ISC Mathematics Project

Topic: Increasing and Decreasing Functions (Section A – Topic 10)

Name: ________________________

Class: XII A

Date: 07 June 2025

Session: 2025-26

School: ________________________
Table of Contents
1. Abstract

2. Introduction

3. Definitions & Pre-requisites

4. Algebraic Criteria

5. Geometrical Interpretation

6. First-Derivative Test

7. Second-Derivative Test & Concavity

8. Worked-out Examples

9. Applications in Real Life

10. Practice Exercises

11. Common Mistakes & Tips

12. Summary / Conclusion

13. Viva-voce Preparation

14. Acknowledgements

15. Bibliography
Abstract
This project presents a comprehensive study of increasing and decreasing functions,
providing both algebraic and geometric perspectives. The work begins with
rigorous definitions, develops differentiation-based tests, and finally illustrates
numerous examples together with real-world applications.

This project presents a comprehensive study of increasing and decreasing functions,

providing both algebraic and geometric perspectives. The work begins with
rigorous definitions, develops differentiation-based tests, and finally illustrates
numerous examples together with real-world applications.

Introduction
In calculus, understanding how a function behaves—whether it rises or falls over an
interval—is fundamental. The concepts of increasing and decreasing functions allow
mathematicians and scientists to describe trends, optimize systems, and predict
outcomes. From analysing stock market data to determining the trajectory of a
spacecraft, these ideas have wide-ranging uses.

In calculus, understanding how a function behaves—whether it rises or falls over an

interval—is fundamental. The concepts of increasing and decreasing functions allow
mathematicians and scientists to describe trends, optimize systems, and predict
outcomes. From analysing stock market data to determining the trajectory of a
spacecraft, these ideas have wide-ranging uses.

In calculus, understanding how a function behaves—whether it rises or falls over an

interval—is fundamental. The concepts of increasing and decreasing functions allow
mathematicians and scientists to describe trends, optimize systems, and predict
outcomes. From analysing stock market data to determining the trajectory of a
spacecraft, these ideas have wide-ranging uses.

In calculus, understanding how a function behaves—whether it rises or falls over an

interval—is fundamental. The concepts of increasing and decreasing functions allow
mathematicians and scientists to describe trends, optimize systems, and predict
outcomes. From analysing stock market data to determining the trajectory of a
spacecraft, these ideas have wide-ranging uses.
Definitions & Pre-requisites
Definition 1: A function f is said to be *increasing* on an interval I if for any two
points x₁, x₂ ∈ I with x₁ < x₂, we have f(x₁) < f(x₂).

Definition 2: A function f is *decreasing* on an interval I if for any x₁, x₂ ∈ I with x₁ <

x₂, we have f(x₁) > f(x₂).

Definition 3: A function f is *monotonic* on I if it is either entirely increasing or

entirely decreasing on that interval.

Pre-requisite 1: The concept of limits ensures the derivative exists at interior points
of the interval.

Pre-requisite 2: The derivative f′(x) represents the instantaneous rate of change of f

with respect to x.

Theorem 1 (Differentiability ⇒ Continuity): If f is differentiable at a point c, then it is

continuous at c.

Fact: If f′(x) > 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is strictly increasing on I; if f′(x) < 0 for all x ∈ I,
then f is strictly decreasing on I.

Prerequisite Exercise: Prove that constant functions are both increasing and
decreasing according to weak inequalities.

Algebraic Criteria
To decide monotonicity analytically, one examines the sign of the derivative f′(x):

• If f′(x) > 0 ∀ x ∈ (a, b), f increases on (a, b).

• If f′(x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ (a, b), f decreases on (a, b).

• If f′(x) changes sign at c from positive to negative, then f has a local maximum at c.

• If f′(x) changes sign at c from negative to positive, then f has a local minimum at c.

Algebraic manipulation often requires factoring f′(x) and analysing critical points
where f′(x) = 0 or f′(x) is undefined.

Geometrical Interpretation
Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve
that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

Geometrically, an increasing function rises as x moves rightward, producing a curve

that ascends on a graph. Conversely, a decreasing function descends as x increases.
At points where the derivative vanishes, the tangent is horizontal, indicating a
potential extremum. Students should sketch basic functions—linear, quadratic,
cubic—to visualise these changes.

