Unit-1 building materials & construction

STONES

Stones, bricks, cement, lime and timber are the traditional materials used for civil engineering
constructions for several centuries.
Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age of
civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as
building block. It has been used to construct small residential buildings to large palaces and
temples all over the world. Red Fort, TajMahal, VidhanSabha at Bangalore and several palaces of
medieval age all over India are the famous stone buildings.

TYPEOF STONES

Stones used for civil engineering works may be classified in the following three ways:
√ Geological
√ Physical
√ Chemical

GELOGICAL CLASSFICATION
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groups—Igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphicrocks.
Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their
molten magmatic condition of the material of the earth. Generally igneous rocks are strong
anddurable.
Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this category, Granites are formed by slow cooling
of the lava under thick cover on the top. Hence they have crystalline surface. The cooling of lava at
the top surface of earth results into non- crystalline and glassy texture. Trap and basalt belong to
this category

Sedimentary Rocks: Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrates.
The disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful medium.
Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of obstacles to its flow. These
deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressureandbyheat.

Chemicalagentsalsocontributetothecementingofthedeposits.Therocksthusformedare more uniform,

fine grained and compact in their nature. They represent a bedded or stratified structure in general.
Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones etc. belong to this class of rock.
Metamorphic Rocks: Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks under go changes due to
metamorphic action of pressure and internal heat. For example due to metamorphic action granite
becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to marble, sand
stone becomes quartzite and mud stone becomesslate.
PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION
based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:
• stratified rocks
• unstratified rocks
stratified rocks: these rocks are having layered structure. they possess planes of stratification or
cleavage. they can be easily split along these planes. sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are the
examples of this class of stones.
unstratified rocks: these rocks are not stratified. they possess crystalline and compact grains. they
cannot be split in to thin slab. granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of rocks.
foliated rocks: these rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. the direction
need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. this type of structure is very common
in case of metamorphic rocks.

CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks as:
• Silicious rocks
• Argillaceous rocks and
• Calcareous rocks
Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples of
such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard and
durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples of this
type of rocks.

PROPERTIES O FSTONES
The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for engineering works:
Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones
should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult to
dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used
for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with specific
gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
Appearance: A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact. Marble and
granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face works in buildings.
Strength: Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as building
block. Indian standard code recommends, a minimum crushing strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any
building block. Table 1.1.10.1shows the crushing strength of various stones. Due to non-uniformity
of the material, usually a factor of safety of 10 is used to find the permissible stress in a stone.
Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in Dory’s
testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works
stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in
selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of more
 than 2%.
Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with
material of stone cause disintegration.
Absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24
hours. For a good stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.
Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good
weather resistance should be used for face works.
Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test. Stones
with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index 13 to 19 are
considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.
Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are
good in resisting fire.
Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. Dressing
is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather
than high strength while selecting stones for building works.
Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the
stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing
moisture from pores is called seasoning.

Requirements of Good BuildingStones

The following are the requirements of good buildingstones:
Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load coming onit.
Ordinarilly this is not of primary concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of
large structure, it may be necessary to check the strength.
Durability: Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind,
rain andheat.
Hardness: The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by
movement of men and materials overthem.
Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them.
The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should betough.
Specific Gravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining walls,
docks and harbours. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and2.8.
Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into the
pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes
place and it results into the disintegration of thestone
Dressing: Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so that the
cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that,this is not be at the cost of the
required strength and thedurability.
Appearance: In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary
requirement, its colour and ability to receive polish is an importantfactor.
Seasoning: Good stones should be free from thequarry sap.
Laterite stones should not be used for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of
quarry sap by the action of nature. This process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.
Cost: Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the quarry to
 building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones comes down.
However it may be noted that not a single stone can satisfy all the requirements of a good building
stones, since one requirement may contradict another. For example, strength and durability requirement
contradicts ease of dressing requirement. Hence it is necessary that site engineer looks into the
properties required for the intended work and selects thestone

TESTS ONSTONES

To certain the required properties of stones, the following tests can conducted:
1. Crushing strengthtest
2. Water absorptiontest
3. abrasiontest
4. Impacttest
5. Acidtest.

USESOF STONES
Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
1. Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
2. Stones are used forflooring.
3. Stoneslabsareusedasdampproofcourses,lintelsandevenasroofingmaterials.
4. Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings.Polished marbles
and granite are commonly used for faceworks.
5. Stones are used for paving of roads, footpathsand open spaces round the buildings.
6. Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.
7. Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with
tar they form finishingcoat.
8. Crushed stones are used in the followingworks

also: (a) As a basic inert material in concrete

1 For making artificial stones and buildingblocks
2 As railwayballast.

BRICKS

Brick is obtained by moulding good clay into a block, which is dried and then burnt. This is the oldest
building block to replace stone. Manufacture of brick started with hand moulding, sun drying and burning
in clamps. A considerable amount of technological development has taken place with better Knowledge
about to properties of raw materials, better machineries and improved techniques of moulding drying and
burning.
The size of the bricks are of 90 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm and 190 mm × 90 mm × 40 mm. With mortar
joints, the size of these bricks are taken as 200 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and 200 mm × 100mm

(i)Building Bricks: These bricks are used for the construction of walls.
(ii)Paving Bricks: These are vitrified bricks and are used aspavers.

(iii) Fire Bricks: These bricks are specially made to withstand furnace temperature. Silica bricks
belong to thiscategory.

(iv) Special Bricks: These bricks are different from the commonly used building bricks with respect
to their shape and the purpose for which they are made.

PROPERTIES O FBRICKS

The following are the required properties of good Bricks:

Colour: Colour should be uniform and bright.

Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.
Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.(iv) Texture: They should possess fine,
dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburntlime.
Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic
sound.
Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on thebrick.
Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength is that
when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not break intopieces.
WaterAbsorption:Afterimmercingthebrickinwaterfor24hours,waterabsorption should not be more than 20
per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 percent.
Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and then
allowed to dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium, magnesium and
potassium. They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wetconditions.
Thermal Conductivity: Bricks shouldhavelow thermal conductivity, so that buildings built with them are
cool in summer and warm inwinter.
Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weightand hollow bricks
provide good soundinsulation.
Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact bricks are used to encase steel columns
to protect them fromfire

TESTS ONBRICKS
The following laboratory tests may be conducted on the bricks to find their suitability:
(v) Crushingstrength
(vi) Absorption
 (vii) Shape and sizeand
(viii) Efflorescence.

