FEMINIST
THERAPY
by Guevarra and Mallares
History and
Development
Feminist therapy does not have a single founder.
Rather, it has been a collective effort by many.
Feminist therapy has developed in a grassroots manner, responding to
challenges and to the emerging needs of women (Brabeck & Brown, 1997).
The beginnings of feminism can be traced to the late 1800s, it is really the
women’s movement of the 1960s that laid the foundation for the
development of feminist therapy.
1960s was a time when women began uniting their voices to express their
dissatisfaction with the limiting and confining nature of traditional female
roles.
Consciousness-raising groups, in which women came together to share
their experiences and perceptions, helped individual women become aware
that they were not alone in their views.
A sisterhood developed, and some of the services that evolved from
women’s collective desires to improve society included shelters for
battered women, rape crisis centers, and women’s health and reproductive
health centers.
History and
Development
Changes in psychotherapy occurred when...
Women therapists participated in consciousness-raising groups and were
changed by their experiences.
They formed feminist therapy groups that operated from the same norms
as the consciousness-raising groups, including nonhierarchical structures,
equal sharing of resources and power, and empowerment of women.
These women also realized in their sharing that they were already working
with clients from a feminist lens that had never been formally defined.
They viewed therapy as a partnership between equals, and they built
mutuality into the therapeutic process.
They took the stance that therapy needed to move away from an
intrapsychic, psychopathology perspective (in which the sources of a
woman’s unhappiness reside within her) to a focus on understanding the
social, political, and pathological forces in society that damage and
constrain girls and women, as well as males.
History and
Development
A profusion of research on gender-bias emerged which helped
1970s further feminist therapy ideas, and formal organizations began to
foster the development and defining of feminist therapy.
Marked by efforts to define feminist therapy as an entity in its own
1980s right, and individual therapy was the most frequently practiced form
of feminist therapy.
Feminist group therapy had changed dramatically, becoming more
diverse as it focused increasingly on specific problems and issues
1980s
such as body image, abusive relationships, eating disorders, incest,
and other sexual abuse.
History and
Development
The feminist philosophies that guided the practice of therapy also
1980s
became more diverse.
1982 Gilligan’s work on the development of a morality of care in women.
The work of Miller and the Stone Center scholars in developing the
1986 self-in-relation model (now called the relational-cultural model) were
influential in the evolution of a feminist personality theory.
History and
Development
According to Enns (2004), in the field of feminist therapy “there is room
for diversity of practice and the opportunity for individuals to articulate
a set of beliefs which are personally meaningful and which guide
transformational practice.”
There are feminists who identify themselves as person-centered,
Gestalt, Adlerian, behavioral, and even psychoanalytic, but most feminist
therapists do not feel a need to position themselves in a particular
philosophical place.
SECOND WAVE OF FEMINISM
four enduring feminist philosophies by Enns
Liberal Feminists Cultural Feminists Radical Feminists Socialist Feminist
focus on helping individual believe oppression stems focus on the oppression of share with radical feminists the
women overcome the limits from society’s devaluation of women that is embedded in goal of societal change. their
and constraints of traditional women’s strength, values, patriarchy and seek to change emphasis differs, however, in
gender-role socialization and roles. They emphasize society through activism and that they focus on multiple
patterns. they argue for a the differences between equalizing power. they strive to oppressions and believe
transformation from women and men and believe identify and question the many solutions to society’s problems
accepting traditional gender the solution to oppression ways in which pa triarchy must include considerations of
roles to creating equal lies in feminization of the dominates every area of life class, race, sexual orientation,
opportunities for both culture so that society including household chores, economics, nationality, and
women and men. becomes more nurturing, paid employment, intimate history. they pay close attention
intuitive, subjective, partnerships, violence, and to ways that work, education,
cooperative, and relational. parenting. and family roles affect their lives.
MAJOR GOAL OF THERAPY
SECOND WAVE OF FEMINISM
four enduring feminist philosophies by Enns
Liberal Feminists Cultural Feminists Radical Feminists Socialist Feminist
the major goals of therapy the major goal of therapy is the major goals are to the major goal of therapy
include personal empowerment social transformation transform gender is to transform social
of individual women, dignity, through the infusion of relationships, transform relationships and
self-fulfillment, shared power in feminine values (such as societal institutions, and institutions.
decision making in relationships, cooperation, altruism, and increase women’s
and equality. Another key goal is connectedness) into the sexual and procreative
to eliminate psychotherapy culture. self-determination.
practices that have supported
traditional socialization and are
based on biased views about
women and men.