First-Derivative Test
The first-derivative test helps identify intervals of increase or decrease by observing
the sign of f′(x). Procedure:
1. Compute f′(x).
2. Find critical points by solving f′(x)=0.
3. Make a sign chart for f′(x).
4. Draw conclusions regarding monotonicity and local extrema.

The first-derivative test helps identify intervals of increase or decrease by observing

the sign of f′(x). Procedure:
1. Compute f′(x).
2. Find critical points by solving f′(x)=0.
3. Make a sign chart for f′(x).
4. Draw conclusions regarding monotonicity and local extrema.

The first-derivative test helps identify intervals of increase or decrease by observing

the sign of f′(x). Procedure:
1. Compute f′(x).
2. Find critical points by solving f′(x)=0.
3. Make a sign chart for f′(x).
4. Draw conclusions regarding monotonicity and local extrema.

The first-derivative test helps identify intervals of increase or decrease by observing

the sign of f′(x). Procedure:
1. Compute f′(x).
2. Find critical points by solving f′(x)=0.
3. Make a sign chart for f′(x).
4. Draw conclusions regarding monotonicity and local extrema.

The first-derivative test helps identify intervals of increase or decrease by observing

the sign of f′(x). Procedure:
1. Compute f′(x).
2. Find critical points by solving f′(x)=0.
3. Make a sign chart for f′(x).
4. Draw conclusions regarding monotonicity and local extrema.

The first-derivative test helps identify intervals of increase or decrease by observing

the sign of f′(x). Procedure:
1. Compute f′(x).
2. Find critical points by solving f′(x)=0.
3. Make a sign chart for f′(x).
4. Draw conclusions regarding monotonicity and local extrema.

Second-Derivative Test & Concavity

While the second derivative f″(x) primarily measures concavity, it can offer insight:
If f′(c)=0 and f″(c)>0, f has a local minimum at c (valley); if f″(c)<0, f has a local
maximum (peak). Although not directly deciding monotonicity, concavity supports a
deeper geometric understanding.

While the second derivative f″(x) primarily measures concavity, it can offer insight:
If f′(c)=0 and f″(c)>0, f has a local minimum at c (valley); if f″(c)<0, f has a local
maximum (peak). Although not directly deciding monotonicity, concavity supports a
deeper geometric understanding.

While the second derivative f″(x) primarily measures concavity, it can offer insight:
If f′(c)=0 and f″(c)>0, f has a local minimum at c (valley); if f″(c)<0, f has a local
maximum (peak). Although not directly deciding monotonicity, concavity supports a
deeper geometric understanding.

While the second derivative f″(x) primarily measures concavity, it can offer insight:
If f′(c)=0 and f″(c)>0, f has a local minimum at c (valley); if f″(c)<0, f has a local
maximum (peak). Although not directly deciding monotonicity, concavity supports a
deeper geometric understanding.

While the second derivative f″(x) primarily measures concavity, it can offer insight:
If f′(c)=0 and f″(c)>0, f has a local minimum at c (valley); if f″(c)<0, f has a local
maximum (peak). Although not directly deciding monotonicity, concavity supports a
deeper geometric understanding.

While the second derivative f″(x) primarily measures concavity, it can offer insight:
If f′(c)=0 and f″(c)>0, f has a local minimum at c (valley); if f″(c)<0, f has a local
maximum (peak). Although not directly deciding monotonicity, concavity supports a
deeper geometric understanding.

Worked-out Examples
Example 1: f(x)=x². Solution: f′(x)=2x → negative on (−∞,0) and positive on (0,∞).
Hence, f decreases on (−∞,0) and increases on (0,∞).
Example 1: f(x)=x². Solution: f′(x)=2x → negative on (−∞,0) and positive on (0,∞).
Hence, f decreases on (−∞,0) and increases on (0,∞).

Example 2: f(x)=sin x. Solution: f′(x)=cos x. Cosine is positive on (−π/2, π/2) ⇒ f

increasing there; negative on (π/2, 3π/2) ⇒ f decreasing.

Example 2: f(x)=sin x. Solution: f′(x)=cos x. Cosine is positive on (−π/2, π/2) ⇒ f

increasing there; negative on (π/2, 3π/2) ⇒ f decreasing.