Crushing Strength: The brick specimen are immersed in water for 24 hours. The frog of the brick is filled
flush with 1:3 cement mortar and the specimen is stored in damp jute bag for 24 hours and then
immersed in clean water for 24 hours. The specimen is placedincompression testing machine with 6
mm plywood on top and bottom of it to get uniform load on the specimen. Then load is applied axially
at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 . The crushing load is noted. Then the crushing strength is the ratio of
crushing load to the area of brick loaded.Average of five specimen is taken as the crushing strength.
Absorption Test: Brick specimen are weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water for a period of 24
hours. The specimen are taken out and wiped withcloth.
The weight of each specimen in wet condition is determined. The difference in weight
indicate the water absorbed. Then the percentage absorption is the ratio of water absorbed
to dry weight multiplied by 100. The average of five specimen is taken. This value should not
exceed 20 per cent.
Shape and Size: Bricks should be of standard size and edges should be truely rectangular with sharp
edges. To check it, 20 bricks are selected at random and they are stacked along the length, along the
width and then along the height. For the standard bricks of size 190 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm

The following field tests help in acertaining the good quality bricks:
(i) uniformity insize
(ii) uniformity incolour
(iii) structure
(iv) hardnesstest
(v) soundtest
(vi) strengthtest.

UniformityinSize:Agoodbrickshouldhaverectangularplanesurfaceanduniformin size. This check is

made in the field byobservation.
Uniformity in Colour: A good brick will be having uniform colourthroughout. This observation may be
made before purchasing thebrick.
Structure: A few bricks may be broken in the field and their cross-section observed. The section
should be homogeneous, compact and free from defects such as holes andlumps.
Sound Test: If two bricks are struck with each other they should produce clear ringing sound. The
sound should not bedull.
Hardness Test: For this a simple field test is scratch the brick with nail. If no impression is marked on
the surface, the brick is sufficientlyhard
.
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS BASED ON THEIRQUALITY

The bricks used in construction are classifiedas:

(i) First classbricks
 (ii) Second classbricks
(iii) Third class bricksand
(iv) Fourth classbricks

First Class Bricks: These bricks are of standard shape and size. They are burnt in kilns. They fulfill all
desirable properties ofbricks.
Second Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in kilns. The edges may not be sharp
and uniform. The surface may be some what rough. Such bricks are commonly used for the
construction of walls which are going to beplastered.
Third Class Bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in clamps. Their edges are somewhat
distorted. They produce dull sound when struck together. They are used for temporary and
unimportantstructures.
Fourth Class Bricks: These are the over burnt bricks. They are dark in colour. The shape is irregular.
They are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors and roads.

USES OFBRICKS

Bricks are used in the following civil works:

(i) As buildingblocks.
(ii) For lining of ovens, furnaces andchimneys.
(iii) For protecting steel columns fromfire.
(iv) As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C.roofs.
(v) For pavers for footpaths and cycletracks.
(vi) For lining sewerlines.

CEMENT

Cement is a commonly used binding material in the construction. The cement is obtained by
burning a mixture of calcarious (calcium) and argillaceous (clay) material at a very high
temperature and then grinding the clinker so produced to a fine powder. It was first produced by a
mason Joseph Aspdin in England in 1924. He patented it as portland cement

TYPES OFCEMENT

In addition to ordinary portland cement there are many varieties of cement. Important varieties are
briefly explained below:
White Cement: The cement when made free from colouring oxides of iron, maganese and chlorium
results into white cement. In the manufacture of this cement, the oil fuel is used instead of coal for
burning. White cement is used for the floor finishes, plastering, ornamental works etc. In swimming
pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for fixing marbles and glazedtiles.
Coloured Cement: The cements of desired colours are produced by intimately mixing pigments with
ordinary cement. The chlorium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt produce blue colour. Iron oxide with
different proportion produce brown, red or yellow colour. Addition of manganese dioxide gives black
or brown coloured cement. These cements are used for giving finishing touches to floors, walls,
window sills, roofsetc.
Quick Setting Cement: Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the percentage of gypsum and
adding a small amount of aluminiumsulphate during the manufacture of cement. Finer grinding also
adds to quick setting property. This cement starts setting within 5 minutes after adding water and
becomes hard mass within 30 minutes. This cement is used to lay concrete under static or slowly
runningwater.
Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime
contentandburningathightemperaturewhilemanufacturingcement.Grindingtoveryfine
isalsonecessary.Thoughtheinitial andfinalsettingtimeofthiscementisthesameasthat of portland
cement, it gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier removal of form works and speed
in constructionactivity.
Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced
duetohydrationofcementwillnotgetdispersedeasily.Thismaygiverisetocracks.Hence in such
constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement. This cement contains low percentage (5%) of
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and higher percentage (46%) of dicalcium silicate(C2S).
Pozzulana Cement: Pozzulana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be processed from shales and
certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzulana material is 10 to 30 per cent. It can resist action of
sulphate. It releases less heat during setting. It imparts higher degree of water tightness. Its tensile
strength is high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass concrete works. It is also used in
sewage lineworks.
High Alumina Cement: It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and bauxite. It is more
resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of adding water.
It is used for under waterworks.

Acid Resistant Cement: This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregated such as quartz,
quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has good resistance to action of acid and
water. It is commonly used in the construction of chemicalfactories.
Sulphate Resistant Cement: By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminateC3A below five per cent
in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used in the construction of structures which are likely
to be damaged by alkaline conditions. Examples of such structures are canals, culvertsetc.

PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY PORTLANDCEMENT

(a)Fineness (b) Settingtime

(c)Soundness (d) Crushingstrength.
Fineness: It is measured in terms of percentage of weight retained after sieving the cement through 90
micron sieve or by surface area of cement in square centimeters per gramme of cement. According to
IS code specification weight retained on the sieve should not be more than 10 per cent. In terms of
specific surface should not be less than 2250cm2/gm.
b) Setting time: A period of 30 minutes as minimum setting time for initial setting and a maximum
period of 600 minutes as maximum setting time is specified by IS code, provided the tests are
conducted as per the procedure prescribed by IS 269-1967.
Soundness: Once the concrete has hardened it is necessary to ensure that no volumetric changes
takesplace.
The cement is said to be unsound, if it exhibits volumetric instability after hardening. IS code
recommends test with Le Chateliermould for testing this property. At the end of the test, the indicator
of Le Chateliermould should not expand bymore than 10 mm.
Crushing strength: For this mortar cubes are made with standard sand and tested in compression
testing machine as per the specification of IS code. The minimum strength specified is 16 N/mm2
after 3 days and 22 N/mm2 after 7 days of curing.

USES OFCEMENT

Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are listed below:
1. Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concretestructures.
2. Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering andpointing.
3. Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges. water
tanks, tunnels, docks, harhours etc.
4. Cement is used to manufacture lamp posts, telephone posts, railway sleepers, pilesetc.
5. For manufacturing cement pipes, garden seats, dust bins, flower pots etc. cement is
commonlyused.
6. Itisusefulfortheconstructionofroads,footpaths,courtsforvarioussportsetc.

