefing always precedes the flight planning stage. Cooperation between met section and aircrew are essential to
maintain a high standard of accuracy in forecasting weather.

Study of Climatology involves study of long-term weather patterns

Composition of dry air by volume is as:- (a) Nitrogen 78.09 % (b) Oxygen 20.95 % (c) Argon 0.93 % (d) Carbon dioxide
0.03 %. Nitrogen (78.09%) is the main constituent of air

Thermosphere upper limit is at 85 km

In Stratosphere temperature change with height is Steady

Mesosphere - layer of the atmosphere having the lowest temperatures

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) - defined by ICAO:-(a) Mean Sea level temperature 15°c (b) Mean Sea level
pressure1013.25 mb (c) Surface density1225 g/m3 (d) Acceleration due to gravity9 80.665 cm / sec2 (e) Rate of fall of
temp with height up to 11 km 6.5°c /km (1.98°c / 1000 ft)

Clouds are formed by cooling of masses of damp air (moisture in air)

3 Classes of Clouds
Low Clouds (Stratus) Ground level to 6500 feet
Medium Clouds (Altus) 6500 to 20,000 feet
High Clouds (Cirrus) 20,000 feet and above

Nomenclature used – Strato , Alto, Cirro

Cirrro means high clouds, alto means medium clouds, stratus means layer type and cumulous means heap type

Precipitation is the general term used for drizzle, rain, shower, sleet and snow i.e. water droplets or ice crystals
falling from clouds. For the water droplets or ice crystal to overcome the vertical currents and fall under the force of
gravity, their diameter should be of the order at least a millimeter or more.

Drizzle. Minute water drops falling from the clouds. The drops are so small that they look like spray and are at times
blown and carried by wind.

Rain. Medium size water drops falling from layer types of clouds.

Snow. Frozen rain in the form of flakes or ice crystal.

Sleet. Mixture of rain and snow.

Shower. Large drops falling from heap type of clouds.

Thunder storm. A phenomenon in which thunder is heard and lightning is seen. Generally accompanied by sharp
shower. They are associated with Cb clouds.

Hail storm. A storm in which solid pellets of ice fall on the ground.
INTRODUCTION AND TYPES OF AERO ENGINES

An engine is a device where-in energy in one form is converted into another form. Here the heat energy is converted
into mechanical energy to produce required propulsion. The propulsion is achieved by imparting acceleration to a
certain mass of gas as per Newton’s third law of motion.

Aero-engines are machines which transform the potential energy contained in fuel and air either into kinetic or
mechanical energy. The gas energy is produced by the combustion of an air-fuel mixture. The forward thrust is
produced as per Newton’s third law which states that „for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.‟
The operating cycle (pressure / volume cycle) of a basic aero engine is Brayton cycle.

Air intake - Assists in induction of air. Compressor - Assists in compression of air. Combustion chamber - Assists
in combustion of fuel and air. Turbine assembly - Assists in expansion of combustion gas. Exhaust assembly -
Assists in exhaust of gas

Main function of turbo shaft & turbo prop engines - to convert gas kinetic energy into mechanical energy

In Propulsion by Reaction the engine expels a small mass of air with a great acceleration. In a turbo prop engine the
Propellor is responsible for generating thrust. Both turbo jet engines and turbo prop engines use a compressor and a
turbine (common feature). Primary purpose of a turbo shaft engine is to transform gas kinetic energy into mechanical
energy

The main difference between single shaft and free turbine engine is in the transmission of power to the
propeller.

(a) Single Shaft. In a single-shaft engine, the propeller is driven by the same shaft (spool) that drives the
compressor. Because the propeller needs to rotate at a lower RPM than the turbine, a Reduction gear box reduces
the engine shaft rotational speed to accommodate the propeller through the propeller drive shaft.

(b) Free Turbine. In a free-turbine engine, the propeller is driven by a dedicated turbine. A different turbine drives
the compressor; this turbine and its compressor run at near-constant RPM regardless of the propeller pitch and
speed. Because the propeller needs to rotate at lower RPM than the turbine, a reduction gearbox converts the t u r b
i n e RPM to an appropriate level for the propeller.

AIRCRAFT CONTROLS
Basic aircraft control can be classified as follows: (a) Primary controls (b) Secondary controls

Primary Controls. Primary aircraft controls are arranged as follows:

(i) A control yoke (also known as a control column), centre stick or side-stick governs the aircraft's roll and pitch by
moving the ailerons, when turned or deflected left and right, and moves the elevators when moved backwards or
forwards
(ii) Rudder pedals, to control yaw, which move the rudder; left foot forward will move the rudder left for instance.
(iii) Throttle controls to control engine speed or thrust for powered aircraft.

