PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY NOTES EDITION 2024

BONDING AND STRUCTURE

• Atoms combine in order to acquire a stable noble gas structure.
• They do this by either transfer of electrons from one atom to another
or by sharing electrons contributed by each atom.
• Only electrons in the outermost shell/ valence shells are involved in
bonding
TYPES OF BONDING
There are six types of bonding namely;
• Ionic/electrovalent/ Heteropolar bonding
• Covalent/ Homopolar bonding
• Dative/ Co-ordinate bond
• Metallic bonding
• Hydrogen bonding
• Van der waal‟s forces/bonds
a) IONIC BONDING
 An ionic bond is formed by complete transfer of electrons from one
atom to another to form oppositely charged ions held together by
electrostatic forces of attraction.
 It is formed between a metal (electropositive) and a non-metal
(electronegative) e.g. bonding between Na (11) and chlorine atom (17)
Na: 1S22S22P63S1
Cl: 1S22S22P63S23P5

The electron transferred from Sodium atom fits in the singly occupied
orbital of the 3P of the Chlorine atom i.e.
Sketch Px Py Pz
Before transfer

After transfer
Px Py Pz

Other examples of compounds formed by electrovalent bonding include

CaCl2, MgO, KI, NaH etc

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Factors that affect formation of ions

i. Ionization energy:
The lower the ionization energy the most loosely held is an electron
and the more electropositive the element.
ii. Electron affinity:
Is the ease with which the atoms form anions/negatively charged ions.
The greater the value of electron affinity, the easier is negatively
charged ion formed.

COVALENT CHARACTER IN IONIC BOND

The covalent character of the ionic bond depends on the;
 polarizing power of the positive ion
 polarizability of the negative ions.
a) Polarising power of cations
An ionic bond will acquire a degree of covalent character if the
positive ion can attract electrons from the negative ion back into
the region between the two nuclei.

The covalent bond character arises because the electrons are partially shared.
i.e.

Polarizing power is the extent to which a positive ion can attract electrons from negative ion
back into the region between the nuclei.
Factors affecting polarizing power.

i. Charge on the cation:

The larger the positive charge on the ion, the greater the attraction of the valence electrons.
ii. Size of the cation
The smaller the size of the cation, the closer it is to the valence electrons and the larger the
force it exerts on them.
iii. Charge density (charge : radius ratio)
The greater the charge density of the cation, the greater its polarizing power and therefore
the greater the covalent character of the bond it forms with the anion.

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Consider the data below

Ions Na+ Mg2+ Al 3+

Ionic radius 0.095 0.065 0.05

Polarizing power 10.5 30.5 60

Melting point of 801 712 180

anhydrous chloride

Interpretation
Polarizing power of the cations increases in the order of Na+ < Mg2+ < Al 3+.
Al 3+ having a high polarizing power exerts the strongest polarization in Aluminium (III)
chloride resulting in a high degree of Covalence in Aluminium chloride giving aluminium
chloride the lowest melting point.
Low polarizing power of Na+, sodium chloride remains essentially an ionic compound with a
very high melting point.
Questions:
1. Briefly explain why NaCl melts at 8000C where as AlCl3 sublimes at 180OC
Solution
Both NaCl and AlCl3 have ionic bonding; but because of small size and large charge of Al3+
ions; which gives it large polarizing power; the electron on the outermost shell of the chloride
ions are greatly displaced (polarised) towards the Al3+; such that aluminium chloride, AlCl3
develops some covalent character; making it have low melting point just like covalent
compounds;
NaCl is purely ionic hence very high melting point.
b) Polarizability of the anions
The extent to which a positive ion can pull electrons back into the space between the two
nuclei depends not only on the polarizing power of the cat ion but also how easily it is to
polarize a negative ion.
The polarisability of a negative ion measures the ease with which its electron density can be
distorted.
Factors affecting polarisability:
i. Charge on the negative ion
Polarisability increases with increase in the charge on the anion.
This is because as the charge on the anion increases, the anion repels its outermost electrons
strongly and effectively.