PLAINCONCRETE
Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding material, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. This can be easily moulded to desired shape and size before
it looses plasticity and hardens. Plain concrete is strong in compression but very weak in tension.
The tensile property is introduced in concrete by inducting different materials

● Binding material (like cement, lime,polymer)

● Fine aggregate(sand)
● Coarse aggregates (crushed stone)
● Water.

A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents, workability agents
etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain concretemixture.
Depending upon the proportion of ingredient, strength of concrete varies. It is possible to
determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by mix designprocedure.
.In proportioning of concrete it is kept in mind that voids in coarse aggregates are filled with sand
and the voids in sand are filled with cement paste.

FunctionsofVarious Ingredients

Cement is the binding material. After addition of water it hydrates and binds aggregates and the
surrounding surfaces like stone and bricks. Generally richer mix (with more cement) gives more
strength. Setting time starts after 30 minutes and ends after 6 hours. Hence concrete should be laid
in its mould before 30 minutes of mixing of water and should not be subjected to any external
forces till final setting takes place.
Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stones. It should be well graded and the stones should be of
igneous origin. They should be clean, sharp, angular and hard. They give mass to the concrete and
prevent shrinkage of cement. Fine aggregate consists of river sand. It prevents shrinkage of
cement. When surrounded by cement it gains mobility enters the voids in coarse aggregates and
binding of ingradients takes place. It adds density to concrete, since it fills the voids. Denser the
concrete higher is itsstrength.
Water used for making concrete should be clean. It activates the hydration of cement and forms
plastic mass. As it sets completely concrete becomes hard mass. Water gives workability to
concrete which means water makes it possible to mix the concrete with ease and place it in final
position. More the water better is theworkability.

Propertiesofconcrete
1. Workability: This is defined as the ease with which concrete can be compacted fully without
seggregating and bleeding. It can also be defined as the amount of internal work
required to fully compact the concrete to optimum density. The workability depends
upon the quantity of water, grading, shape and the percentage of the aggregates
present in theconcrete.

2. Segregation: Separation of coarse particles from the green concrete is called segregation.
This may happen due to lack of sufficient quantity of finer particles in
concreteorduetothrowingofthe

concrete from greater heights at the time of placing the concrete. Because of the segregation, the
cohesiveness of the concrete is lost and honey combing results. Ultimately it results in the loss of
strength of hardened concrete. Hence utmost care is to be taken to avoidsegregation.
3. Bleeding: This refers to the appearance of the water along with cement particles on the
surface of the freshly laid concrete. This happens when there is excessive quantity
of water in the mix or due to excessive compaction. Bleeding causes the formation
of pores and renders the concrete weak. Bleeding can be avoided by suitably
controlling the quantity of water in the concrete and by using finer grading
ofaggregate
4. Harshness: Harshness is the resistance offered by concrete to its surface finish. Harshness is
due to presence of lesser quantity of fine aggregates, lesser cement mortar and due
to use of poorely graded aggregates. It may result due to insufficient quantity of
water also. With harsh concrete it is difficult to get a smooth surface finish and
(d) Noharshness

TIMBER

Classification of trees
Trees are classified according to their mode of growth. Following is the classification of trees:

1. Exogenous Trees

Conifers are also known as evergreen trees and leaves of these do not fall till new ones are grown.
As these bear cone-shaped fruits, they are given the name conifers. These trees yield soft woods.
Deciduous trees are also known as broadleaf trees and leaves of these trees fall in autumn and
new ones appear in spring season. Timber for engineering purposes is mostly derived from
deciduous trees. These trees yield hard woods.
Comparison of Soft Wood and Hard Wood

2. Endogenous Trees

These trees grow inwards and fibrous mass is seen in their longitudinal sections. Timber from
these trees has very limited engineering applications. Examples of endogenous trees are bamboo,
cane, palm, etc.
STRUCTURE OF A TREE
From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories:

1. Macrostructure

Pith:The innermost central portion or core of the tree is called the pith of medulla.

Heart Wood:The inner annual rings surrounding the pith is known as heart wood. It is usually dark
in colour.

Sap Wood: The outer annual rings between heart wood and cambium layer is known as sap wood.
Cambium Layer: The thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark is known as cambium
layer.
Inner Bark: It gives protection of cambium layer from any injury.
Outer Bark: It consists of cells of wood fibre and is also known as cortex.
Medullary Rays: The thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer are known as
medullary rays.

2. Microstructure

Wood consists of living and dead cells of various sizes and shapes.
A living cell consists of four parts, namely (i) membrane, (ii) protoplasm (iii) sap (iv) core. Cell
membrane consists mainly of cellular tissue and cellulose. Protoplasm is a granular, transparent
viscous vegetable protein composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen nitrogen and sulphur.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER
Defects occurring in timber are grouped into the following five divisions.
2. Defect Due to Conversion
3. Chip mark
4. Defects Due to Fungi
5. Wind cracks
6. Sap Stain
7. Defects Due to Insects
8. Termites
9. Defects Due to Natural Forces
10.Chemical stain
11.Coarse grain
12.Dead wood
13.Defects Due to Seasoning
Follow defects occur in seasoning process of wood.
2. Bow
3. Case-hardening
4. Collapse
5. Cup
6. Honey-combing
7. Radial shakes
8. Split
9. Twist
10. Warp
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
Preservation of timber is carried out to achieve the following three objects:

1. To increase the life of timber structures

2. To make the timber structures durable, and
3. To protect the timber structures from the attack of destroying agencies such as fungi, insects,
etc.

Requirements of a Good Preservative

1. It should allow decorative treatment on timber after being applied over timber surface.
2. It should be capable of covering a large area with small quantity.
3. It should be cheap and easily available.
4. It should be free from unpleasant smell.
5. Its penetrating power into wood fibres should be high. It is necessary for the preservative to be
effective to penetrate at least for a depth of 6 mm to 25 mm.

SEASONING OF TIMBER

Object of Seasoning
1. To allow timber to burn readily, if used as fuel.
2. To decrease the weight of timber and thereby to lower the cost of transport and handling.
3. To make timber safe from the attack of fungi and insects.
4. To reduce the tendency of timber to crack, shrink and warp.
5. To make timber fit for receiving treatment of paints, preservatives, varnishes.
6. To import hardness, stiffness, strength and better electrical resistance to timber.

Methods of Seasoning

(a) Natural Seasoning

In this method, the seasoning of timber is carried out by natural air and hence it is also sometimes
referred to as air seasoning.