Example 3: f(x)=ln x. Solution: f′(x)=1/x > 0 on (0,∞) ⇒ strictly increasing.

Example 3: f(x)=ln x. Solution: f′(x)=1/x > 0 on (0,∞) ⇒ strictly increasing.

Example 4: f(x)=e^(−x). Solution: f′(x)=−e^(−x) < 0 ⇒ strictly decreasing.

Example 4: f(x)=e^(−x). Solution: f′(x)=−e^(−x) < 0 ⇒ strictly decreasing.

Example 5: f(x)=|x| (absolute value) is decreasing on (−∞,0) and increasing on (0,∞)

though derivative undefined at 0.

Example 5: f(x)=|x| (absolute value) is decreasing on (−∞,0) and increasing on (0,∞)

though derivative undefined at 0.

Example 6: Consider f(x)=x³−3x. Show f′(x)=3x²−3=3(x−1)(x+1) leading to intervals

of increase and decrease.

Example 6: Consider f(x)=x³−3x. Show f′(x)=3x²−3=3(x−1)(x+1) leading to intervals

of increase and decrease.

Applications in Real Life

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;
biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;

biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;

biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.
Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;
biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;

biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;

biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;

biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Monotonicity aids decision-makers: economists inspect increasing revenue curves;

biologists model population growth; engineers verify control-system stability; data
scientists assess monotonic trends in machine-learning features.

Practice Exercises
Solve the following questions. Determine intervals of increase/decrease and identify
local maxima/minima:

Q1. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q2. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q3. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q4. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q5. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q6. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q7. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q8. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q9. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q10. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q11. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Q12. Analyse f(x) = ... (teacher to insert specific function).

Common Mistakes & Tips

Avoid mis-interpreting endpoints of closed intervals when applying derivative tests.
Always verify domain restrictions, particularly for log and root functions.

Avoid mis-interpreting endpoints of closed intervals when applying derivative tests.

Always verify domain restrictions, particularly for log and root functions.

Avoid mis-interpreting endpoints of closed intervals when applying derivative tests.

Always verify domain restrictions, particularly for log and root functions.

Avoid mis-interpreting endpoints of closed intervals when applying derivative tests.

Always verify domain restrictions, particularly for log and root functions.

Summary / Conclusion
Through the derivative, we obtain a powerful lens into the behaviour of functions.
Clear understanding of increasing and decreasing intervals empowers students to
tackle optimisation problems effortlessly.

Through the derivative, we obtain a powerful lens into the behaviour of functions.
Clear understanding of increasing and decreasing intervals empowers students to
tackle optimisation problems effortlessly.

Through the derivative, we obtain a powerful lens into the behaviour of functions.
Clear understanding of increasing and decreasing intervals empowers students to
tackle optimisation problems effortlessly.

Through the derivative, we obtain a powerful lens into the behaviour of functions.
Clear understanding of increasing and decreasing intervals empowers students to
tackle optimisation problems effortlessly.

Viva-voce Preparation
Key oral questions: State formal definition; describe real applications; differentiate
first and second derivative tests.

Key oral questions: State formal definition; describe real applications; differentiate
first and second derivative tests.

Key oral questions: State formal definition; describe real applications; differentiate
first and second derivative tests.
Acknowledgements
I express gratitude to my mathematics teacher and classmates who guided me
through this project.

Bibliography
1. ISC Mathematics Textbook for Class XII (Selina Publishers)

2. Thomas’ Calculus, 14th Edition

3. www.khanacademy.org

4. www.cuemath.com
ISC Mathematics Project
Topic: Cost Minimisation via Transportation Problem (Section C – Topic 34)

Name: ________________________

Class: XII A

Date: 07 June 2025

Session: 2025-26

School: ________________________
Table of Contents
1. Abstract

2. Introduction & Historical Background

3. Terminology & Assumptions

4. Mathematical Formulation

5. Initial Feasible Solutions (NWCR, LCM, VAM)

6. Optimisation – MODI Method

7. Balanced vs Unbalanced Cases

8. Degeneracy & Special Situations

9. Comprehensive Numerical Example

10. Real-life Applications

11. Practice Problems

12. Software Tools & Technology

13. Summary / Conclusion

14. Viva-voce Preparation

15. Bibliography
Abstract
This project analyses the classical transportation problem, a pivotal topic in
Operations Research. We derive its mathematical model, construct initial solutions
via heuristic methods, and demonstrate optimisation using the Modified
Distribution (MODI) approach.