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ii. Size of the anion/number of electrons the anion has

Polarizability increases with increase in size of the anion / increase in the number of electrons
e.g.
Fluoride ions have fewer electrons and;
are smaller than the chloride ions; giving it a lower polarisability than chloride ions; decreasing
its covalent character.
All fluorides have greater ionic character than the corresponding chlorides.
This explains why Aluminium fluoride is a crystalline solid melting above 10000C whereas
Aluminium chloride shows covalent character.
Qn 1: i) Explain why aluminium fluoride AlF3 is ionic and Aluminium chloride is
covalent.
ii) Explain why the melting point of CaO is higher than that of CaCl2
Qn 2 The ionic radii of Sodium ions, Mg2+ and Al3+ are given in the table below

Ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+

Ionic radius 0.095 0.065 0.050

(nm)

a) Calculate the charge to radius ratio for

Na+
Mg2+
Al3+
b) Which of the ions has
Least polarizing power
The greater polarizing power
Give a reason for your answer in (b) above.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• Are crystalline solids at room temperature.

• Have high melting and boiling points due to strong electrostatic attraction
between the oppositely charged ions.
• Soluble in water but are insoluble in organic solvents e.g. Benzene and ethoxy
ethane
• Conduct electricity in their molten state and solution state due to the presence of
free ions.
• Oppositely charged ions react together in aqueous solution instantaneously/
rapidly.

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b) COVALENT BONDING

A Covalent bond is formed by sharing a pair of unpaired electrons between atoms, each of
which donates an electron to the bond.
 It‟s formed between atoms with either no electronegativity difference or a small
electronegativity difference e.g. in chlorine molecule and hydrogen chloride.
 Occurs in non – metals and results into the formation of molecules.

Illustration:
i. Hydrogen chloride

H +

BOND POLARITY IN COVALENT COMPOUNDS

The covalent bond which holds the two atoms together within the molecule contains a pair of
electrons shared between the two atoms.
When the two bonding atoms are not identical, the electrons will be unequally shared.
Unequal sharing of electrons is because different atoms have different power of attraction for
electron pairs i.e. have different electronegativity values.
NB: Electronegativity is the relative ability of an element to attract bonding electrons towards
itself.
When unequal sharing of electrons occur, it results in slight separation of charge whereby the
more electronegative atom acquires a partial negative charge (δ −) and the other positive
charge (δ+) .
Bond polarity is therefore the unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond leading to
the separation of charge.
The higher the electronegative difference between two bonding atoms, the greater the
separation of charge and hence the bond polarity.
Bond polarity in diatomic molecule results in the separation of charge over the whole molecule
and the molecule is thus said to be polar and the overall molecule has an electric dipole
(separated charges of opposite signs) quantified as the electric dipole moment, whose
magnitude depends on the magnitude of charge and distance separating the charge.
A molecule made up of more than 2 atoms and having polar bonds within itself may not
necessarily have an overall dipole moment, if the molecule is symmetrical.
Reasons:
Symmetrical distribution of atoms about the central atom, creates equal and opposite dipole
moment in all directions that cancel out making the molecule non polar e.g;

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i. Carbon dioxide; CO2

Resultant dipole moment = 0

ii. Tetra chloromethane, CCl4

Resultant dipole moment = 0

The lack of an overall dipole moment on the molecules makes the molecule non – polar and it
is an indicator for the symmetry within that molecule.
Unsymmetrical molecules like water, Ammonia and trichloromethane have an overall dipole
moment over the molecule and are said to be polar.
i. Trichloromethane

Cl Cl Cl
ii. Water

O 2δ-

𝛅+ 𝛅+
H H
This explains why trichloromethane is deflected by a charged rod while tetrachlomethane is
not, when liquid trichloromethane and tetra chloromethane are passed separately from the
beaker closer to the charged rods.
Example:
Explain why Boron trichloride, is a non – polar molecule while Nitrogen
trichloride (NCl3) is polar.
Soln:
Boron trichloride has a trigonal planar structure in which the chloride atoms are arranged
symmetrically around the central Boron atom.
Therefore because of this symmetry, the net dipole moments cancel out to zero.

Cl

Cl Cl
However Nitrogen trichloride has a trigonal pyramidal structure in which the
chloride ions are not symmetrically arranged.

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Therefore there is a net dipole moment in the direction of the more

electronegative chlorine atom hence the trichloride is polar.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

•
More soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water.
• Do not conduct electricity due to absence of free ions in them except a few which form
ions when dissolved in water e.g. hydrogen chloride.
• Consists of discrete molecules and not ions.
• Mainly gases, liquids with very low melting points.