Advantage

Depending upon the climatic conditions, the moisture content of ward can be brought down to
about 10-20%
It does not require skilled supervision
This method of seasoning timber is cheap and simple.
It is uneconomical to provide artificial seasoning to timber sections thicker than 100 mm, as such
sections dry very slowly.
Disadvantage

As the process depends on the natural air, it sometimes becomes difficult to control it
The drying of different surface may not be even and uniform.
If ends of thick sections of timber are not projected by suitable moisture proof coating, there are
chances for end splitting.

(b) Artificial Seasoning

Following are the reasons for adopting the artificial seasoning to the natural seasoning.
A. The defects such as shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized.

B. The drying is controlled and there are practically no chances for the attack of fungi and insects.

C. The drying of different surface is even and uniform.

D. It considerably reduces the period of seasoning.

E. There is better control of circulation of air, humidity and temperature.

Boiling
In this method of artificial seasoning, timber is immersed in water and water is then boiled. But it
affects the elasticity and strength of wood.
Chemical seasoning
This is also known as salt seasoning. In this method, timber is immersed in a solution of suitable
salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in the ordinary way.
Electrical seasoning
In this method, use is made of high frequency alternating currents.
This is the most rapid method of seasoning.
Due to high cost this method is unecomonical.
Klin Seasoning
In this method, drying of timber is carried out inside an airtight chamber or oven.
Water Seasoning
Timber pieces are immersed wholly in water, preferably in running water of a stream. Care should
be taken to see that timber is not partly immersed.
Timber is taken out after a period of about 2 to 4 weeks. During this period, sap contained in
timber is washed away by water.

Lime

Some Basic Definitions

Calcination: The heating of limestone to redness in contact with air is known as the calcinations.
Hydraulicity: It is the property of lime by which it sets or hardens in damp places, water or thick
masonry walls where there is no free circulation of air.
Quick Lime: The lime which is obtained by the calcination of comparatively pure limestone is
known as the quick lime or caustic lime. It is capable of slaking with water and has no affinity for
carbonic acid.
Its chemical composition is (CaO) oxide of calcium and it has great affinity for moisture.
The quick lime as it comes out from kilns is known as the lump lime.
Setting: The process of hardening of lime after it has been converted into paste form is known as
the setting. It is quite different from mere drying.
Slaked Lime The product obtained by slaking of quick lime is known as the slaked lime or hydrate
of lime. It is in the form of white powder and its chemical composition is Ca(OH)2 or hydrated
oxide of calcium.

Slaking: When water is added to the quick lime in sufficient quantity a chemical reaction takes
place.
Due to this chemical reaction the quick lime cracks, swell and falls into a powder form which is the
calcium hydrate Ca (OH)2 and it is known as the hydrated lime.
This process is known as the slaking.

Classification of Limes

Fat Lime: This lime is also known as the high calcium lime. Pure Lime, rich lime or white lime. It is
 popularly known as the fat lime as it slakes vigorously and its volume is increased to about 2-2-5
times the volume that of quick lime. The percentage of impurities in such limestone is less than
5%.
Hydraulic Lime: This lime is also known as the water lime as it sets under water. It contains clay
and some amount of ferrous oxide.

Poor Lime: This lime is also known as the impure or lean lime. It contains more than 30% of clay. It
slakes very slowly.
MORTAR

Some Basic Definition

Building mortar is defined as a mixture of cement, sand and water.

Mortar is similar to concrete but it does not contain coarse aggregate.
Mortar are used for filling joints as a binder in stone and brick masonry.

Mortars are classified on the basis of the following:

1. Bulk density
2. Kind of binding materials
3. Nature of application
4. Special mortars
5.
Properties of Good Mortar Mix and Mortar

1. It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks, stones
etc.
2. It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
3. It should be cheap
4. It should be durable.
5. It should be easily workable.
6. It should set quickly so that speed in construction may be achieved.

Uses of Mortar

1. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones.

2. To carry out pointing and plaster work on exposed surfaces of masonry.
3. To form an even and soft bedding layer for building units.
4. To form joints of pipes.
5. To hide the open joints of brickwork and stonework.
6. To improve the general appearance of structure.
 Hard strata
earingpile (b) Frictionpile Pile
foundations

STONEMASONRY

Masonry means construction of buildings using building blocks like stone, bricks, concrete blocks
etc. Masonry is used for the construction of foundation, plinth, walls and columns. Mortar is the
binding material for the building blocks. In this article different types of stone masonry used are
explained and points to be observed while supervising stone masonry works arelisted.
TypesofStone Masonry
Mainly there are two types of stone masonry:
1. RubbleMasonry
2. AshlarMasonry.

1. Rubble Masonry: In this type of constructions stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used. To
remove sharp shapes they may be hammered. The rubble masonry may be coursed or
uncoursed[Fig. 2.2.2.5.1 and 2.2.2.5.2]. In uncoursed rubble masonry the wall is brought to
level at every 300 mm to 500 mm. The mortar consumed in these construction is more.
Course rubble masonry is used for the construction of public and residential buildings.
Uncoursed rubble masonry is used for the construction of foundations, compound walls,
garages, labour quarters etc. A skilled mason may arrange the facing stones in polygonal
shapes to improve the aesthetic of thewall.

2. Ashlar Masonry: In this type of masonry stones are dressed to get suitable shapes and sizes. The
height of the stones varies from 250 mm to 300 mm. The length should not exceed three times
the height. The dressing of the stone need not be very accurate on all sides. Usually good
dressing is made on facing side. In such construction mortar consumption is less compared to
rubblemasonry.
There are different types of ashlar masonry depending upon the type of dressing such as Ashlar fine
dressed, Ashlar rough dressed, Ashlar rock or quarry faced, Ashlar facing, Ashlar chamfered etc
 Elevation

Plan
The following points should be observed in the construction of brick masonry:
1. Usebricksofgoodquality withuniformcolour,wellburnt,withexactshapeandsize.
2. Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2 hours so that bricks do
not absorb water from themortar.
3. Bricks should be laid with the frog pointingupward.
4. Construction of brick wall should start from the end orcorner.
5. Brick courses should be perfectlyhorizontal.
6. Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking withplumb-bob.
7. Mortar used should be as perspecification.
8. Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothedend.
9. Use of brick bats should beavoided.
10. Walls should be raised uniformly. In no case difference between adjoining walls be more than
1 m. In a day no wall should be raised by more than 1.5m.
11. To get proper key for plastering or pointing, the face joints should be raised to a depth of 12 to
20 mm, when the mortar is green. If plastering or pointing is not to be provided, face joints
should be stuck flush and finishedneatly.
12. Holdfasts for doors and windows should be embedded in brick masonry with cement mortar or
concrete, at the time of constructing the wallitself.
13. Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2weeks.
14. For carrying out brick work at higher levels, only single scaffolding shouldbe used.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Brick Masonry Over Stone Masonry

Advantages:
15. Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it do not need skilled labour for the construction.
16. Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them iseasy.
17. Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost is less because their
weight is less. Stones are to be brought from quarries which are located only at fewplaces.
18. It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry. For unimportant buildings even mud
mortar can beused.
19. Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so withstones.
20. It is easy to form openings for doors andwindows.
21. Dead load of brick masonry isless.
22. In brick masonry mortar joints are thin and hence construction cost is reduced considerably.
23. Brick masonry has better fire and weather resistance compared to stone masonry.
Elements of abuilding

The following are the basic elements of a building:

1.
 2. Foundation
3. Plinth
4. Walls andcolumns
5. Sills, lintels andchejjas
6. Doors andwindows
7. Floors
8. Roofs
9. Steps, stairs andlifts
10. Finishingwork
11. Buildingservices.
The functions of these elements and the main requirement of them is presented in this article.