This project analyses the classical transportation problem, a pivotal topic in

Operations Research. We derive its mathematical model, construct initial solutions
via heuristic methods, and demonstrate optimisation using the Modified
Distribution (MODI) approach.

Introduction & Historical Background

The transportation problem emerged during World War II to streamline logistics.
Today it finds application in supply-chain networks, humanitarian relief, and airline
scheduling.

The transportation problem emerged during World War II to streamline logistics.

Today it finds application in supply-chain networks, humanitarian relief, and airline
scheduling.

The transportation problem emerged during World War II to streamline logistics.

Today it finds application in supply-chain networks, humanitarian relief, and airline
scheduling.

The transportation problem emerged during World War II to streamline logistics.

Today it finds application in supply-chain networks, humanitarian relief, and airline
scheduling.

Terminology & Assumptions

• Supply node: origin point with available units.

• Demand node: destination point requiring units.

• Cost matrix: table listing unit cost Cᵢⱼ from source i to destination j.

• Balanced problem: Σ Supply = Σ Demand.

• Unbalanced problem: Supply ≠ Demand; dummy rows/columns added.

We assume linear costs and no trans-shipment.

Mathematical Formulation
Objective: Minimise Z = ΣΣ Cᵢⱼ Xᵢⱼ subject to:
1. Σⱼ Xᵢⱼ = Sᵢ for all i (supply constraints)
2. Σᵢ Xᵢⱼ = Dⱼ for all j (demand constraints)
3. Xᵢⱼ ≥ 0
We employ variables Xᵢⱼ representing shipped units.

Objective: Minimise Z = ΣΣ Cᵢⱼ Xᵢⱼ subject to:

1. Σⱼ Xᵢⱼ = Sᵢ for all i (supply constraints)
2. Σᵢ Xᵢⱼ = Dⱼ for all j (demand constraints)
3. Xᵢⱼ ≥ 0
We employ variables Xᵢⱼ representing shipped units.

Objective: Minimise Z = ΣΣ Cᵢⱼ Xᵢⱼ subject to:

1. Σⱼ Xᵢⱼ = Sᵢ for all i (supply constraints)
2. Σᵢ Xᵢⱼ = Dⱼ for all j (demand constraints)
3. Xᵢⱼ ≥ 0
We employ variables Xᵢⱼ representing shipped units.

Objective: Minimise Z = ΣΣ Cᵢⱼ Xᵢⱼ subject to:

1. Σⱼ Xᵢⱼ = Sᵢ for all i (supply constraints)
2. Σᵢ Xᵢⱼ = Dⱼ for all j (demand constraints)
3. Xᵢⱼ ≥ 0
We employ variables Xᵢⱼ representing shipped units.

Objective: Minimise Z = ΣΣ Cᵢⱼ Xᵢⱼ subject to:

1. Σⱼ Xᵢⱼ = Sᵢ for all i (supply constraints)
2. Σᵢ Xᵢⱼ = Dⱼ for all j (demand constraints)
3. Xᵢⱼ ≥ 0
We employ variables Xᵢⱼ representing shipped units.

Objective: Minimise Z = ΣΣ Cᵢⱼ Xᵢⱼ subject to:

1. Σⱼ Xᵢⱼ = Sᵢ for all i (supply constraints)
2. Σᵢ Xᵢⱼ = Dⱼ for all j (demand constraints)
3. Xᵢⱼ ≥ 0
We employ variables Xᵢⱼ representing shipped units.

Initial Feasible Solutions

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:
1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Three mainstream heuristics produce an initial feasible solution:

1. North-West Corner Rule (NWCR)
2. Least Cost Method (LCM)
3. Vogel’s Approximation Method (VAM)
While NWCR is simplest, VAM generally yields a solution nearer the optimum.