C.) DATIVE/ CO-ORDINATE BOND

Is a covalent bond whereby an electron rich atom in a molecule gets bonded to another atom/
ion of a species which is electron deficient.
The donor atom donates the non-bonding pair of electrons (lone pair) to the acceptor atom
which must be either a;
 positively charged species or
 must have an empty orbital.
Examples;

i. Formation of hydroxonium ions from water and acid.

H2O + H+ ⟶
+
ii. Formation of Ammonium ion from H and NH3
H
H
H N: + H ⟶ + H N⟶H

H H

iii. Existence of dimer of FeCl3 and AlCl3 in vapour state

iv. Formation of transition metal complexes; ligands (bonding atoms) donate their lone
pairs of electrons to empty d. orbital of transition metal ions. E.g.

H3N NH3

Cu

H3N NH3

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iii. Between Ammonia and Boron trichloride

H3N BCl3 H3N BCl3
For BF3
H3N: BF3

NB: Dative bond is;

• Weaker than normal covalent bond.
• Represented by an arrow which shows direction in which a lone pair of electron is
donated.
METALLIC BONDING:
• A metal consists of identical atoms closely packed together.
The outermost electrons are lost control of and uniformly delocalized over the whole metal,
ionizing the metal atoms.
Metallic bonding therefore consists of attraction between the “sea” of mobile delocalized
electrons and the positively charged nucleus of metal atoms.
These delocalized electrons are responsible for the conductivity of heat and electricity by
metals.
Metals have high melting points, the melting points depending on the strength of the bond that
holds the atoms in a rigid structure.
The strength of the metallic bond formed depends on the number of valence electrons which
each metal atom contributes to the cloud. e.g.
Melting point of group II elements is higher than those of group I because they contribute two
electrons in forming the metallic bond.
The melting points of transitional metals are higher than those of higher metals because they
use electrons from 4S and 3d to form strong metallic bonds.
VAN DER WAAL’S FORCES:
Is the intermolecular force of attraction between two molecules, They include;
Dipole – Dipole interaction:
Electrostatic attraction between the opposite ends of dipole amount for intermolecular bonding
in polar compounds.
These polar molecules have partial charges due to the difference in their electronegativity e.g
in HCl and Propanone;
H+ Clδ− − − − − − − Hδ+ Cl δ−

Van der waal‟s bond

H3C CH3

−−−−−−− Cδ+ = 0 δ−
+
C =O
CH3 CH3
Van der waal‟s bond

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ii. Dipole – Induced dipole interaction:

• Consider two nonpolar molecules which are very close to each other.
• Since they are nonpolar the arrangement of electrons on average is symmetrical.
• However at any instant, the electron distribution in one molecule may be
unsymmetrical resulting into a dipole at a particular instant.
• This dipole may induce a dipole through a neighbouring molecule.
Dipole formed is only a short time but the net
attraction it produces is permanent.

A + -B
δ− C−P
A + - B
N.B.
High relative molecular mass molecules have high van der waal‟s forces of attraction;
because of increase in the number of electrons which are loosely bound in a molecule.
Energy associated with vanderwaal‟s bond is small compared to the normal covalent bond.

Evidence for the existence of Vander waal’s forces

 Increase in boiling and melting points of group VI elements

down the group and in alkane.
 Changing physical states of the halogens down the group i.e. in
iodine because of the big size of molecules the forces are
strong enough to hold the Iodine molecules in solid state while
fluorine and chlorine the forces are weak and are overcome at
room temperature.
 Liquefaction of gases
 Non –ideal behavior of gases

F) HYDROGEN BONDING:

Is a permanent bond formed by dipole interaction/attraction between the

hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative element e.g. oxygen, Nitrogen
and fluorine and another highly electronegative atom with at least a lone pair
of electrons.

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TYPES OF HYDROGEN BONDING

1. Intermolecular hydrogen bond:

Is a hydrogen bond formed between two/more similar or
different molecules e.g. a) Two similar carboxylic acid. E.g.
Ethanoic acid.