Foundation: Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts with
digging the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the building. It
transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and requirementsare:
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly andsafely.
(b) Toanchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
(c) It gives level surface for the construction of superstructure.

Plinth: The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called plinth. It is
usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to support wall above
floorlevel.
At the top of plinth a damp proof course is provided. It is usually 75 mm thick plain concretecourse
The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of dampness. Its height
is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at least 150 mm above the road level, so that
connections to underground drainage system can be made.

Walls and Columns: The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure
vertically downwards to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this wall performs the following
functionsalso:
● It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
● It provides safety from burglary andinsects.
● It keeps the building warm in winter and cool insummer.

Sills, Lintels and Chejjas: A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is
placed over 50 mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course is
called as sill. Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to
transfer the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly.

The width of lintels is equal to the width of wall while thickness to be provided depends upon the
opening size. Chejja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from the
rain. They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are provided as chejjas. The
projection of chejja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm. Sometimes drops are also provided to chejjas to
improve acsethetic look and also to get additional protection from sun andrain.
Doors and Windows: The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and
to deny the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size of
the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object likely to
use thedoor.
Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located at a height of 0.75
m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area should be 15 to 20 per
cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used to determine the size and the number of windows is
for every 30 m3 of inside volume there should be 1 m2windowopening.
Floors: Floors are the important component of a building. They give working/useful area for the
occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick bats, waste stones, gravelandwellcompacted
withnotlessthan100mmsandlayeronitstop.Aleanconcrete of1:4:8,100mmthickislaid.Onthis
adampproofcoursemaybeprovided.Thenfloor finishing is done as per the requirement of the owner.
Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course finished with red
oxide. The costliest floor finish is mossaic or marblefinishing.

Roof: Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building. It should be
leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof
covereasily.Buttheydonotgiveprovisionfortheconstructionofadditionalfloor.Tiledroof give good thermal
protection.
Flat roofs give provision for additional floors. Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants. Water
tanks can be easily placed over the flat roofs.

Step, Stairs and Lifts: Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are
required at doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is ideal size for steps. In no
case the size of two consecutive steps be different. Number of steps required depends upon the
difference in the levels of the ground and the floor. Stairs give access from floor to floor. They should
consists of steps of uniformsizes.
In all public buildings lifts are to be provided for the conveniences of old and disabled persons. In
hostels G + 3 floors can be built without lifts, but in residential flats maximum floors permitted
without lifts is only G + 2. Lift is to be located near the entrance. Size of the lift is decided by the
number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available with capacity 4 to 20 persons.

Finishing: Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing with plaster.
Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles. The function of finishing workis:

1 Give protectivecover
2 Improve aestheticview
3 Rectify defectiveworkmanship
4 Finishing work for plinth consists in pointing while for floor it consists in polishing.

Building Services: Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and construction
of cupboards and show cases constitute major buildingservices.
For storing water from municipal supply or from tanker a sump is built in the house property near
street. From the sump water is pumped to over head tanks placed on or above roof level so as to get
water all the 24 hours. Plumbing work is made so as to get water in kitchen, bathrooms, water
closets, sinks and garden taps.
Beams
Beams are defined as horizontal load carrying member in a structure. Reinforced cement concrete,
concrete, prestressed concrete and steel I sections are used as beams to support the slabs.

Classified:
√ Simply supportedbeam
√ Rigidly fixedbeam
√ Cantileverbeam
√ Over hangingbeam
√ Continuousbeam

Simply supported beam:

If the ends of a beam are supported freely by columns it is called simply supported beam

Rigidly fixed beam:

It the two ends of a beam is rigidly fixed in walls then it is called fixed beams. In such cases, the
moment is induced at supports because it will not allowrotation.

Cantilever beam:
If a beam is fixed in one end and the other end is free then it is called cantilever beam.

Overhanging beam:
If a beam having its end portion extended beyond the support, it is called overhanging beam.

Continuous beam:
If a beam is supported on more than two supports, then it is known as continuous beam.
Columns
The vertical load carrying member of a structure is called column. They are constructed of timber,
stone, reinforced cement concrete of steel section.

Classified:
√ Longcolumn
√ Shortcolumn

Long column
The ratio of effective length to least later dimension is less than 12 called as long column

Short column
The ratio of effective length to least later dimension is more than 12 called as long column

Lintels
A lintel is a horizontal member which is placed across the openings. Openings are invariably left in
the wall for the provision of doors, windows etc. A lintel is thus a sort of beam, the width of which is
equal to the width of which is equal to the width of the wall, and the ends of which are built into
thewall.

Classification
√ Timberlintels
√ Stonelintels
√ Bricklintels
√ Steellintels
√ Reinforced cement concrete lintels
√

Timber lintels are the oldest types of lintels, though they are not commonly used now-a- days, except
in hilly areas. The sound and hard it. As the timber is easily liable to catch fire, only good quality is
constructed over coat of suitable preservative should be used as lintels.

Stone lintels
Stone lintels are used in stone masonry structures. This consists of a simple stone slab of greater
thickness. Stone lintels can also be provided over openings in brick walls.

Brick lintels
Brick lintels are not structurally strong and they are used for small openings, generally not exceeding
not exceeding 1 meter span, and light loads. They are built up with hand well burnt, copper colored,
free from cracks and with sharp and straight edged bricks.

Steel lintels
Steel lintels are provided where the opening is large and the super imposed loads are also heavy. It
consists of rolled steel joists or channel sections.