THIRD WAVE FEMINIST
APPROACHES
In recent years, feminist women of color and postmodern feminists have found
classic feminist theories wanting and have offered new theoretical perspectives
focused on issues of diversity, the complexity of sexism, and the centrality of social
context in understanding gender issues.
In 1993 psychologists who embraced a diversity of feminist
perspectives met at the National Confer ence on Education and
Training in Feminist Practice.
They reached consensus on basic themes and premises underlying feminist practice, thus
taking a significant step toward integration of a number of feminist perspectives. Enns (2004)
states that this “third wave” of feminism embraces diversity with its inclusion of women of
color, lesbians, and the postmodern and constructivist viewpoints espoused by many of the
most recent generation of feminist women.
THIRD WAVE FEMINIST APPROACHES
Postmodern Feminists Women of Color Lesbian Feminists Global International
Feminists Feminist
provide a model for critiquing believe it is essential that share commonalities with take a worldwide perspective and
the value of other traditional feminist theory be broadened many aspects of radical seek to understand the ways in
and feminist approaches, and made more inclusive. feminism. this view women’s which racism, sexism, economics,
addressing the issue of what Women of color have criticized oppression as related to and classism affect women in
constitutes reality and some White feminists who sexualized images of women. different countries. they assume
proposing multiple truths as overgeneralize the experiences Lesbians who define that each woman lives under
opposed to a single truth. The of White women to fit the themselves as feminists unique systems of oppression.
postmodern perspective is experiences of all women. They sometimes feel excluded by Although they respect a range of
based on the assumption that challenge feminist theory to heterosexual feminists who diversity among women, they see
“reality is embedded in social include an analysis of multiple do not understand a need to address those cultural
relationships and historical oppressions, an assessment of discrimination based on differences that directly
contexts, is socially created or access to privilege and power, sexual orientation. contribute to women’s
invented, and is reproduced and to emphasize activism. oppression.
through power relationships”.
View of Human Nature
The feminist view of human nature is fundamentally
different from that of most other therapeutic models.
Many of the traditional theories grew out of a historical period in which
social arrangements were assumed to be rooted in one’s biologically
based gender. Men were assumed to be the norm and the only group
studied or understood; women were often dismissed as “probably
similar to men.” It was also assumed that because of biological gender
differences women and men would pursue different directions in life.
Worell and Remer (2003) are critical of traditional theories for
being androcentric, gendercentric, heterosexist,
deterministic, and having an intrapsychic orientation.
View of Human Nature
androcentric gendercentric heterosexist
using male oriented proposing two viewing a heterosexual
constructs to draw separate paths orientation as normative
and desirable and
conclusions about of development
devaluing lesbian, gay
human, including for women and male, and bisexual
female, nature men orientation
deterministic intrapsychic
orientation
assuming that attributing behavior to
personality internal causes, which
patterns and often results in blaming
behavior are fixed the victim and ignoring
at an early stage socio cultural and
of development political factors
View of Human Nature
Worell and Remer (2003) describe the constructs of
feminist theory as being gender-fair, flexible–multicultural,
interactionist, and life-span-oriented
Gender-fair approaches explain differences in the behavior of
women and men in terms of socialization processes rather than on
the basis of our “innate” na tures, thus avoiding stereotypes in social
roles and interpersonal behavior.
Flexible–multicultural perspective uses concepts and strategies
that apply equally to individuals and groups regardless of age,
race, culture, gender, abil ity, class, or sexual orientation.
View of Human Nature
Worell and Remer (2003) describe the constructs of
feminist theory as being gender-fair, flexible–multicultural,
interactionist, and life-span-oriented
Interactionist view contains concepts specific to the thinking, feeling,
and behaving dimensions of human experience and accounts for
contextual and environmental factors.
Life-span perspective assumes that human development is a
lifelong process and that personality patterns and behavioral
changes can occur at any time rather than being fixed during
early childhood.
Relational-cultural Theory
The founding scholars of relational-cultural
theory have elaborated on the vital role that
relationships and connectedness with others play
in the lives of women.
These scholars suggest that a woman’s sense of
Feminist Perspective identity and self-concept develop in the context of
relationships.
on personality development
Surrey (1991) believes the mutually empathic
mother–daughter relationship is a crucial model
for other relationships, including therapeutic
relationships. As you will see, many of the
Feminist therapists emphasize that societal techniques of feminist therapy foster mutuality,
gender-role expectations profoundly influence a relational capacities, and growth in connection.
person’s identity from the moment of birth and Kaschak (1992) used the term engendered lives
become deeply ingrained in adult personality. to describe her belief that gender is the
organizing principle in people’s lives. She has
Most models of human growth and development studied the role gender plays in shaping the
emphasize a struggle to ward independence and identities of females and males and believes the
autonomy, but feminists recognize that women are masculine defi nes the feminine.
searching for a connectedness with others. In feminist
therapy women’s relational qualities are seen as strengths
and as pathways for healthy growth and development
instead of being identified as weaknesses or defects.