O HO
H3C –C C – CH3
OH------------------ O

Intermolecular hydrogen day

b) Between two different molecules eg water and alcohol

ROH O−H

Intermolecular hydrogen bond

c) Two similar amines

CH3CH2N – H −−−−−−− N − CH2CH3

H H
d) Water molecules

+
H H O

+ +
H H
c) 4 – nitrophenol − Hδ+
− ∂-
O2 N - -O

O𝛅−
N - OH
O

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2. Intramolecular hydrogen bond

Is the hydrogen bond formed between atoms of the same molecule e.g

a) Between the bases of the DNA molecules

b) Protein molecules
c) In 2 – nitrophenol
d) 2 – hydroxyBezaldehyde. i.e

OH δ− Hδ+ Intramolecular
NO2
forming N O δ− hydrogen bond

O
C H Forming

OH

NB: The energy associated with hydrogen

bond is small compared to the normal covalent
bond.

EFFECT OF HYDROGEN BONDING:

 Increased viscosity:

Hydrogen bonding increases the viscosity of liquids leading to reduced volatility and reduced
vapour pressure of that liquid eg in water
 Association of molecules:

Hydrogen bonding leads to association or dimerisation of carboxylic acids when dissolved in

organic solvents like Benzene, doubling the molar mass of the acid.
It also leads to association of hydrogen fluoride molecules forming hydrogen difluoride. This
is because of the small size of hydrogen atom which allows the lone pairs of electrons to
approach closely the hydrogen nucleus and high electronegativity of fluorine leading to
formation of strong hydrogen bond. 𝐻𝛿+ 𝐹𝛿−-------𝐻𝛿+ 𝐹𝛿−
 Increased boiling and melting point:

Hydrogen bonded molecules like Ammonia, water, hydrogen fluoride have abnormally high
boiling points compared to those of the hydrides of other elements in group (V), (VI), (VII)
respectively, this is because the hydrides of nitrogen, Oxygen and fluorine associate through
hydrogen bonding.
Boiling points of alcohols, amines and carboxylic acids are higher than boiling points of
corresponding alkanes with similar molar mass because of association through hydrogen
bonding and therefore excess energy is needed to break the hydrogen bond.

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 Solubility in water:

Phenols, alcohols and carboxylic acids, primary and secondary amines are more soluble in water
than other alkanes of similar molecular mass because of the ability to form hydrogen bonds with
water.
2 – Nitro phenol and 2 – hydroxyBenzaldehyde are less soluble in water than their
corresponding isomers because formation of intramolecular hydrogen bond prevents
interaction with neighboring molecules.
NB: This also explains why 2 – nitro phenol boils at a low temperature than 4 – nitro phenol.
 Increased volume and decreased density of ice:

Ice is less dense than water and thus floats on it; because the water molecules associate via
extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding; giving ice an open tetrahedral structure; with a
bigger volume than that of water with the same mass; and since density is inversely proportional
to volume, then ice will have a less density than water for a given mass.
Therefore when ice is heated, hydrogen bonding is progressively broken giving rise to closely
packed liquid structure in the liquid water with decrease in volume and increase in density.
 A needle covered on the surface of water may float because of surface tension and
hydrogen bonding in water.
Explain the following observations;
i) Hydrogen fluoride has a higher boiling point than hydrogen chloride.
ii) Melting point of 4 – nitrophenol is much higher than that of 2 – nitrophenol.
SHAPES OF MOLECULES/IONS

• Determining shapes of molecules and ions of non –transition elements is based on the
Valence shell Electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR Theory) which states “
electron pairs around a central atom repel each other to take up positions as far apart as
possible.”
• The electron pairs take up this arrangement so that potential energy due to their
electrostatic repulsion is at a minimums.
• The electron pairs can be bonding (shared) pairs which contribute to the covalent bond
or unshared (lone pairs) i.e. not used in bonding.
• Lone pairs of electrons give a greater repulsion as they are closer to the nucleus.
Electron pair repulsion is in order L.P ↔ L.P > L.P ↔ B.P > B.P ↔ B.P
• According to this theory, multiple bonds (double/ triple bonds) act as single shared
pairs of electrons.

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• Therefore the shape of a molecule is based on the electron pairs that it has.