Reinforced cement concrete lintels

Reinforced cement concrete lintels have replaced practically all other types of lintels because of their
strength, rigidity, fire resistance economy and case in construction. Its width is kept equal to the width
of the wall. The depth of R.C.C lintel and the reinforced dependsuponthespanandmagnitudeofloading.
Itcanbepre-castotcast-in-situ,pre-cast
R.C.C lintels are preferred for small spans upto about 2 meters. The depth of lintel and the
reinforcement is governed by the intensity of load, the type of support and the span.
 FLOORING

Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard, level and beautiful surface for living. The floors directly
resting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey are known as upper
floors.
GroundFloor
Apart from giving good finished surface, these floors should have good damp resistance. The ground
surface is rammed well and a layer of red earth or sand is placed which is compacted. A layer of
broken bricks, stones etc. is provided up to 150 mm below floor finish level and rammed. While
ramming the surface is kept moist to get good compaction. Then 1 : 4 : 8 concrete of 100 to 150 mm
thickness is provided as base course. Over this bed floor finish islaid.
The types of flooring used are:
1. Mudandmoorum 2.Brick
3.Flagstone 4. Cementconcrete
5.Terrazo 6.Mosaic
7.Marble 8.Tiles
9.Timber 10.Rubber
11. P.V.C.
Mud and Moorum Flooring: These floorings are used in low cost housing, specially in villages. Over
the hard layer of earth filling mud or moorum layer is provided. The floor needs a thin wash of cow
dung at least once aweak.
BrickFlooring:Thisisalsoacheapfloorconstruction.Itiscommonlyusedingodowns and factories. Bricks
are laid flat or on edges. Bricks of good quality should be used for the construction. Brick layer is
provided on sand bed or on lean concrete (1 : 8 : 16) bed. Inboth cases joints are rendered flush and
finished with cementmortar.
Flag Stone Flooring: Laminated sand stones or slates of 20 mm to 40 mm thick in the form of slabs
of 300 mm × 300 mm or 450 mm × 450 mm or in the form of rectangles of size 450 mm × 600
mm are used as floor finishes. The stone slabs are laid on 20 to 25 mm thick mortar spread over
concrete bed. The joints are to be finished with richmortar.

Cement Concrete Floors: It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence commonly used in
residential, commercial and industrial buildings. It consists of two courses-base course and wearing
coat. Base course is laid over well compacted soil

TerrazoFlooring: Terrazofinishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get

pleasingappearance.Terrazofinishconsistsof75to80%ofsurfacemarblechipsembedded in
cementmortar.
Marble chips are mixed in cement in the proportion 1 : 1.25 to 1 : 2 and about 6 mm terrazo topping
is laid. The top is tamped and rolled. Additional marble chips are spread during tamping to get proper
distribution of marble chips on the surface. After drying it for 12 to 20 hours, it is cured for 2–3days.
Then grinding is made in the following three steps:
L/12 L

Fig. 3.1.1 Jack arch flooring

Cement concrete
( 1 : 2:4) R.S.J.
 Nowadays R.C.C. floors are commonly used. It may consist of only slab, if span is less or it
may be beam and slab flooring. In halls of hotels and assembly, many provide flat slabs i.e. slabs
directly supported over columns.

The columns are provided with widened portion called column head. They give elegant look to
halls, particularly when the head room is high. R.C.C. floors need proper thickness and
reinforcements. They are arrived at by structural design engineers.

ROOF
Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind and sun.
Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into threetypes:
1. Flatroofs 2. Pitchedroofs
3. Shells and folded plates.
Flat roofs are used in plains where rainfall is less and climate is moderate. Pitched roofs are
preferred wherever rainfall is more. Shells and folded plate roofs are used to cover large column free
areas required for auditoriums, factories etc. Brief description of these roofs is presentedbelow:
1. Flat Roofs: These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10°) is given to drain
out the rain water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top of
these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in
concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent of reliable water proofing techniques such
roofs are constructed even in areas with heavy rainfall.
 The advantages of flat roofs are:
(a) The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebratingfunctions.
(b) At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey.
(c) They can suit to any shape of thebuilding.
(d) Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
(e) Theycanbemadefireproofeasilycomparedtopitchedroof.
The disadvantages of flat roofs are:
(a) They cannot cover large column freeareas.
(b) Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks. Once leakage
problem starts, it needs costlytreatments.
(c) The dead weight of flat roofs ismore.
(d) In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load.
(e) The initial cost of construction ismore.
(f) Speed of construction of flat roofs isless.
Types of Flat Roofs:
All the types listed for upper floors can be used as flatroofs.
2. Pitched Roofs: In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The
slopeofroofshallbemorethan10°.Theymayhaveslopesasmuchas45°to60°also.The sloped roofs
are known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like
workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all these roofs covering sheets
likeA.C.sheet,G.I.sheets,tiles,slatesetc.aresupportedonsuitablestructures.

PLASTERING

Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is termed
as plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or lime-cement mortar.
Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. If hydraulic lime is used mix
proportion (lime: sand) is 1 : 2. Cement mortar of 1 : 4 or 1 : 6 mix is very commonly used for
plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To combine the cost effectiveness of lime mortar
and good quality of cement mortar many use lime-cement mortar of proportion (cement : lime :
sand) of 1 : 1 : 6 or 1 : 1 : 8 or 1 : 2 :8.
The objective of plastering are:
o to conceal defectiveworkmanship
o to give smooth surface to avoid catching ofdust.
o to give goodlook.
o to protect the wall from rain water and other atmosphericagencies.
o to protect surfaces against vermit.
Requirement of good plasterare:
1. It should adhere to the backgroundeasily.
2. It should be hard anddurable.
3. It should prevent penetration bymoisture
4. It should becheap.
 Limemortarisusuallyappliedin3coatswhilecementmortarisappliedintwoor three coats for the
stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied in two or three coats.
For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement mortar isapplied.

The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat provides smooth surface.
If three coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The average thickness of first coat is
10to
15mm.Middlecoatthicknessis6–8mm.Thefinalcoatisjust2to3mmthick.Ifsingle coat is used its
thickness is kept between 6 to 12 mm. Such coats are used on concrete surfaces not exposed torain.

UNIT 2 SURVEYING AND POSITIONING

SURVEYING
Surveying is the art of determining the relative position of points on above or beneath the surface
of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distances, direction and elevation.

object ofsurveying

The primary object of a survey is the preparation of a plan map. the results of surveys when
plotted and drawn on paper, constitute a plan. Therefore a plan is a representation of the ground
and the objects upon it some scale as projected on a horizontal plane. If the scale is large, then it
is called a plan. if the scale is small, then it is called a map. Example: a plan of a building, a map
ofIndia.
Purposes of survey
Following are some of the purposes of survey:
● To prepare archeological maps, geological maps, military mapsetc.
● To establish boundary points of properties with reference to the available records and
demarcateownership.
● To measure quantities in cutting or in embankments using contourmaps.
● To lay out th alignment of engineering structures such as roads, railwaysetc.
● To plot profile of a structure(eg. irrigation canal) for ascertaining the carrying capacity
of canal, capacity of reservoiretc
● To determine the relative position of desired points with reference to a known bench
mark (eg. position of hill stations with reference to mean sealevel).
● To measure distance between various points (eg. distance between twocities).

