Wave Motion

What is a wave?
It is the process of propagating oscillation in space.

What are transmitted by a wave?

Energy, momentum, phase…, but the particles are not.
Types of waves

1. Types of waves!

I. Transverse Waves: If the motion of the particle is perpendicular to the direction of

propagation of the waves itself.

II. Longitudinal Waves: If the motion of the particle is parallel to the direction of
propagation of the waves.
2. According to number of dimensions

1-Dimension: Waves moving along the string or spring

2-Dimension: Surface waves or ripple on water

3-Dimension: Waves traveling radially outward from a small source, such as

sound waves and light waves.
The simplest periodic wave
𝑦
3 According to periodicity
➢ Pulse waves 𝑥
➢ Periodic wave (Continuous) 𝑜

The simplest periodic wave is a “simple

harmonic wave’’ in which each particle
undergoes SHM
 5. Waves in different fields in physics
➢ sound waves
➢ water waves
➢ Earthquake waves
➢ Light waves
➢ Electromagnetic waves
➢ Gravitational waves
➢ Matter waves
➢ Lattice waves

Traveling waves

The waves formed and traveling in an open medium system.

• Description of traveling waves

We use a 1-D simple harmonic, transverse, plane wave as an example

• Mathematics expressions
The vibration displacement y as a function of t and x.
Wave y(x,t): displacement as a function of
both time and distance

Equation of a sine wave

Plane progressive wave function
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

t=0 t=t
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
2𝜋 υ
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)) x
𝜆
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 0) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑥)
𝜆
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin(
2𝜋
(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) − 𝜑) vt
𝜆
 
Plane progressive wave function t=0 t=t
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) υ
x
2𝜋
𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡))
𝜆
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 0) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑥)
vt
𝜆
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) − 𝜑)
𝜆

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)

𝑦1 = a𝑒 𝑖(ωt−𝑘𝑥)
Properties of a Wave
Amplitude (A)–
Amplitude is the height of the wave, usually measured in
meters. It is directly related to the amount of energy
carried by a wave. The greatest distance from
equilibrium.
Wavelength (𝝀)– The distance between identical points
in the adjacent cycles of crests of a wave is called a
wavelength. It is also measured in meters.
Frequency: Is the number of complete oscillations a
point on that wave makes each second. Frequency is
1
measured in Hertz (Hz), its units are
𝑠

1 𝑣 𝜔
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇) = , 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, 𝑓 = , 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 =
𝑇 𝜆 𝑘
Period (T)–
The period of a wave is the time for a particle on a
medium to make one complete vibrational cycle. As
the period is time, hence is measured in units of
seconds.

Period: The time it takes a wave to go through one

cycle, or the time it takes a point to go through one
phase of the wave.

The period of a wave is measured in seconds, and it’s

symbol is “T”.
1
𝑇=
𝑓
 2𝜋
4) The wave number: 𝑘 =
𝜆

2𝜋
5) The angular frequency : 𝜔 = = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇
Nodes and Antinodes are used to help describe
and understand waves.
A “node” is where waves meet and cause zero
displacement of the medium. No displacement

An “antinode” is where waves meet and cause the

largest displacement of the medium.
Anti no displacement
Phase: Any two points on a wave that are one
or more whole wavelengths apart are said to
be “in phase”.
Phase and phase constant
If the equation of the wave is:
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) is phase and 𝜑 is phase constant

can be written in two equivalent forms:

𝜑
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin[ 𝑘(𝑥 − ) − 𝜔𝑡]
𝑘
𝜑
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin[ 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔(𝑡 + )]
𝜔
Two waves A and B: 𝜑
ൗ𝑘
y = ymsin(kx – ωt – ) wave A lead
y
wave B lag
(a)
y = ymsin(kx – ωt )
x
In y-x, wave A is ahead of wave B by a distance  /k B A

𝜑
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin[ 𝑘(𝑥 − ) − 𝜔𝑡] y 𝜑ൗ
𝑘 𝜔
(b)
In y-t, wave A is ahead of wave B by a time 
/ω t
𝜑
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin[ 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔(𝑡 + )] A B
𝜔
Wave velocity (speed) (𝑣)
The speed or velocity of a wave is how
fast the energy is moved. For most
waves, wave speed does not depend
on amplitude, frequency, or
wavelength. Speed depends only on
the medium through which it moves.