Optimisation – MODI Method

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.
The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

The Modified Distribution (MODI) method iteratively improves the initial solution
by calculating potentials uᵢ, vⱼ and evaluating the opportunity cost Δᵢⱼ. If any Δᵢⱼ < 0,
re-allocation along the closed loop reduces cost until all Δᵢⱼ ≥ 0, signalling optimality.

Balanced vs Unbalanced Cases

An unbalanced transportation problem is transformed to a balanced one by
introducing a dummy row/column whose costs are zero. This preserves feasibility
while allowing application of standard methods.

An unbalanced transportation problem is transformed to a balanced one by

introducing a dummy row/column whose costs are zero. This preserves feasibility
while allowing application of standard methods.

An unbalanced transportation problem is transformed to a balanced one by

introducing a dummy row/column whose costs are zero. This preserves feasibility
while allowing application of standard methods.

An unbalanced transportation problem is transformed to a balanced one by

introducing a dummy row/column whose costs are zero. This preserves feasibility
while allowing application of standard methods.

Degeneracy & Special Situations

Degeneracy occurs when the number of basic variables is less than (m + n − 1). To
resolve, allocate an infinitesimal ε to a zero-cost unused cell, then proceed with
MODI.

Degeneracy occurs when the number of basic variables is less than (m + n − 1). To
resolve, allocate an infinitesimal ε to a zero-cost unused cell, then proceed with
MODI.

Degeneracy occurs when the number of basic variables is less than (m + n − 1). To
resolve, allocate an infinitesimal ε to a zero-cost unused cell, then proceed with
MODI.

Degeneracy occurs when the number of basic variables is less than (m + n − 1). To
resolve, allocate an infinitesimal ε to a zero-cost unused cell, then proceed with
MODI.
Comprehensive Numerical Example
Example Scenario: Two factories F₁, F₂ supply 100 & 150 units, respectively, to
three warehouses W₁, W₂, W₃ demanding 80, 120, 50 units.

Example Scenario: Two factories F₁, F₂ supply 100 & 150 units, respectively, to
three warehouses W₁, W₂, W₃ demanding 80, 120, 50 units.

Cost matrix:
W₁ W₂ W₃
F₁ 4 6 8
F₂ 5 3 7

Cost matrix:
W₁ W₂ W₃
F₁ 4 6 8
F₂ 5 3 7

Step 1 – VAM: Compute penalties, allocate shipment, record cost.

Step 1 – VAM: Compute penalties, allocate shipment, record cost.

Step 2 – MODI: Compute uᵢ, vⱼ potentials; identify negative opportunity cost cell.

Step 2 – MODI: Compute uᵢ, vⱼ potentials; identify negative opportunity cost cell.

Step 3 – Re-allocate along loop, update solution.

Step 3 – Re-allocate along loop, update solution.

Step 4 – Repeat until optimal cost achieved.

Step 4 – Repeat until optimal cost achieved.

Real-life Applications
Organisations such as Amazon, FedEx, and government disaster-relief agencies rely
on transportation models to minimise logistics expenses and response time.

Organisations such as Amazon, FedEx, and government disaster-relief agencies rely

on transportation models to minimise logistics expenses and response time.

Organisations such as Amazon, FedEx, and government disaster-relief agencies rely

on transportation models to minimise logistics expenses and response time.
Organisations such as Amazon, FedEx, and government disaster-relief agencies rely
on transportation models to minimise logistics expenses and response time.

Organisations such as Amazon, FedEx, and government disaster-relief agencies rely

on transportation models to minimise logistics expenses and response time.

Organisations such as Amazon, FedEx, and government disaster-relief agencies rely

on transportation models to minimise logistics expenses and response time.

Practice Problems
Problem 1: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 2: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 3: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 4: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 5: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 6: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 7: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 8: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 9: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data set ...

Problem 10: Formulate and solve the transportation problem for the given data
set ...

Software Tools & Technology

Popular tools: MS Excel Solver, LibreOffice Calc, Python’s SciPy.optimize, and
specialised OR packages like LINGO or Gurobi.

Popular tools: MS Excel Solver, LibreOffice Calc, Python’s SciPy.optimize, and

specialised OR packages like LINGO or Gurobi.