Number of electron pairs Shape of molecule / ion

i. Two pairs Linear

ii. Three pairs Trigonal planar

iii. Four pairs Tetrahedral

iv. Five pairs Trigonal bipyramidal

v. Six pairs Octahedral

a) MOLECULES WITH ONLY BONDING PAIRS

In molecules with only bonding pairs and no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the
total number of electron pairs equals the number of bonding pairs.
i. Two bonding electron pairs (AX2)
o Shape of the molecule is linear ; because bonding pair around the central
atom repel one another as fully as possible at an angle of 1800 eg
HgCl2, BeCl2, CO2, CS2, HC ≡ CH,
For CO2, O = C =O
ii. Three bonding electron pairs (AX3)
Shape of the molecule is trigonal planar.
This is because the 3 bonding electron pairs repel one another equally making the bonds to lie
in the same plane at an angle of 1200 to one another e.g in BCl3,
CO2−, SO , NO3-, CH2 = CH2, BBr3, etc
Generally,

Eg. for BCl3 CO3

Activity.

Draw the shape of nitrate ion, ethene.

NB: (i)According to this theory, in determining shape of ions; if

 the ion has an overall charge of -1, then on top of the number of electrons the central
atom has, we add an extra electron.
 the overall charge on the ion is −2, then add 2 electrons on top of the number of
electrons the central atom has.

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 the overall charge on the ion is + 1, number of electrons contributed a central atom is
reduced by 1 and if its +2, it is reduced by 2.

(ii) carbonate and nitrate ions are able to form many resonance
structures (are
stable) i.e.
−
For NO3

For CO 𝟐−
𝟑

(iii) CO23− and NO −3 are isoelectronic (their central atom

has the same electronic structure)

iii) Four bonding pairs (AX4)

• Shape of molecule is tetrahedral as the four electron pairs are

distributed tetrahedrally around the central atom with a bond angle of
109O 28‟.

• E.g; CH4, CHCl3, NH+ , SO 2−, CCl4, PO3−, SnCl4 , CrO2−, Etc
4 4 4 4

CH4 NH4
S𝒐𝟐𝟒− HSO−𝟒

v) Five electron pairs (AX5)

Shape of molecule is trigonal bipyramidal ; because of 5 different regions of electron density
(bonds) points towards the five corners of a trigonal pyramid.
Examples include; PF5, PCl5, PBr5, PI5

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PCl5

vi) Six electron pairs (AX6)

 Shape of molecule is Octahedral ;

 because the 6 bonding pairs repel each other equally; and the 6 bonds point
towards the 6 corners of a regular Octahedron.
 Examples include; SF6, SeF6, SeCl6. Eg;SF6

Activity

Draw the structures and name the shape of the following species.
Species Structure Shape

BF3

CHCl3

−
ClO4
−
NO 3
SO3

b) MOLECULES WITH BOTH BONDING AND LONE PAIRS OF ELECTRONS.

i. Three electron pairs (2 bonding and 1 lone pair)
 Shape of molecule is V – shaped/ Bent.
 Lone pairs repel bonding pairs more than bonding pairs repel each other.
E.g. SnCl2

SO2

N𝑂2

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−
N

O 𝑂
ii. 4 electron pairs (one lone pair and three bonding pairs)
 3 bonding pairs and 1 lone pair distribute themselves around the
central atom such that the shape is trigonal pyramidal.
 Repulsion is caused by the lone pair and it will lead to a bond angle
smaller than tetrahedral angle of 109.5O in methane

 e.g. NH3 (CH3) 3N 2− SO PH AsH3 SbH3 3

3

NB. Bond angle of the hydrides, decreases as you move down the group
because,

• Decrease in electro negativity ; decreases the attraction for the bonding electrons
for the elements as you move down the group.
• Phosphorous has higher electro negativity than Nitrogen so the bonding pairs of
electrons are closer to Nitrogen in ammonia than they are to P in PH3.
• Closeness of bonding pairs of electrons to the central atom makes them
experience greater repulsion giving rise to a bigger bonding angle.
• In SbH3, Antimony (Sb) has a much lower electronengativity ; therefore
a lower nuclear attraction for bonding electrons and hence bonding pairs
of electrons are further away from the central atom making them repel
one another to a small extent reducing bond angle further.
iii. Four electron pairs (2 bonding pairs and 2 lone pairs)
• The repulsive effect of two lone pairs on the two bonding pairs
reduces the bond angle to 104.5O giving rise to a bent/ v- shaped
molecule.
−
• E.g H2O, ClO2

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Activity

1. Given the following hydrides HF, NH3, H2O

i) State the type of intermolecular forces present in the hydrides
ii) In which hydride, are the intermolecular forces strongest. Explain your answer.
iii) Which of the three hydrides has the highest boiling point?
i) Draw the shapes of NH3 and H2O molecules and account fosr the difference in bond
angles in these molecules.
SOLID STRUCTURES

Two types of solid structures exist namely;

 giant structures
 simple molecular structures.