𝑚
𝑣=
𝑠
𝜆=𝑚,
1
𝑓=
𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
Phase velocity ω
The velocity of the motion of certain phase in a v=
k
wave (for monochromatic wave)

From mechanical analysis:

𝐹 F --- tension force exerted between neighboring elements

𝑣=
𝜇 μ --- mass density (mass/unit length)

Group velocity:
For a group of waves with different 𝜔
time = 0
All the waves with different 𝜔 moves x
with same speed 𝑣, determined only by time = t
the medium υ
𝑑ω
𝑣=
𝑑𝑘
 Types of waves
Usually, waves are around us, they can be sound, radio, water, string
waves, etc. These are created through disturbance. There are three types of
waves. They are as follows:
1. Mechanical waves
2. Electromagnetic waves
3. Matter waves
Mechanical waves: The waves which require a material medium for
their propagation are known as mechanical waves
Examples: Vibration of a string, tsunami waves, sound waves,
ultrasounds, internal water waves, oscillations in spring and waves in
slink, etc.
Wave equation derivation
Velocity of a transverse wave along a stretched string

To deriving the wave equation for waves on a string, let's assume the following:

1. The string has a uniform linear density (mass per unit length), 𝜌, throughout
its length.
2. The string is held under a constant uniform tension, 𝑇.
3. The tension on the string is strong enough that the effect of gravity on the
string is negligible
4. The tension acting on string elements does not change as they move
transversely (up and down).
5. For small deformations in the string is that the angle 𝜃 between the string and
the 𝑥 direction is much smaller than 1, so sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 ≈ 1.
Tension at A along horizontal direction = Tcosθ1
Tension at A along vertical direction = Tsin θ1

Similarly,
Tension at B along horizontal direction = Tcosθ2
Tension at B along vertical direction = Tsin θ2

Tcosθ1 and Tcosθ2 are nearly equal and balance each

other

The resultant force in vertical direction

Fy = Tsinθ2- Tsinθ1 (1)

As the displacement is small, the θ1 and θ2 will also be
small
𝜕𝑦
sinθ1 = tanθ1= [ ]x
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦
sinθ2 = tanθ2= [ ]x+dx
𝜕𝑥
Now the resultant force

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Fy = T{[ ]x+dx - [ ]x } (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦
Using Tayler’s series, we can expand [ ]x+dx as
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕3 𝑦 2𝑥 2
[ ]x+dx = [ ]x +[ 2 ]𝑑𝑥 + [ 3] +…
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2!
Neglecting higher powers

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
[ ]x+dx = [ ]x +[ 2 ]𝑑𝑥 (3)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑦
Substituting [ ]x+dx in equation (2)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Fy = T{[ ]x+dx - [ ]x }
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= T{[ ]x +[ 2 ]𝑑𝑥- [ ]x }
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑦
Fy = T[ 2 ]𝑑𝑥 (4)
𝜕𝑥
Fy = ma
𝜕2 𝑦
Fy = mdx 2 (5)
𝜕𝑡

Comparing equations (4) and (5)

𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
m[ 2 ]dx = T[ 2 ]𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑦 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑦
[ 2 ] = [ 2] (6)
𝜕𝑡 𝑚 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑦 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑦
[ 2 ] = [ 2]
𝜕𝑡 ρ 𝜕𝑥

This is the wave equation in one dimension. So the acceleration

(on the left) is proportional to the tension 𝑇 and inversely
proportional to the mass per unit length 𝜌.
Differential equation of a wave motion is given by

𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕 2𝑦
= v2 [ 2 ] (7)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥

From equations (6) and (7)

𝑇
V2 =
𝑚

V = 𝑇/𝑚 (8)
𝑇
V=
ρ
This gives velocity of the transverse wave along the
string
 Solution to the wave equation
We know that sine waves can propagate in a one dimensional medium like a
string.

And we know that any function 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) is a wave travelling at speed 𝑣.

A sine wave travelling in the positive 𝑥 direction is

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).

A suitable choice of axis (𝑥) or time (𝑡) allows us to set 𝜑 to zero, so let's look
at the equation

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 )
 𝜕2 𝑦 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑦
[ 2 ] = [ 2] (9)
𝜕𝑡 ρ 𝜕𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ) differentiating w.r.t t & x
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= −𝜔 𝐴 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑘 𝐴 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

𝜕2 𝑦
= −𝜔2𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝜕2 𝑦
= −𝑘2𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕𝑥 2

So we have seen that the second order partial derivatives have the correct
shape, which means that 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ) to be a solution of wave
Equation (9) .