Principles of
Feminist Therapy
A number of feminist writers have articulated core principles that form the foundation
for the practice of feminist therapy. These principles are interrelated and overlapping
1. The personal is political.
2. Commitment to social change.
3. Women’s and girl’s voices and ways of knowing are valued and their experiences
are honored.
4. The counseling relationship is egalitarian.
5. A focus on strengths and a reformulated definition of psychological distress.
6. All types of oppression are recognized.
1. The personal is political.
This principle is based on the assumption that the
personal or individual problems that individuals
bring to counseling originate in a political and
social context.
For females this is often a context of
marginalization, oppression, subordination, and
stereotyping. Acknowledgment of the political and
societal impact on an individual’s life is perhaps the
most fundamental tenet that lies at the core of
feminist therapy.
2. Commitment to social change.
Feminist therapy aims not only for individual change but
for social change. Feminists view their therapy practice as
exist ing not only to help individual clients in their
struggles but also to advance a transformation in society.
Direct action for social change is part of their respon
sibility as therapists. It is important that women who
engage in the therapy process—clients and therapists alike
—recognize that they have suffered from oppression as
members of a subordinate group and that they can join
with other women to right these wrongs.
The goal is to advance a different vision of societal
organization that frees both women and men from the
constraints imposed by gender-role expectations to
promote individual change.
3. Women’s and girl’s voices and
ways of knowing are valued and their
experiences are honored.
Women’s perspectives are considered central in
understanding their distress.
A goal of feminist therapy is to replace patriarchal “objective
truth” with feminist consciousness, which acknowledges
diverse ways of knowing. Women are en couraged to value
their emotions and their intuition and to use their personal
experience as a touchstone for determining what is “reality.”
Their voices are acknowledged as authoritative and
invaluable sources of knowledge. The valu ing and facilitation
of women’s voices in or out of therapy directly counteracts
the often forced silence of women and contributes to an
ultimate change in the body politic of society.
4. The counseling relationship
is egalitarian.
Attention to power is central in feminist therapy, and
the therapeutic relationship is considered egalitarian.
Feminist therapists recognize that there is a power
imbalance in the therapeutic relationship, so they take
measures to strive for an egalitarian relationship,
keeping in mind that the client is the expert on her or
his life.
Finding ways to share power with clients and to
demystify therapy is essential because feminist
therapists believe all relationships should strive for
equality, or mutuality (a condition of authentic
connection between the client and the therapist).
5. A focus on strengths and a
reformulated definition of
psychological distress.
Some feminist therapists reject diagnostic labeling and
the “disease model” of men tal illness. Instead, feminist
therapists consider intrapsychic factors as only partial
explanations for the pain that brings people to therapy.
Psychological distress is reframed, not as disease but
as a communication about unjust systems.
When contextual variables are considered, symptoms
can be reframed as survival strategies. Feminist
therapists talk about problems in the context of living
and coping skills rather than pathology.
6. All types of oppression are
recognized.
Clients can best be understood in the context of their
sociocultural environments. Feminist therapists acknowledge that
social and political inequities have a negative effect on all people.
Feminist therapists work to help individuals make changes in
their lives, but they are also committed to working toward social
change that will liberate all members of society from
stereotyping, marginalization, and oppression.
A key goal is to intervene in ways that produce change in our
dysfunctional sociopolitical environment. Diverse sources of
oppression, not simply gender, are identified and interactively
explored as a basis for understanding the concerns that cli ents
bring to therapy. Framing clients’ issues within a cultural context
leads to empowerment, which can be realized only through social
change.
The Therapeutic Process
Therapeutic Goals
According to Enns (2004), some goals of feminist therapy include empowerment,
valuing and affirming diversity, striving for change rather than adjustment, equality,
balancing independence and interdependence, social change, and self-nurturance.
Enns adds that a key goal of feminist therapy is to assist
individuals in viewing themselves as active agents on their own
behalf and on behalf of others.
Perhaps the ultimate goal of this approach is to create the kind of society where sexism and other
forms of discrimination and oppression are no longer a reality. Feminist therapy strives for trans
formation, for both the individual client and society as a whole. At the individual level, feminist
therapists work to help females and males recognize, claim, and embrace their personal power.