Primary divisions ofsurveying

Survey may be primarily divided into following two divisions.

√ Plane surveying: in plane surveying, the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and
the spheroid shape is neglected as the surveys extend over smallareas.
√ Geodetic surveying: in geodetic surveying, the curvature of earth is takeninto account and all
lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles are spherical triangles, since
large distances and areas arecovered.

Principle ofsurveying
All surveys are based on two fundamental principles they are:
● Working from whole to part: in order to prevent accumulation of errors and to localize
the minor errors, a set of primary central points are established first with higher precision
in and around the area to be surveyed. Later on, in between those primary control points,
inner control points are established with less precision method. The details are surveyed
with the help of these inner control points, adopting any one method of surveying. This
principles is known as working from whole topart.
● Fixing a point with reference to two fixed points: suppose points 'A'and'B'are known on
the distance between them ismeasured
● . Let it be required to locate or mark a point 'C'. The relative position of the point C is located
with reference to the two fixed points A and B by one of the following methods.

1. Linermeasurement
2. Angularmeasurement
3. Both liner and angularmeasurements

Classification ofsurveying:
According to the instruments used, the surveying is classifieds follows:
1. chainsurveying
2. compasssurveying
3. theodolitesurveying
4. plane tablesurveying
5. tachometric surveyingetc.

Instruments used for chain surveying:

The various instruments used in chain surveying are as follows.
• chain
• arrows
• pegs
• rangingrods
• offsetrods
• plumbbob

CHAIN:
Chains are used to measure horizontal distances. Chains are formed of straight links of
galvanized mild steel wire called links. The ends of each link are bent into a loop hand connected
together by means of three oval rings which afford flexibility to the chain.
The chain s made of mind steel. The ends of the chin are provided with brass handles for
dragging the chain on the ground. the outside of the handle is the zero point or the end point of
the chain and the length of the chain measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of
the other. The length of a link is the distance between the centers of the two consecutive
middlerings.
The end links include the handles. Metallic tags are indicators of the chain to facilitate quick
reading of fraction of a chain in surveying measurements. Metric survey chains are available in
lengths of 20m and 30m. The 20m chain contains 100 links whereas 30m. Chain contains 150
links. One link of both the type of chain measure20cm.

Arrows:
Arrows or making pins are made of tempered steel wire 4mm in diameter and generally 10 arrows
are supplied with a chain. An arrow is inserted into the ground after the chain length is measured
on the ground. Usually the length of an arrow is 40cm and one end of it is made sharp and the
other end is bent into a circle for facility ofcarrying.

Pegs:
Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the stations terminal points of a survey line. They
are made of hard timber, generally 2.5cm or 3 cm square and 15cm long, tapered at theend.

RangingRods
The ranging rods are used for making the positions of stations and for ranging the lines. They are
made of ell seasoned straight grained timber teak. They circular in cross section of 3cm diameter
and have a length of either 2 or 3cm, lengh being more common. They are shod at the bottom
with a heavy iron points. In order to make them visible at a distance, they are pained alternatively
black and white or red andwhite.

Offset
Offset rod is similar to that of ranging rod. They are should with pointed iron shoe at one end, ad
provided with a notch or a hook at the other for pulling or pushing the chainthrough a hedges or
otherobstructions.

Plumb Bob
While chaining along sloping ground, a plump is required to transfer the points to the ground. It is
also used for accurate centering of the theodolite compass, plane table etc over a station mark
and for testing the vertically of ranging poles

Crossstaff
This is the instrument used for setting out right angles to a chain line. It consists of either a frame
or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on a pole shod for fixing in the ground
• Open crossstaff
• French crossstaff
• Adjustable crossstaff

Principle of Chain Surveying

The rectangle is the simplest fig that can be plotted from the lengths of its sided. Based on this,
the principle of chain surveying is to divide the area to be surveyed into a network of connected
triangles. Hence chain surveying is some times called chain triangulation. The exact arrangement
of triangles to be adopted depends upon the shape and configuration of the ground and
obstacles met with. When it contains no angle smaller than 30degree greater than 120 degree.
Advantages and Disadvantages of chainsurveying
Advantages:
1. Chain surveying is suitable for fairly levelground
2. It does not require costlyequipments
3. It is used for preparing plans of smallerarea
4. It issimple

Disadvantages
1 It is cannot used for largeareas
2 It is not alwaysaccurate

COMPASSSURVEY

When the area to be surveyed is large, chain and compass surveying is preferable. A compass is
used to measure the magnetic bearing of a line. There are two forms of compass that are
commonly used. 1. The prismatic compass and 2. The surveyors’ compass.

The prismatic compass: It is circular in shape and its diameter varies from 85 mm to 110 mm.
A pivot is provided at the centre of the box. It carries a magnetic needle. The needle is attached to
an aluminum ring which is graduated to 1/2. A light spring break is attached to the inside of the
base to damp the oscillations of the needle and bring it torest before taking areading.

A reflecting prism facilitates reading of the angles and is protected from moisture and dust etc by
a prism cap. The prism base and vertical facts are made convex whichmagnifies the readings. the
object vane is located diametrically opposite to the prism. It is hinged to the side of the box and
carries a horse hair. A title reflecting mirror is provided on the side of the object vane to enable
bearing of very high or low objects to be taken. A metal cover is provided to enclose the compass
and the objectvane.
1. Surveyor’s compass: Surveyor’s compass resembles the prismatic compass but witha slight
difference. The graduated card is attached to the box and North 90 at south and at East and
Westinterchanged

Methods of using prismaticcompass

The compass is usually mounted on a light tripod which carries a vertical spindle in a ball and
socket joint which the box is screwed. By means of this arrangement, the instrument can be
quickly leveled and also rotated in a horizontal plane and clamped in any position.
Centering: The compass should be centered over the station where the bearing is to be taken. This
is done by dropping a small piece of stone from the centre of the compass so that it falls on the
top of the peg marking the station (or by using plumb bob) and by adjusting the legs of the tripod.
Leveling :The compass should then be leveled by eye, by means of a ball and socket joint so that
the graduated ring may swing quite freely. It should be clamped when leveled.
Observing Bearing: A ranging rod is kept at the next station.
The compass is turned until the ranging rod at the station is bisected by the hair when looked
through the slit above the prism.
When the needle comes to rest, by pressing the knob if necessary, the reading is noted at which
the hair line appears to out the image of the graduated ring. The sighting og the ranging rod and
the reading is done simultaneously. The reading gives the bearing of the line.