Using second order partial derivatives, Eqn. (9) gives

 𝑇
−𝜔2𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = = [−𝑘2𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)]
ρ

𝜔2 𝑇
2
=
𝑘 ρ

𝜔 𝑇
=
𝑘 ρ

𝑇
V= (10)
ρ
REFLECTION AT BOUNDARY: BOUNDARY CONDITION
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Consider the case of a stretched string under a
tension T rigidly supported at the two ends where x
= 0 and x = 𝑙. Here 𝑙 is the length of the string.

We know that the solution of the wave equation is

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑓1 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 + 𝑓2 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥 (1)
Where 𝑓1 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 and 𝑓2 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥 are completely
arbitrary functions of 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 and 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥 .

At left end of the string x = 0 and y = 0

Therefore, 0 = 𝑓1 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑓2 𝑣𝑡 and hence 𝑓2 𝑣𝑡 = − 𝑓1 𝑣𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑓1 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 − 𝑓2 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥 (2)

(i) 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡

(3)
(ii) 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡

(a) Reflection from a fixed end, a transverse

wave undergoes a phase change of 180o

(b) At a free end, a transverse wave is

reflected without change of phase.
 MODES OF VIBRATION OF STRETCHED STRING CLAMPED AT BOTH ENDS

The general solution of the wave equation is given by

𝑦 = 𝑎1 sin ωt − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎2 sin ωt + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏1 cos ωt − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏2 cos ωt + 𝑘𝑥

(1)
As the string is rigidly supported at the two ends, we have the following
boundary conditions
𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (2a)

𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (2b)

Applying boundary conditions (2a) in equation (1), we get

0 = 𝑎1 sin ωt + 𝑎2 sin ωt + 𝑏1 cos(ωt)+ 𝑏2 cos(ωt)

0 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ) sin ωt + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ) cos(ωt)

As sin ωt #0 and cos(ωt)#0 (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ) = 0 and (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 ) = 0

Thus, we have 𝑎1 = −𝑎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 = − 𝑏2

Now equation (1) becomes

𝑦 = 𝑎1 sin ωt − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎2 sin ωt + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏1 cos(ωt − 𝑘𝑥)+𝑏2 cos(ωt + 𝑘𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑎1 [sin ωt − 𝑘𝑥 − sin ωt + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑏1 ൣcos ωt − 𝑘𝑥 − cos(ωt + 𝑘𝑥)]

= 𝑎1 ൣ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠ωt𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ωt𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 +

𝑏1[ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ωt𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠ωt𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥

= −2𝑎1 cos ωt 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 + 2𝑏1𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥

= (−2𝑎1 cos ωt + 2𝑏1𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt ൯sin 𝑘𝑥 (3)

Now we apply the boundary condition (2b) to equation (3). As

cos ωt #0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin ωt #0, sin 𝑘𝑙 = 0

𝑘𝑙 = 𝑛𝜋 where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
2𝜋
𝑘𝑛 = where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 etc.
𝑙
𝑣
Hence frequency ν = 𝑛 [ ] where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 etc
2𝑙
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑣 2𝜋𝑣 𝑘𝑣
Since 𝑘 = = = or ν =
λ λν ν 2𝜋
𝑛𝜋𝑣 𝑣
ν𝑛 = =𝑛
2𝜋𝑙 2𝑙
 𝑣 1 𝑇
ν1 = = (6)
2𝑙 2𝑙 𝜌

𝑛 𝑇 (7)
ν𝑛 =
2𝑙 𝜌

Overtones and Harmonics

The frequency ν1 is given by

1 𝑇
ν1 = The fundamental frequency or first overtone
2𝑙 𝜌

2 𝑇
ν2 = = 2ν1 The first overtone or second harmonic
2𝑙 𝜌
 3 𝑇
ν3 = = = 3ν1 Second overtone or third harmonic
2𝑙 𝜌

4 𝑇 Third overtone or fourth harmonic

ν4 = = = 4ν1
2𝑙 𝜌

In case of stretched string, we have ν1 : ν2 : ν3 = 1, 2, 3

Impedance: It is the resistance offered by the medium when a wave propagates through it.
The impedance offered by a string to the transverse wave travelling through it is known as
characteristic impedance, denoted by Z