Empowering the client is at the heart of feminist therapy, which is the overarching long-term
therapeutic goal. Through this empowerment, clients are able to free themselves from the
constraints of their gender-role socialization and to challenge ongoing institutional oppression.
Therapeutic Goals
According to Worell and Remer (2003), feminist therapists
help clients:
Become aware of their own gender-role socialization process
Identify their internalized messages and replace them with more self enhancing beliefs
Understand how sexist and oppressive societal beliefs and practices influence them in
negative ways
Acquire skills to bring about change in the environment
Restructure institutions to rid them of discriminatory practices
Develop a wide range of behaviors that are freely chosen
Evaluate the impact of social factors on their lives
Develop a sense of personal and social power
Recognize the power of relationships and connectedness
Trust their own experience and their intuition
Therapeutic Goals
Feminist therapists also work toward reinterpreting women’s
mental health.
Their aim is to depathologize women’s experiencing and to influence
society so that female voices are honored and relational qualities are
valued. Women’s and girls’ experiences are examined without the bias of
patriarchal values, and their life skills and accomplishments are
acknowledged.
Therapist’s Function and Role
They are committed to monitoring
Feminist therapists have their own biases and distortions,
integrated feminism into especially the social and cultural
their approach to therapy dimensions of women’s experiences.
and into their lives. Their
actions and beliefs and their Feminist therapists are also
personal and professional committed to understanding
lives are congruent. oppression in all its forms—sexism,
racism, heterosexism—and they
Although feminist therapists consider the impact of oppression
may use techniques and and discrimination on psychological
strategies from other well-being.
theoretical orientations, they
are unique in the feminist They value being emotionally
assumptions they hold. present for their clients, being
willing to share themselves during
the therapy hour, modeling
proactive behaviors, and being
committed to their own
consciousness-raising process.
Client’s Experience in Therapy
Clients are active participants in the therapeutic
process.
The therapy won’t become another arena in
which women remain passive and dependent.
Clients can tell their stories and give voice to
their experiencing.
Appropriate self-disclosure is affirmed within
feminist therapy.
As an analysis of gender-role stereotyping is
conducted, the client’s consciousness is raised.
Client’s Experience in Therapy
Feminist therapists do not restrict their practice to
female clients; they also work with males, couples,
families, and children.
The therapeutic relationship is always a
partnership.
If the client is male, he will be the expert in
determining what he needs and wants from
therapy.
If the client is male, he will explore ways in
which he has been limited by his gender-role
socialization.
Relationship
between therapist and client
The therapeutic relationship is
based on empowerment and
egalitarianism. The very
structure of the client–therapist
relationship models how to
identify and use power
responsibly.
Relationship
between therapist and client
therapist are acutely sensitive to
ways they might abuse their own
power in the relationship, such as
by diagnosing unnecessarily, by
interpreting or giving advice, by
staying aloof behind an “expert”
role, or by discounting the impact
the power imbalance between
therapist and client has on the
relationship.
Relationship
between therapist and client
therapists actively focus on the
power their clients have in the
therapeutic relationship and make
this part of their informed consent
processes.
Relationship
between therapist and client
therapists encourage clients to
identify and express their feelings, to
become aware of the ways they
relinquish power in relationships
with others as a result of
socialization or as a means for
survival, and to make decisions with
this knowledge as the basis.
Relationship
between therapist and client
feminist therapists work to
demystify the counseling
relationship by sharing with the
client their own perceptions about
what is going on in the
relationship, by making the client
an active partner in determining
any diagnosis, and by making use
of appropriate self-disclosure.
Application: Therapeutic
Techniques and Procedures
The Role of Assessment
and Diagnosis
Feminist therapists have been sharply critical of the DSM classification system, and research
indicates that gender, culture, and race may influence assessment of clients’ symptoms. For a
thoughtful discussion of feminist challenges to DSM diagnosis.
Many feminist therapists do not use diagnostic labels, or they use them reluctantly.
Feminist therapists believe diagnostic la bels are severely limiting for these reasons:
(1) they focus on the individual’s symptoms and not the social factors that cause
dysfunctional behavior;
(2) as part of a system developed mainly by White male psychiatrists, they may rep resent an
instrument of oppression;
(3) they (especially the personality disorders) may reinforce gender-role stereotypes and
encourage adjustment to the norms of the status quo;
(4) they may refl ect the inappropriate application of power in the therapeutic relationship;
(5) they can lead to an overemphasis on individual solutions rather than social change; and
(6) they have the potential to dehumanize the client through the label.