Secondary Controls. The secondary controls are trim tab, flap (aircraft), Air brake (aircraft), Spoiler, Leading edge
slats, and variable-sweep wing.

(i) Trim Tabs. These are small control surfaces connected to the trailing edge of a larger control surface of aircraft, used
to control the trim of the controls, i.e. to counteract aerodynamic forces and stabilise the aircraft in a particular desired
attitude without the need for the operator to constantly apply a control force. This is done by 71 adjusting the angle of
the tab relative to the larger surface. Changing the setting of a trim tab adjusts the neutral or resting positionof a control
surface (such as an elevator or rudder). As the desired position of a control surface changes (corresponding mainly to
different speeds), an adjustable trim tab will allow the operator to reduce the manual force required to maintain that
position.

(ii) Air brakes and Spoilers. Air Brakes or speed brakes are a type of flight control surface used on an aircraft to increase
drag or increase the angle of approach during landing. Spoilers are designed to increase drag while making little change
to lift. Thus, spoilers reduce the lift-to-drag ratio and require a higher angle of attack to maintain lift, resulting in a higher
stall speed. Most gliders are equipped with spoilers on the wings in order to adjust their angle of descent during
approach to landing.
(iii) Slats. Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of fixed- wing aircraft which, when deployed,
allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. A higher coefficient of lift is produced as a result of angle of attack
and speed, so by deploying slats an aircraft can fly at slower speeds, or take off and land in shorter distances. They are
usually used while landing or performing maneuvers which take the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually retracted in
normal flight to minimize drag.

(iv) Variable - Sweep Wing. A variablesweep w i n g , also known as"swing wing", is an aeroplane wing that may be
swept back and then returned to its original position during flight. It allows the aircraft's plan form to be modified in flight,
and is therefore an example of a variablegeometry aircraft

(v) Flaps.Flaps are hinged surfaces mounted on the trailing edges of the wings of a fixed- wing aircraft to reduce the
speed at which an aircraft can be safely flown and to increasethe angle of descent for landing. They shorten take-off
and landing distances. Flaps do this by lowering the stall speed and increasing the drag.

Early aircraft were constructed of wood frames covered in fabric. Metal frames improved the strength, which
eventually led to all-metal aircraft. Some modern aircraft are constructed with composite materials for major
control surfaces, wings, or the entire fuselage such as the Boeing 787. On the 787, it makes possible higher
pressurization levels and larger windows for passenger comfort as well as lower weight to reduce operating costs.

Fuselage is the main body of the aircraft to which all the other components are attached. It also contains the
cockpit from where the pilot controls the aero-plane. It provides the space for the freight and passengers.

A wing is a type of fin with a surface that produces lift for flight or propulsion through the atmosphere, or through
another gaseous or liquid fluid.

Types of wings -Straight wing, Sweptback wing, Delta wing, Tapered wing & Variable geometry wing

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in opposite directions. An
elevator is mounted on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer on each side of the fin in the tail. On an aircraft,
the rudder is a directional control surface. The rudder is usually attached to the fin (or vertical stabilizer) which
allows the pilot to control yaw about the vertical axis

BASIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

The best medium for flying an aircraft is the natural horizon. It is the place where the earth and the sky seem to
meet. But during cloudy conditions and at night, the horizon is not visible. During such occasions, the instruments of
an aircraft play a very vital role in aiding the pilot to fly the aircraft safely.

The airspeed indicator is an instrument used in an aircraft to display the craft's airspeed to the pilot. The principle of
an Air Speed Indicator is the measurement of two pressures called static and pitot pressures. The dynamic
pressure is indicated in terms of speed of the aircraft. The dynamic pressure is calculated as: Dynamic = Pitot –
Static

An altimeter is an instrument used to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level usually the sea level. The
altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above mean sea- level. Altitude can be determined based on the
measurement of atmospheric pressure.

The artificial horizon shows the aircraft's attitude relative to the horizon. From this, the pilot can tell whether the
wings are level and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument for instrument
flight and is useful in conditions of poor visibility. An artificial horizon is an instrument used in an aircraft to inform the
pilot of the orientation of the aircraft relative to earth. It indicates pitch (fore and aft tilt) and bank or roll (side to side
tilt).
The centre horizon bar of the artificial horizon represents the horizon line. Coloured display for sky and ground &
degree marks representing bank angle are essential components of artificial horizon.