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑦
Z= = = =𝜌𝑣
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡
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e/hyperphysics%20modified/hbase/waves/wavsol.html
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF TRANSVERSE WAVE AT THE
BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO STRINGS
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Change in the medium: Suppose a thin rope is

attached to a thick rope. The point where the
two ropes are attached is the boundary. At this
point, a wave pulse will transfer from one
medium to another.
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF TRANSVERSE WAVE AT THE
BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO STRINGS
Change in the medium: Suppose a thin rope is
attached to a thick rope. The point where the two
ropes are attached is the boundary. At this point, a
wave pulse will transfer from one medium to
another.
Consider the case of two strings 1 and 2 joined at a
point to form a composite string as shown in
Figure. The two strings are stretched with the same
tension T and have linear densities μ1 and μ2
respectively. The characteristic impedances of the
string are Z1 = 𝜈1 μ1 and Z2 = 𝜈2 μ2 respectively.

This wave is reflected as well as transmitted at the boundary (x = 0).

The reflected and transmitted waves can be expressed as
 𝑦𝑖 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑖 sin ωt − 𝑘1𝑥 (1) 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑣
𝑘1 = = (since ν = 𝑣𝜆)
𝜆1 ν1

𝑦𝑟(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑟 sin ωt + 𝑘1𝑥 (2)

2𝜋 2𝜋𝑣
𝑦𝑡(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑡 sin ωt − 𝑘2𝑥 (3)
𝑘2 = =
𝜆2 ν2

Following are the boundary conditions

𝜕𝑦𝑖 𝑥,𝑡
(i) 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) is continuous across the boundary 𝑥 = 0 then 𝜕𝑥
is also
continuous
(ii)The transverse component of tension (restoring force) is continuous i.e.
𝜕𝑦 𝑥,𝑡
−𝑇 is continuous at x = 0
𝜕𝑥
Ai sin 𝜔𝑡 + Ar sin 𝜔𝑡 = At sin 𝜔𝑡
(4)
Ai + Ar = At

From equations (1), (2) and (3) we have

𝜕𝑦𝑖 𝑥, 𝑡
= −𝐴𝑖 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦𝑟 𝑥, 𝑡
= 𝐴𝑟 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘1 𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦𝑡 𝑥, 𝑡
= −𝐴𝑡 𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘2𝑥
𝜕𝑥
At boundary (𝑥 = 0), the above expressions are
𝜕𝑦𝑖 𝑥,𝑡
x=0 = − 𝐴𝑖 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦𝑟 𝑥,𝑡
x=0 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦𝑡 𝑥,𝑡
x=0 = − 𝐴𝑡 𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑥
Applying the second boundary condition, we get
𝑇𝐴𝑖 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑇𝐴𝑟 𝑘1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑇𝐴𝑡 𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
𝑘1 𝑇(𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑟 ) = 𝑘2 𝑇𝐴𝑡
2𝜋𝑣𝑇
𝑘1 𝑇 = = 2𝜋𝑣𝜈1 μ1 = 2𝜋𝑣𝑍1
v1
2𝜋𝑣𝑇
𝑘2 𝑇 = = 2𝜋𝑣𝜈2 μ2 = 2𝜋𝑣𝑍2
v2

2𝜋𝑣𝑍1 𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑣𝑍 2𝐴𝑡

𝑍1 𝐴 𝑖 − 𝐴 𝑟 = 𝑍2 𝐴 𝑡 (5)
Substituting the value of 𝐴𝑡 from equation 4, we get

𝑍1 𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑟 = 𝑍2 𝐴𝑖 + 𝐴𝑟 (6)

𝐴𝑟 𝑍1−𝑍2
=
𝐴𝑖 𝑍1+𝑍2
𝐴𝑟
is known as reflection amplitude coefficient and represented by 𝑟12
𝐴𝑖

Further from equation (4), 𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐴𝑖 . Substituting this value in equation (5), we get

𝑍1 [ 𝐴𝑖 − 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐴𝑖 = 𝑍2 𝐴𝑡

𝐴𝑡 2𝑍1 (7)
=
𝐴𝑖 𝑍1+𝑍2
𝐴𝑡
is known as transmission amplitude coefficient and is represented by t12
𝐴𝑖
Here we observe the following points

(i) When the string 2 is rigidly fixed at 𝑥 = 0. Now the string will be infinitely massive and
𝐴𝑡
Z2 = infinity ( ).) From equation (7) = 0, i.e 𝐴𝑡 = 0. This shows that the incident
𝐴𝑖
wave is completely reflected with reversed amplitude. Reversal of amplitude means a
phase change of π on the reflection.