Feminist therapists do not refuse to use the DSM-IV-TR in this age of man aged care and the
prevalence of the medical model of mental health, but diagnosis results from a shared
dialogue between client and therapist. The therapist is careful to review with the client any
implications of assigning a diagnosis so the client can make an informed choice.
TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES
Feminist therapists have developed several techniques, and others have been
borrowed from traditional approaches and adapted to the feminist therapy model.
EMPOWERMENT SELF-DISCLOSURE GENDER-ROLE ANALYSIS
At the heart of feminist Feminist therapists use It explores the impact of gender-
strategies is the goal of therapeutic self-disclosure role expectations on the client’s
empowering the client. By to equalize the client– psychological well-being and
explaining how therapy works therapist relationship, to draws upon this information to
and enlisting client as an active provide modeling, to make decisions about future
partner in the therapeutic normalize women’s gender-role behaviors. This
venture, the therapy process is collective experiences, to intervention serves both the
demystified and client empower clients, and to functions of assessment and
becomes an equal participant. establish informed promotion of client change.
The client will learn that she is consent. Gender-role analysis begins with
in charge of the direction, clients identifying the societal
length, and procedures of her messages they received about
therapy. how women and men should be
and act.
TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES
Feminist therapists have developed several techniques, and others have been
borrowed from traditional approaches and adapted to the feminist therapy model.
POWER ANALYSIS BIBLIOTHERAPY ASSERTIVE TRAINING SOCIAL ACTION
Power analysis refers to the Nonfiction books, psychology By teaching and promoting Social action, or social activism,
range of methods aimed at and counseling textbooks, assertive behavior, women is an essential quality of
helping clients understand autobiographies, self-help become aware of their feminist therapy. Therapists
how unequal access to books, educational videos, films, interpersonal rights, may suggest to clients as they
power and resources can and even novels can all be used. transcend stereotypical become more grounded in their
influence personal realities. Providing client with reading gender roles, change understanding of feminism that
Together therapists and material increases knowledge negative beliefs, and they become involved in
clients explore how and decreases the power implement changes in their activities such as volunteering
inequities or institutional difference between client and daily lives. The therapist and at a rape crisis center.
barriers often limit self- her therapist. Reading can client consider what is Participating in such activities
definition and well-being. supplement what is learned in culturally appropriate, and can empower clients and help
the therapy sessions, and client the client makes decisions them see the link between their
can enhance her therapy by about when and how to use personal experiences and the
exploring her reactions to what the new skill of assertion. sociopolitical context in which
she is reading. they live.
TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES
Feminist therapists have developed several techniques, and others have been
borrowed from traditional approaches and adapted to the feminist therapy model.
GENDER-ROLE REFRAMING AND
GROUP WORK
INTERVENTION RELABELING
Using gender-role intervention, the Reframing includes a shift from Group work became popular as a
therapist responds to client’s “blaming the victim” to a consideration way for women to discuss their lack
concern by placing it in the context of social factors in the environment of voice in many aspects of society.
of society’s role expectations for that contribute to a client’s problem. In Historically, group work has been
women. The aim is to provide client reframing, rather than dwelling used for both consciousness-raising
with insight into the ways that social exclusively on intrapsychic factors, the and support.
issues are affecting her. By placing focus is on examining societal or
client’s concern in the context of political dimensions. Groups provide a supportive context
societal expectations, the therapist where women can share and begin
gives client insight into how these Relabeling is an intervention that to critically explore the messages
expectations have affected her changes the label or evaluation applied they have internalized about their
psychological condition and have to some behavioral characteristic. self-worth and their place in society.
contributed to her feeling
depressed.
FEMINIST THERAPY
from a multicultural perspective Shortcomings from a Diversity Perspective
Feminist therapists advocate for change in
Strengths from a Diversity Perspective the social structure, especially in the area of
Feminist therapists view multicultural inequality, power in relationships, the right
counseling as the analysis of social structures to self-determination, freedom to pursue a
affecting mental health, including sexism, career outside or inside the home, and the
racism, and other levels of both oppression right to an education. This agenda could
and privilege. Likewise, multicultural pose some problems when working with
approaches point to oppression, women who do not share these beliefs.
discrimination, and racism as the source of
many of the experiences faced by people of If therapists do not fully understand and
color. respect the cultural values of clients from
diverse groups, they run the risk of imposing
One difference between the multicultural and their own values. Remer claims “a potential
feminist perspectives is that multiculturalists danger inherent in feminist counseling is that
honor culture whereas feminists challenge counselors’ values will too strongly influence
culture. clients or will conflict with clients’ values”.
thank you!