BEARING OFLINE:
The bearing of a line is the horizontal angle made by the line with a selected reference line called
the meridian. There are two types of bearings.
i) Magnetic Bearing: The direction indicated by a freely supported magnetic needle unaffected
by local attractive forces, is called the magnetic meridian. The anglebetween any line and
magnetic meridian is called magnetic bearing or simplybearing.

ii) The Bearing: The line joining the geographical north and south poles is known asthetrue
meridian or geographical meridian. The angle between any line and the true meridianis called true bearing
ofazimuth.

DESIGNATION OFBEARING
√ The whole circle bearingsystem
√ Quadrantal bearing system, or reduced bearingsystem
The whole circle bearingsystem:
In this system the bearing of a line is measured with north in clockwise direction. The value of the
bearing thus varies from 0o to 360o.
Quadrantal bearingsystem
In this system the bearing of a line measured from either the north or the south, clockwise or
counter clockwise whichever is nearer the line, towards the east or west

Fore bearing and backbearing

In compass surveying, two bearings are observed for each line, one from each end of the line. The
bearing of a line in the direction of the progress of survey is called fore bearing while the bearing
measured in the opposite direction is known as back bearing. For e.g. the bearing of line AB taken
from the point A is the fore bearing of ine AB and the bearing from point B is back bearing of the
lineAB.
THEODOLITESURVEY

The theodolite is the most precise instrument used for measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles. It can also be used for various surveying operations such as establishing grades, setting
out curves, extending survey lines, determining differences in elevation etc. Two categories
classified:
1. Transittheodolite
2. Non-transit thedolite

Essential parts of a transittheodolite

Telescope:
A thedolite is provided with a telescope to sight the distant objects clearly. It is mounted on a
spindle known as horizontal axis
Two spindles:
There are two spindles with axes one inside the other. The outer axis is hallowed and its interior is
ground conical to fit the central vertical axis which is a solid and conical.
Lower plate:
The outer axis is attached to the lower plate also called the scale plate, having its edge beveled.
The edge is silvered and graduated formOo to 360o in the clockwise direction. The lower plate is
provided with a clamped tangent screw or the slow motion screw by means of which it can be
fixed at any desiredposition
Upper plate:
The upper plate also called the vernier plate is attached to the inner axis. A clamp and a tangent
or slow motion screw are provided for the purpose of accurately fixing the vernier plate to the
scale plate. When both plates are clamped together and the lower clamp or loosened, the
instrument can be rotated about its outer axis; while if lower plate be clamped and the vernier
plate be loosened, the instrument can be rotated about the inner axis. Before either of the tangent
screw is turned, the corresponding clamp must be tightened.
Level Tubes:
Two spirit levels called placed at right angles to each other are fixed on the upper surface of the
venires plate for leveling in the instrument.
Vertical circle:
The vertical circle and graduated and is attached to the horizontal axis of the telescope and thus
it rotates with the telescope. The circle is graduated either continuous from Oo to 90o. By means
of vertical clamp and tangential screw, the telescope can be set accurately at any position in
vertical plane.

LEVELLING

Levelling may be defined as the art of determining the relative height or elevants of points
or objects on the earth’ssurface.

Instruments used forleveling:

√ Level
√ LevellingStaff

LEVEL: The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight.

Parts:
1. A telescope to provide line ofsight
2. A level tube to make the line of sighthorizontal
3. A leveling head to bring the bubble in its centre ofrun
4. A tripod to support theinstrument

Dumpy level:
The telescope is rigidly fixed with the support and therefore, can neither be rotated about the
longitudinal axis, nor can it be removed from its support. A long bubble tube is attached to the top
of the telescope. The leveling head generally consists of two parallel plates with either three foot
screws of four foot screws. The upper plate is known as tribrach and the lower plate is known as
trivet which can be screwed on atripod

Levelling staff:

A leveling Staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the staff representing
zero reading. There are various type of graduated staff available and only one type is described
here.
Folding type of 4m Levelling Staff:
It consists of two wooden pieces each of 2m of length with the joint assembly. The thickness and
width of staff are respectively 18m and 75mm. The folding joint is of the detachable type with
locking device at the back.

Hence the stad can be made into two parts for easy handling. When two pieces are locked
together, the two pieces form a straight rigid leveling staff of length equal to 4m.

Principle ofleveling
When the level is set up correctly and leveled the line of collimation will be horizontal telescope is
rotated about is its vertical axis it will revolve in a horizontal plane known as the plane of
collimation and therefore, all staffs readings taken with the will be the vertical measurements
made downwards from this plane.
To find by how much amount the line of sight is above the bench mark and To ascertain by how
much amount the next point is below or above the
line sight. Height of instrument= Elevation of B.M + Back sight Elevation of pt B = Height of
instrument – Foresight

reduction level Height of instrumentmethod

In this method, the height of instrument is calculated for ach setting of instruct, and then the
elevation or reduced level of the turning point is calculated with respect to the height of instrument
Rise and fall method:
In rise and fall method the difference of level between consequence point is found comparing
staff readings on the two points of same setting of the instrument

PLANE TABLESURVEY
Plane table survey is that type of survey in which the measurement of survey lines of the
transverse a of the transverse and their plotting to a suitable scale are done simultaneously on
the field.It consists of:
√ Drawing Board mounted on atripod
√ Aliade

Drawing board:
The drawing board is mad of well seasoned wood such as teak and its size varies from 400mm x
300mm to 750mm x 600 mm. the board is mounted on a tripod with ball and socket arrangement
which allow the board to be leveled and roatated about the vertical axis. Alidades:
The open slight alidade The telescope alidade

The open slight alidade consists of a flat rectangular piece ofwood of about, 25mm width,
12.5mm thickness and length varying from 200 to 500 mm The leveled edge of the alidade is
called finducial edge. Its edge is graduated and serves as a scale. Vertical sight vanes are
mounted at both ends. One of the sight vanes is proved with a narrow slit and the other with a
central vertical wire. The line of sight is in the same vertical plane as the finducial edge The
telescope aliadade consists of a telescope mounted on a horizontal axis the ends of which are
supported on standards. A circular level or two spirit levels are attached to the base of the
telescope to level the plane table.

Working operations
1. Fixing
2. Setting
3. Levelling
4. Orientation
Fixing
Fixing the table to the tripod stand
Setting
The table is set up at a convenient height say 1m above ground. The legs of the stand are spread
apart and firmly fixed into the ground. The table is then centered. This means that the point
plotted on the sheet corresponding to the station occupied should be exactly above the station on
the ground. This is done by means of the plumbingfork.
Levelling
The table is then leveled either by ordinarly tilting the board or by ball and socket arrangement.
Orientation:
Orientation is the process of putting the plane table into some fixed direction so that line
representing a certain direction on the drawing sheet is paralle to that direction on the ground.
Two methods adopted: Orientation by magnetic needle Orientation by back sighting

METHODS OF PLANE TABLESURVEY

• Radiation
• Intersection
• Traversing
• Resection