(a) Giant structures:

• consist of a large continuous arrangement of particles (ions or atoms)

which makes up a lattice.
• bonding forces in giant lattice maybe covalent e.g in diamond,
graphite or maybe ionic
e.g in sodium chloride or metallic e.g. in copper.

Types of giant structures:

• Giant ionic structure

• Giant metallic structure
• Giant covalent structure
 Giant ionic structures:
Negatively charged ions and positively charged ions are held by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction.
In a NaCl crystal, each ion is surrounded by 6 others of opposite charge. The crystal structure
is a regular three dimensional pattern of closed packed Na+ alternating with chloride ions
forming an ionic lattice.
• structure of NaCl shows 6 6 coordination.
Na+ and Cl crystalise in a pattern which is face centered cubic lattice
Note: Coordination number of the cat ion is the number of anions that can
surround one cat ion.

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Structure of NaCl:

• Caesium chloride also shows a giant ionic structure(research the

drawing)
Properties of Giant ionic structure
• High melting point due to very strong bonds
• Dissolve in polar solvents as they consist of charged ions
• Conduct electricity in solution or when in molten.
• Very strong but brittle as a shift in the layer split the lattice
▪ Have a crystalline structure due to ionic lattice.
 Giant Covalent structure/ Giant molecular structure:

Solid in Giant covalent structure include Diamond, graphite, silicon oxide, silicon carbide
and Boron nitride.
Structure of diamond:
• Each Carbon atom forms 4 bonds to 4 other carbon atoms.
• The 4 atomic orbitals tetrahedrally arrange themselves around the carbon
atom which results in a tetrahedral arrangement of carbon atoms in diamond.
• Carbon atoms are attached to each other in a 3 Dimensional arrangement.
• In diamond, the 4 Valence electrons are all involved in bonding therefore
no free electrons left to conduct electricity.
• It‟s the hardest substance known due to the strength of the carbon –
carbon bonds and the geometrical rigidity of the structure (very closed parked
nature of carbon atoms)
• Structure of graphite:
Consists of two dimensional layers of joined hexagonal rings, the layers are held by weak Van
der waals forces of attraction.
Within each layer, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.
remaining valence electrons are delocalized which enable graphite to conduct electricity and
responsible for its shinny appearance.
Weak Van der waals forces between layers result in much wider separation hence graphite has
a low density (2.3 gcm-3) than diamond.
Weak Van der waals forces of attraction cause these layers to slide past each other thus
slippery nature of graphite.

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1st layer

2nd layer

Structure of Silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2), Silica

It forms a 3dimensional structure.
The Si O bonds about each Silicon atom are tetrahedrally distributed and each Oxygen atom
is bonded to two other Silicon atoms.
Because of the strong covalent bonds, no ions and free electrons, silica is hard, has a high
melting point and boiling point does not dissolve in water and does not conduct electricity.
NB: The strong covalent bonds holding these giant molecules together give the substances high
melting point and make them non volatile (having high boiling point)
 Giant Metallic Structures
Metal atoms get closely packed in a 3D arrangement, metal atoms are taken to be individual
spheres which touch each other.
The two main ways in which the spheres can be arranged in a single layer are either square
pattern or hexagonal pattern.
The square/ hexagonal pattern of arrangement gives four main types of metal crystal structures.
i. Simple cubic structure e.g. Polonium
Body centered cubic structure e.g. group (I) metals such as Caesium.
ii. Hexagonal closed packed structures e.g. Mg, Zn, and Titanium etc
iii. Face centered cubic structure e.g. Al, Cu, Ag and gold.

(b) Simple Molecular Structure:

Occurs in molecules like Iodine, Solid CO2 (Dry ice), Bromine and Cl2 at low temperatures.
Vander Waals forces of attraction holding molecules are much weaker than forces holding
atoms in the molecules.
Solid CO2 sublimes above −78OC on absorbing heat from the surrounding, thus used

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a) Diamond is hard and an electrical insulator.

b) Graphite is soft and a good electrical conductor
c) Both Na and Cu are good electrical conductors
d) CO2 is a non polar molecule while SO2 is a polar molecule.
e) The boiling points of tertiary amines are lower than those of primary amines of
the same molecular mass.

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