𝐴𝑟
(ii)If Z2>Z1, then from equation (6), is negative, i.e., a phase change of π on the reflection
𝐴𝑖

𝐴𝑟
(iii)If Z2<Z1, then from equation (6), is positive, i.e., reflected wave does not undergo any
𝐴𝑖
phase change
 https://www.acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/superp
STANDING WAVES (STATIONARY) WAVES osition/superposition.html

𝑦1 = a𝑒 𝑖(ωt−𝑘𝑥) (1)

𝑦2 = b𝑒 𝑖(ωt+𝑘𝑥) (2)

The resultant displacement of a point on the

string due to both the waves is given by

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = a𝑒 𝑖(ωt−𝑘𝑥) + b𝑒 𝑖(ωt+𝑘𝑥)

The boundary conditions are

𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑙 for all values of t.
Applying the boundary conditions 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, we get
 0 = a𝑒 𝑖(ωt) + b𝑒 𝑖(ωt)
-a = b
𝑦 = a𝑒 𝑖(ωt−𝑘𝑥) − a𝑒 𝑖(ωt+𝑘𝑥)
= a𝑒 𝑖(ωt) [𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 - 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ]
𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 Euler's equation gives
= (-2i) a𝑒 𝑖(ωt) [ ] eikx=cos(kx)+isin(kx).
2

= -2i a𝑒 𝑖(ωt) sin 𝑘𝑥 (3)

This represents the equation of a standing wave. When

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 λ 3λ 5λ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 = , , , 𝑥= , , ,
2 2 2 4 4 4

Then the displacement 𝑦 is maximum. These points are called antinodes.

 sin𝑘𝑥 = 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, 𝑒𝑡𝑐 𝑥=
λ 3λ 5λ
, ,
2 2 2

These points are called as nodes. The

λ
distance between two nodes is .
2

Thus the condition for a standing wave to be set

up in a string of length L fixed at both ends is

2𝐿 𝑣 𝑣
𝜆𝑛 = 𝑓𝑛 = =𝑛
𝑛 𝜆𝑛 2𝐿

𝜆𝑛 is the n th wavelength in this infinite series.

n is the number of half-wavelengths in the patterns.

𝑓𝑛 is the frequency of the allowed standing waves,

 Standing waves
we consider the effect of superposing two component waves of equal amplitude
and frequency moving in the same direction on a string. What is the effect if the
waves are moving along the string in opposite direction?

𝑦1 = 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)
Hence the resultant wave is:

𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
= 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦𝑚 sin( 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)

𝑦 = [2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘 𝑥] cos 𝜔 𝑡 sin( 𝑎 − 𝑏) + sin( 𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2 sin( 𝑎)cos(𝑏)

It is not a traveling wave, because x and t do not appear in the combination 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡
or 𝑥 + 𝑣𝑡 , required for a traveling wave.
Nodes and antinodes of standing waves

In a standing wave, the amplitude is not the same for different particles. The behavior
is different from that of a traveling wave.

Antinodes 1
2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘 𝑥 = 2𝑦𝑚 , 𝑘𝑥 = (𝑛 + )𝜋, n = 0,1,2,…….
2
1 𝜆 𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 7𝜆 9𝜆
𝑥 = (𝑛 + ) 𝑥 = , , , , ...
2 2 4 4 4 4 4

Nodes 2𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘 𝑥 = 0, 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋,

𝜆 𝜆 3𝜆
𝑥=𝑛 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜆, , 2𝜆, . . .
2 2 2
Derive the equation for a stationary wave.

The equation of two waves having the same amplitude, wavelength, and speed but propagating in opposite
directions is

Where a is the amplitude, λ is the wavelength and v is the velocity of the wave. A stationary wave is formed due to
the superposition of these two waves. The resultant displacement of a particle is given by,

y=y1+y2
Using the relation,
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