Popular tools: MS Excel Solver, LibreOffice Calc, Python’s SciPy.optimize, and

specialised OR packages like LINGO or Gurobi.

Popular tools: MS Excel Solver, LibreOffice Calc, Python’s SciPy.optimize, and

specialised OR packages like LINGO or Gurobi.
Summary / Conclusion
The transportation problem showcases the power of linear programming in
achieving cost efficiency. Mastery of its methods equips students for advanced
studies in optimisation.

The transportation problem showcases the power of linear programming in

achieving cost efficiency. Mastery of its methods equips students for advanced
studies in optimisation.

The transportation problem showcases the power of linear programming in

achieving cost efficiency. Mastery of its methods equips students for advanced
studies in optimisation.

The transportation problem showcases the power of linear programming in

achieving cost efficiency. Mastery of its methods equips students for advanced
studies in optimisation.

Viva-voce Preparation
Key oral questions: Define balanced transport problem; explain VAM; distinguish
between NWCR & LCM.

Key oral questions: Define balanced transport problem; explain VAM; distinguish
between NWCR & LCM.

Key oral questions: Define balanced transport problem; explain VAM; distinguish
between NWCR & LCM.

Bibliography
1. Operations Research by Kanti Swarup

2. Introduction to Linear Optimization by Bertsimas & Tsitsiklis

3. www.toppr.com

Real-life Applications
Transportation problems apply in distribution logistics, public transport planning,
airline fleet assignment, network bandwidth allocation, and humanitarian supply
chain design.
Transportation problems apply in distribution logistics, public transport planning,
airline fleet assignment, network bandwidth allocation, and humanitarian supply
chain design.

Transportation problems apply in distribution logistics, public transport planning,

airline fleet assignment, network bandwidth allocation, and humanitarian supply
chain design.

Transportation problems apply in distribution logistics, public transport planning,

airline fleet assignment, network bandwidth allocation, and humanitarian supply
chain design.

Transportation problems apply in distribution logistics, public transport planning,

airline fleet assignment, network bandwidth allocation, and humanitarian supply
chain design.

Transportation problems apply in distribution logistics, public transport planning,

airline fleet assignment, network bandwidth allocation, and humanitarian supply
chain design.

Practice Problems
Solve the following transport minimisation problems. Use VAM for initial solution
and optimise via MODI:

Q1. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q2. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q3. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q4. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q5. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q6. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q7. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q8. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q9. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Q10. Insert a sample transportation matrix problem here.

Software Tools & Technology
Tools like MS Excel (Solver Add-in), Python (PuLP), and LINDO allow easy
computation and visualisation of optimal transportation solutions.

Tools like MS Excel (Solver Add-in), Python (PuLP), and LINDO allow easy
computation and visualisation of optimal transportation solutions.

Tools like MS Excel (Solver Add-in), Python (PuLP), and LINDO allow easy
computation and visualisation of optimal transportation solutions.

Tools like MS Excel (Solver Add-in), Python (PuLP), and LINDO allow easy
computation and visualisation of optimal transportation solutions.

Summary / Conclusion
Transportation models offer cost-effective, systematic ways to manage large-scale
supply and demand systems. Mastering these techniques equips students for real-
world decision making and optimisation tasks.

Transportation models offer cost-effective, systematic ways to manage large-scale

supply and demand systems. Mastering these techniques equips students for real-
world decision making and optimisation tasks.

Transportation models offer cost-effective, systematic ways to manage large-scale

supply and demand systems. Mastering these techniques equips students for real-
world decision making and optimisation tasks.

Transportation models offer cost-effective, systematic ways to manage large-scale

supply and demand systems. Mastering these techniques equips students for real-
world decision making and optimisation tasks.

Viva-voce Preparation
Prepare to answer: State VAM steps, explain MODI logic, differences between
balanced/unbalanced cases, and real-life examples.

Prepare to answer: State VAM steps, explain MODI logic, differences between
balanced/unbalanced cases, and real-life examples.

Prepare to answer: State VAM steps, explain MODI logic, differences between
balanced/unbalanced cases, and real-life examples.
Bibliography
1. ISC Mathematics Textbook for Class XII – Selina Publishers

2. Operations Research by Kanti Swarup

3. www.cuemath.com

4. www.nptel.ac.in