INTRODUCTION TO RADARS

RADAR acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging

Basic parts of radar – transmitter, antenna & receiver

03 Radar Types
Primary radar (1 aerial for transmission & reception, radar sends signal & receives it back with the same aerial)
Secondary radar (radar sends signal to target - target receives it & sends a different signal to radar)
Continuous wave radar (radar sends a signal from one aerial & receives the reflected signal with another aerial)
Main purpose of primary radar is to determine Range & Bearing (distance & angle) of an object (using echo &
searchlight principle) & Main characteristic of continuous wave radar is separate aerials both for transmission and
reception

AEROMODELLING CAPSULE

Aeromodelling requires a variety of materials. Selection of correct material and proper use of the same is important
factor of Aeromodelling. The following are the main substances from which the Aeromodels can be made: (a) (d) Balsa
Wood Ply wood (b) (e) Spruce Cement (c) (f) Japanica Wood Fast Setting Epoxy (g) Cyanoacrylate Glue (Cyano) (h)
Putty (j) Metal paste (k) Dope (l) Paint (m) Sand paper (n) Fiber glass (o) Carbon Fiber (p) Silver Foil (q) Monokote & etc

Different type of Aeromodels:-(a) Static Models. (b) Gliders. (c) Control Line Models. (d) Radio control Models.

CONSTRUCTIONS OF STATIC MODELS

These are the miniature replicas of original aircrafts, full sized aircraft types and attract the best skill of the model
maker. The scope of this particular type is boundless and depends upon the ideas of the individual concerned. It
requires only an elementary knowledge of carpentry and involves fitting together of various parts as well as
finishing and painting of the models.

Constructions plans are provided normally with all model kits. These should be studied thoroughly. Then follow
the shaping of various parts using sandpaper and sand blocks as shown in the blue print. After which the whole plan
is fixed on the drawing board. Then the individual parts are placed on the blue print and make sure it is proper
as per the blue print. Parts are then assembled together as per the dimensions provided in the blue print. Dope
is applied with brush but only in thin coats two to three times. Sand the excess dope using a fine emery paper.

Before engine installation, ensure that the engine compartment is properly treated with paint work. While
installing the engine, extreme care is needed to be taken to ensure that the thrust line of the propeller is in line
with the fuselage. Out of line thrust will result in the model going hay wire and crashing.

Install the Radio-control servos as per the requirement to make sure the control rods should move freely
without causing any disturbance to the other control rods

FLYING THE MODELS

The necessity of choosing a large field for flying the aero models is obvious. However, trees and wooded areas
are the greatest hazards for the aeromodeller. Trees cause air pockets and down-draughts and often „suck‟ the
model into their branches.
First check the model for correction of alignment. The wing and tail must be checked from the front and rear for
setting and must not be warped or out of plane. Testing is carried out during mid-day when there is little or no wind. The
model is held on the point of balance i.e. approximately 1/3rd back from leading edge of the wing, and is gently
launched into wind slightly nose down attitude. If the model is set properly and trimmed correctly, it will glide forward
gracefully and will land on wheels. Use plasticine or lead weight at the nose and tail for balance as required.

Power flight is not advisable till the gliding test is carried out successfully. For trial flight, a small amount of fuel is put
into the fuel tank and the engine started by rotating the propeller. And the model launched gently the model should
fly short distance and land perfectly.

The following is the general safety code:- (a) I will not fly my model aircraft in competition or in the presence of
spectators until it has been proven to be airworthy by having been previously successfully flight tested. (b) I will not
fly my model higher than approximately 400 feet within 3 miles of an airport without notifying the airport operator. I
will give right of way to, and avoid flying in the proximity of full scale aircraft. Where necessary an observer shall be
utilized to supervise flying to avoid having models fly in the proximity of full scale aircraft. (c) Where established, I will
abide by the safety rules for the flying site I use, and I will not willfully and deliberately fly my models in a careless,
reckless, and/or dangerous manner.

The following is the radio control safety code:- (a) I will have completed a successful radio equipment ground
range check before the first flight of a new or repaired model. (b) I will not fly my model aircraft in the presence of
spectators until I become a qualified flyer, unless assisted by an experienced helper. (c) I will perform my initial
turn after takeoff away from the pit, spectator, and parking areas, and I will not thereafter perform manoeuvers,
flights of any sort, or landing approaches over a pit, spectator, or parking area

The construction/building of static models is one of the main event in all India level competitions like AIVSC
and RDC. In AIVSC, the given static model has to be built in stipulated time and for RDC competition, three different
static models have to be built that is fighter, transport and helicopter. The construction of control line model is slightly
advanced as compared to tow line glider and free flight models. In this model, there is only one control surface for
most control line aircraft; the up and down movement of the elevator on the stabilizer. The rudder is set so the
aircraft will always pull away from the flier (to help keep the control line taut). Remote Control model is fitted with radio
receiver sets of actuators operate the control surfaces of the model. The radio receiver receives signal from the control
box which is operated by the “pilot”.